美国经济毕业论文

Ramsey的这篇《对税收理论的一个贡献》的论文实际上开创并奠定了现代税收理论的基础，但却在20世纪30年代至70年代前长期被西方学界与政府忽视。1970年，鲍莫尔（W· Baumol）对规模经济显著行业的定价问题的集中研究让这篇论文重回视野。 戴尔蒙（Peter A. Diamond）与米尔利斯（James Mirrlees）合作在1971年的《美国经济评论》上连续发表了两篇论文，即《最优税收与公共生产I：生产的有效性》与《最优税收与公共生产II：税收规则》（这两篇论文同时入选AER百年top20论文），其讨论的内容把兰姆塞规则从“一个家庭”的情形推广到不同的家庭共存于一种经济中的情形。也因此，两者成为激励理论的奠基人，分别于2010年和1996年获得诺贝尔经济学奖。

很多人真正读懂西方经济学都是从曼昆的《经济学原理》开始的，因为有趣、易懂，“十大经济学原理”令人印象深刻，当年学萨缪尔森的经济学时感觉经济学像个严谨的老学究，读曼昆的就不一样了，像个会讲故事的朋友，即使不从事金融行业，相信你也会喜欢上她的。这绝对是一本让人拿得起，放不下的枕边图书。如果学金融，估计很少有不读这本书的。

论文只要有创新性，不在于字数，在本专业期刊发表，每个专业有自己的权威期刊，好的论文自然要英文发表，被sci等检索。高端期刊不需要版面费。

你好，我也在申请Econ的Phd。与你分享一些心得。（1）论文不看字数，看内容的重要程度。phd委员会会审查你论文质量，因此就算花钱在不知名的杂志上发表，是没有用的。 一片好的论文，例如你读master时候和导师一起做的项目，就算不发表，也可以在申请过程中通过addtional paper word上传，会是很大的加分项。 而反之，没有营养的论文，发表了，也毫无用处。我有EE的同学，发表了论文，以为会有很大影响，结果还是被拒。（2）论文只是一项加分点，就算没有论文，本科的数学成绩非常好，经济课的成绩非常好，也是非常有用的。（3）Recommendation letter在申请phd的过程中，重要程度排名第一。有名教授是必须的。（4）如果你是在中国申美国，而不是在美国申美国，那又不一样，在中国申美国phd的话，各种对你背景的要求又要上一档次，其次教授有名程度必须非常高。（5）最后，看你申请什么学校，这个你自己明白就行。

罗纳德·哈里·科斯的《企业的性质》，它奠定了现代企业理论的基础，也成为企业家理论探讨上重要里程碑。罗纳德·哈里·科斯的《社会成本问题》，它和《企业的性质》最终让科斯获得91年诺贝尔经济学奖的两篇论文。

这篇论文并没有发表，是Ramsey在剑桥大学道德科学俱乐部一次聚会上宣读的，凯恩斯接受了Ramsey的意见。这篇论文讨论了主观概率和效用，它为1944年冯.诺伊曼和摩根斯坦（VNM）的名著《博弈论与经济行为》提供了主观概率的哲学基础，这篇论文被附在附录中。后面的故事大家都知道了，博弈论诞生了。美国经济学家阿罗公正地指出，现代有关预期效用的理论都“只是兰姆塞观点的变形”。

从1970年起，到现在， 在这段期间，美国是世界能源消耗国，排第三。但据报道，中国近年来的消耗已经超越了美国。从1990~2010，美国在石油消耗就已经上升了38%，从而这大量的入口石油导致美国贸易赤字达115 billion。中国是世界工业大国，主要是能源价格低，导致生产成本降低。产量等于消耗的话，就等于平衡GDP。中国现在处于发展中，生产成本低，吸引了大量驻地工厂。驻地工厂提高了aggregate demand，加大了spending。做成了demand pull。然后做成通货膨胀，失业率降低。 所以通胀说明了GDP会上升。但如果GDP下降，就意味着出口下降。中国出口下降，就会导致世界入口下降，然后世界GDP下降，世界出口下降，然后就中国出口下降。 只要中国汇率不跌。就不会流失。如果一旦流失，国家就要印钱和借钱买债券。很扑街的。我主要发发口瘾。希望对你有帮助。

