猪流行性腹泻是由类冠状病毒引起的以胃肠病变为主的传染病。母猪的发病率为15%~90%,哺乳仔猪、架子猪或育肥猪的发病率可达100%。病的潜伏期,新生仔猪为24~36小时,育肥猪为2天。临床表现与猪传染性胃肠炎十分相似,大小猪均可发病,年龄越小,病情越重。粪便稀薄、呈水样,淡黄绿色或灰色,体温稍高或正常,精神、食欲变差。哺乳仔猪发病表现呕吐、水泻,肛门周围皮肤发红,1周龄内的仔猪常在水泻后3~4天因严重脱水而死亡;断奶后的仔猪与育肥猪的病程约持续1周左右。成年猪一般症状不明显,有时仅表现呕吐和厌食。主要病理变化是小肠绒毛萎缩,肠壁变薄呈半透明状,肠内容物呈水样。[防治措施](1)目前可利用细胞弱毒苗来预防,在母猪分娩前5周和2周,分别口服疫苗。母源抗体可保护仔猪4~5周龄内不发病。(2)对病猪用抗生素类药物治疗无效,但加强饲养管理,保持猪舍温暖、清洁、干燥,供足饮水可减轻病情和降低死亡率。
(1)营养和饲养管理引起的拉稀。这种腹泻常见的原因有十多种,如母猪的乳量不足,代乳料消化不良,维生素、矿物质缺乏,仔猪日粮中过量添加铜,饮水中金属离子超标,仔猪断奶、分群、转舍等应激性因素都能导致拉稀。(2)环境因素(物理因素)。如环境温度低等。(3)生理因素。如低血糖、消化不良等。(4)细菌引起的拉稀。常见有黄痢、白痢、红痢、副伤寒和痢疾等。(5)病毒引起的拉稀。常见有传染性胃肠炎、流行性腹泻、轮状病毒感染等。(6)寄生虫引起的拉稀。常见有线虫、绦虫、球虫等。扩展资料(1)提高猪舍温度(重点要提高仔猪腹部温度),搞好环境卫生,定期消毒,有效地消灭环境中的病原微生物是防止仔猪腹泻的关键。(2)科学饲养管理好母猪。对有寄生虫病的地区做好定期驱虫,防止通过母猪传染虫体。(3)做好母猪分娩前后的护理与防病。母猪于产前40天和15天各接种一次大肠杆菌苗。对有流行性腹泻或传染性胃肠炎发生的地区,可于产前20~30天注射流行性腹泻和传染性胃肠炎二联灭活苗一次。母猪进产房前,必须对产圈彻底清扫、冲洗和认真消毒;母猪做一次驱虫。母猪进入产房后和临产中,用温热的高锰酸钾液擦洗母猪的阴户、乳房。仔猪吃初乳前挤掉头两把奶,辅助初生仔猪尽早吃上吃好初乳,也是防止母猪乳房炎和仔猪腹泻的重要措施。(4)补充铁制剂。仔猪出生后3周内生长较快,每头仔猪每天约需3毫克铁,而母乳仅能提供1毫克铁,给出生3天和10天的仔猪人工补给含钴、硒的铁制剂,可防止仔猪缺铁性贫血造成的生长不良,增强仔猪体质,减少拉稀的发生。(5)提早补料。早补料可刺激胃肠发育,加强胃肠机能,有利于仔猪消化,提高饲料消化率,减少胃肠病。(6)猪抓好断奶关。仔猪断奶尽量减少刺激,断奶后7~10天仍保持用哺乳料,以后逐渐换料。(7)采取全进全出饲养方式,消除带菌猪,彻底消毒圈舍,净化养殖环境,有利于预防仔猪拉稀的发生。(8)药物预防。仔猪出生后用链霉素、庆大霉素、氟哌酸滴入2滴,1小时后再喂初乳,以消炎制菌,减少和防止仔猪的拉稀。
1. Vongxay K, Wang SN, Zhang XF, Wu BB, Hu HX, Pan ZJ, Cheng SY, Fang WH. Pathogenetic Characterization of Vibrio parahaemolyticus Isolates from Clinical and Seafood Sources. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 2008, . 王淑娜,方维焕。荧光定量PCR法检测副溶血弧菌tdh基因的表达差异。畜牧与兽医,2008,已录用。3. 陈 阳,吴 迪,陈雪燕,赵焕灿,扈鸿霞,Cheick A Diakite,方维焕。猪链球菌2型分离株对野生斑马鱼的致病性。动物医学进展,2008,已录用。4. 刘刚,李肖梁。犬瘟热病毒H基因的序列分析与表达。畜牧与兽医,2008,已录用。5. 陈健舜, 李肖梁,田国明,马有智,方维焕。检测猪链球菌2型的三重PCR方法建立与应用。中国兽医学报, 2008,已录用。6. Vongxay K, Pan ZJ, Zhang XF, Cheng SY, Mei LL, XU C, Wang SN, Fang WH. Occurrence of pandemic clones of Vibrio parahaemolyticus isolates from seafood and clinical samples in a Chinese coasting province. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease, 2008, 5(2):. Yang ZZ, Shuai JB, Dai XJ, Fang WH. A survey on porcine circovirus type 2 infeciton and phylogenetic analysis of its ORF2 gene in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province. Journal of Zhejiang Univ Science B, 2008, 9(2):. Jiang LL, Chen JS, Xu JJ, Zhang XF, Wang SN, Zhao HC, Vongxay K, Fang WH. Virulence characterization and genotypic analyses of Listeria monocytogenes isolates from food and processing environments in eastern China. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 2008, 21(1): . Shuai JB, Li XL, Chen N, Chen CY, Fang WH. Characterization and potential use of truncated PCV2 capsid protein and its polyclonal antibody for diagnosis of PCV2 infections. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2008:4891):. Shuai JB, Wei W, Jiang LL, Li XL, Chen N, Zhang ZF, Fang WH. Mapping of nuclear localization signals in open reading frame 2 protein from porcine circovirus type 1. Acta Biochimica et Biophysica Sinica, 2008, 40(1