Summarize the key message of an article called” Land of the Rising Price”:A burst of inflation has happened in Japan in 2008, which makes the price rise. A broker named Christopher Wood points out that it is definitely positive. But others don’t agree with the viewpoint. John Richards, who works in the Royal Bank of Scotland in Tokyo, claims that the recovery in Japan has depended on exports too much. However, the demand from Asia, America and Europe has slowed this year. The rising price causes to reduce companies’ profit margins, while customers’ purchasing power also decreases. Richard Jerram, who works in Macquarie Capital Securities in Tokyo, suggests that when the value of savings is changed by inflation, households are possible to transfer savings into other assets in order to get higher returns. But Mr. Wood argues that the bad inflation, which makes the various costs increase, is another type of gaiatsu. That will cause rapid and deep change in Japan according to the history. He strongly believes that the rapid and deep change will happen recently. However, that will not happen. One of important reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by the central bank as quickly as the bank would like. Another reason is that if money remains cheap, corporate reform is impossible to take place. So the inflation is not good news for cause deflation in Japan:Deflation is a process of falling price, which is the opposite of inflation. Price levels are highly connected with the relationship between the supply and the demand. To understand and express the definition of deflation simply, there is assumption that we are on an isolated island and there are 10 same goods and ten $ bills that are able to buy them with. If everyone wants to get one of them, it is obvious that each good costs $. However, if some people don’t want to get it, the price in each good will decrease because sellers want to sell all of goods. So they have to decrease the price in order to encourage people who don’t want to buy any more buy the goods. This is one of types of deflation, which is caused by decreasing the demand of goods. (, ND)To express the theory more clearly, let’s see a diagram below. In this diagram, the horizon axis y represents total product (national income), while the straight axis represents price level. AD represents aggregate demand curve, while AS represents aggregate supply curve. When the aggregate demand curve drops from AD to AD’, the total product, which depends on the point of intersection between AD curve and AS curve, don’t increase, is still y’. But the price level decreases from P to P’. So this is deflation caused by decreasing the demand of in the isolated island, if the quantity of money drops to $, while the number of goods is 10, the price in each good will decreases to $. This is another type of deflation, which is caused by reducing the supply of money. By the way, the supply of money can also be dropped if someone holds half of money on the island and refuses to spend it on anything. (, ND)According to the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, it is clear that the consumer price fluctuated at very low level during the last ten years. That means the purchasing power is low, which is a sign of deflation. The situation in the last ten years is caused by decreasing the demand of goods or decreasing the supply of deflation good for an economy?In fact, whether deflation is good or not depends on the cause of the deflation. If deflation is caused by increasing the goods supply, it will be good. For example, in the late 19th century, with the industrial revolution happening, the productivity of goods was increasing. So the supply of goods obviously went up. Therefore, the price level dropped. Decreasing the goods demand or increasing the goods supply has the same result. If, however, deflation is caused by reducing money supply, it will be bad. The economy contracted because of lack of liquidity. People may lose their jobs. Thus, banks don’t loan money because people have no ability to pay off it. Therefore, money supply will fall again, while more people may lose their jobs. (, ND)BOJ’s monetary policyMonetary policy is generally classified as an expansionary policy and a contractionary policy. A policy is referred to as contractionary if it decreases the supply of money or increases the interest rate. An expansionary policy raises the supply of money, or drops the interest from the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, the gross interest income dropped quickly from 1994 to 2006. In other words, the interest rate in the 12 years decreased sharply. That means BOJ’s monetary policy was an expansionary policy. Therefore, the supply of money could be increased using this policy. That would activate the aggregate demand. (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2008)Though the policy was on the correct track, I don’t think BOJ was successful in solving the deflation problem. One of important reason is that the time of reducing interest rate was more than 10 years, which was too long. That means BOJ did not find a suitable interest rate during the 12 years. Another important reason is that when a burst of inflation has happened in 2008, the aggregate demand is not activated fully. The inflation relies on Japan imports mostly, rather than increasing domestic demand. So the purpose of the policy has not achieved completely. The third reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by BOJ as quickly as BOJ would like. Bad overseas and domestic economic situation prevent from increasing the interest rate. So generally, BOJ was not successful in solving the rate, exports and exchange rateThe interest rate has very strong effect on the exchange rate. As we all know, the interest rate level depends on the relationship between the demand and the supply in foreign exchange market. Foreign exchange is one type of financial assets. An investor chooses and holds it because it brings capital returns. Actually, the return of currency in each country is measured by the interest rate in each country’s financial market. If the interest rate of currency in one country rises, the return will also rise, attracting investors to buy the currency. If the interest rate drops, the return will decrease. Therefore, the attraction of the currency is low. BOJ has kept the interest rate low, which is the lowest of any G8 economy. That means the interest rate of Japanese Yen is lower than many other countries, which leads to increasing capital outflows, reducing capital inflows. Thus, investors who hold Japanese Yen will sell the currency, which will make the exchange rate exchange rate of Japanese Yen always leads to rising Japanese exports and reducing the imports. First, with the depreciation of Japanese Yen, price of domestic goods is lower than price of foreign goods. So the demand of domestic goods will increase, while the demand of foreign goods will decrease. It is good for Japanese exports and international reserve. Second, with the increase of the demand of domestic goods, the price level will go up, while the employment will rise, increasing the national income. The behavior of companies and consumersIn deflation period, the price in the market is falling. As a result, the company profits are reducing. So a company is trying its best to make the cost of production lower in order to remain competitive. One way to achieve the aim is to reduce the nominal wage. Therefore, people spend less money in purchasing so that they will show the sign of belt-tightening. Actually, the deflation lasted for more than 10 years. So when the inflation is happening, the price level is increased. Therefore, companies expected that the increased price level might solve the problem caused by deflation. So they have struggled to pay more wages and hire more workers so that the cost is increasing. But unfortunately, rising price level don’t solve the problem. Therefore, company profits are decreasing because the cost is increasing in the inflation period. In fact, in the short run, even though inflation is happening, people are not responding to that because they don’t know the price in future will be higher than current price, at least in the short run.

随着国际贸易自由化、世界经济一体化的趋势日益加强，流通企业的国际化经营已经成为不可逆转的时代潮流。以世界市场为目标的全球化经营是未来流通企业向更高层次发展的重要途径。相对于我国及一些发展中国家的流通企业来说，欧美流通企业不容置疑地在国际化经营的道路上走在了前边。分析和借鉴其国际化经营的成功经验，有助于提出符合我国实际的国际化经营战略。 一、流通企业国际化经营的内涵流通是从总体上看的商品交换。流通企业的国际化经营则是指企业经济活动的社会化程度超出一国的范围，越来越具有国际的性质，它是国际分工和生产社会化所导致的必然结果。流通企业的国际化经营应包含以下基本内容：1、流通企业的经济活动范围不仅局限于国内市场，而且应当有相当大比重的经营活动是面对国外市场或直接在国外进行的，这是流通企业国际化经营最基本、也是最主要的标志。2、国内流通领域的经济运行机制和制度规范与通行于世界经济的现代市场经济运行机制和制度规范相一致，这是国内市场与国际市场对接的制度前提。3、流通企业的动力与约束机制符合参与国际竞争的要求，其行为方式符合国际市场通行的惯例。4、国内流通企业与外国流通企业在组织、资本和营销活动等方面有相当程度的融合或联合。5、国内流通领域实现较大程度的对外开放，使国外流通的行为主体能够较自由地到国内进行投资、经营。经济国际化的发展历程已清楚地表明，随着国际化程度的提高，国际间经济交流形态从“商品流”发展到“资本、商品流”，又发展到“资本、商品、技术、人才信息流”，流通层次越来越高，流通渠道也形成了一个遍及全球的网络系统。这些都标志着流通国际化程度由低级向高级的发展。二、目前存在的问题我国的流通企业国际化经营在目前的发展过程中还存在一系列问题：1、宏观管理不得力我国流通企业开展跨国经营的起步较晚，政府的宏观管理措施与现实存在脱节、相悖现象。1983年1月，国务院虽正式授权由国家对外经济贸易部审批和归口管理境外企业的工作，但实际上还有几个部委也都参与此项管理工作。由于政出多门，不仅企业无所适从，而且至今未能形成一个统一的长期规划，以致开展跨国经营的流通企业的发展方向、领域和重点都难以确定。同时，管理机构的混乱，亦必然带来监管上的不利。2、对外投资规模小，实力差的企业占多数。投资规模较大的企业，容易形成规模经济，经受得住意外冲击；而投资规模小的企业，则生存困难。欧美许多发达国家的跨国流通企业进行对外投资时，均集中于优秀的企业，进行大规模投资，其单项投资平均水平已经达到600万美元，而我国企业的平均对外单项投资规模却只有100万美元左右，不能形成集团优势，一致对外，在竞争日趋激烈的国际市场上是很难站得住脚的。3、人才匮乏，服务滞后。跨国流通企业对人才的要求条件极高，既要求其管理人员熟悉当地语言、风俗和法律知识，又要求其具备海外企业工作的专业知识、技能和开拓能力，而现实中的若干对外投资流通企业，特别是企业领导层缺乏这种能力。而且，我国企业开展跨国经营时，国内相关服务部门之间的相互推诿常常贻误最佳投资时机。三、欧美企业的成功经验1.高度集权型组织结构能够保证实现全球资源配置最优化，进一步实现全球战略。美国的国际流通企业采取的是高度集权型的组织结构。这种组织结构使整个国际流通企业成为一个相互依存、相互支援的资源共享体系，母公司可以通过层次性组织有目的、有步骤地展开资源的开发、利用和有效配置。这种组织结构还由于能够根据市场的变化，迅速作出决策，使经营资源的配置也能迅速适应国际市场的变化，从而更大限度地实现资源的全球化配置和共享效益，达到企业的终极目标-全球战略。2.市场机制健全，市场化程度高，市场渠道畅通，法律体系完善。欧美等发达国家由于实行市场经济已有上百年的历史，市场机制健全，市场化程度高，市场渠道畅通，法律体系完善，因此流通企业在软、硬环境兼备的情况下，实行跨国经营势必管理有序，大而不散，活而不乱。3.欧美流通企业崇尚外部集中的效率观欧美流通企业具有强有力的资源配置能力，可以将分布于全球的经营资源集中到所需的地方，有利于发挥资源的规模经济效益，提高资源的利用效率。而且由于欧美跨国流通企业是通过水平或垂直兼并发展而成的遍布世界的网络，因而欧美企业的传统做法就是通过兼并购买的手段从事经营，促进了经营资源的集中，并且利用这一手段实现了进入多个经营领域的目的，顺应了多角化经营的趋势。4.欧美流通企业在人力资源管理思想上重视契约主义原则、个人主义原则、机能主义原则等。在上述管理思想的指导下，跨国企业的海外分支机构与国内一样，对海外人力资源的管理采取短期雇佣制的做法，将工人提供的劳动能力作为一种商品来对待，体现了契约主义的管理思想。跨国企业的人力资源是国际竞争力的最关键因素。欧美流通企业这种高流动的雇佣制度可以使企业在一定程度上减少负担。由于普通职工很容易从各国当地市场上获得，人力资源来源的不同则主要体现在管理人员和技术人员上，美国采取“开放式”的管理模式，即选择一个具有职业经验的人担任子公司的总经理，不考虑其国籍，子公司的经营要完全置于总公司的监督之下。这种模式反映的是“地球中心论”，对于人力资源的来源以能否胜任本职工作为衡量标准，其优势在于有利于培养具有全球战略思想和丰富国际经验的管理人才。5.欧美国家由于综合国力强，科技水平高，其国际流通企业在发达国家设立子公司时，只有35%的企业采用合资的形式，在发展中国家的子公司也只有40%采用合资的形式，其余子公司均采用独资的形式。欧美跨国企业经济实力与技术实力强，市场进入早，公司的成熟度高，尤其是美国企业多信奉“个人能力主义”，不太重视协作，而是注重公司结构的控股和集权。这种做法优点在于可以提高规模经济效益，统一筹措和运用资金资源；便于对子公司实行统一控制，在市场价格、产品差别化和利润方面采取一致行动；减少管理上因为与当地企业的交流而产生的矛盾；有利于经营方针及执行过程中的保密，并可以获得全部利润。四、我国企业的战略选择欧美国家的大垄断企业多是拥有从研究开发、生产到销售，乃至银行、金融机构的多分支、多功能的现代工商企业群体，这种国际经营模式以国内企业拥有雄厚的资本和技术力量、多种经营和企业联营以及严密、完整的组织结构为前提。我国流通企业的国际化经营则刚刚起步，对于经营、发展跨国企业缺乏足够的经验和制度环境。因此，在借鉴欧美成功经验时，应该从本国实践出发，有选择地吸收和利用。1.建立统一的管理机构，负责制定我国流通企业跨国经营的战略目标和任务，确定对外投资的国家和地区，投资的规模和渠道，并站在政府宏观角度，实行综合管理。2.确定跨国经营企业身份认证制度，提高境外企业规模、档次，借以增强竞争力。欧美国家的单项投资水平平均为600万美元，作为发展中国家，我国的单项投资水平也不应低于450万美元，这样才能经受住意外冲击而立于不败之地，并且可以获得规模经济效益。3.进入方式应该以易人和回避风险较强的合资经营方式为主。美国采取独资的经营方式是由于其拥有足够的资金实力和强大的综合国力，而我国目前属于资金约束型国家，如果采取合资形式进入国际市场，可以减少资金注入，以有限的资本尽可能地扩大国际投资规模，而且合资有利于弥补我国流通企业跨国经营经验的不足，消除因对当地市场及其他方面不了解而产生的进入障碍，并有利于吸收和利用合资方的管理技术、营销技能、信誉、供销渠道以及同政府、银行的关系等经营资源。4、区位选择应集中在亚太经济增长较快的国家和地区，以及贸易保护严格的发达国家和地区。早在1923年，美国西尔斯公司就专门聘请市场研究学者尼尔森担任策划部经理，其任务是将在经济上颇有研究价值的国家细分为可用来实施营销的区域，不但将其在地图上明确标示出来，且详细地记录该地区的统计资料，并长期加以观察和分析。我国企业在从事跨国经营前，也一定要慎重行事，进行详实的论证调研。5、加快经济立法，为跨国经营的流通企业提供制度保障。欧美流通企业之所以在高度集权的组织结构下，还能高效率地运营，并实现全球利润最大化，根源在于有一套完善的法律体制保障。任何涉足国际市场的国家和企业概莫能外。世界经济发展的实践表明，21世纪将是跨国经营的全盛时期，谁国际化经营搞得成功，谁就能成为经济大国。随着全球经济一体化速度的日益加快，未来国际贸易的交往将更多地从双边走向多边，全球范围的商品、资本、信息、人才、技术的双向和多向流动使整个世界日益成为一个统一的大市场，以世界市场为目标的全球化经营是未来流通企业向更高层次发展的重要途径。文秘杂烩网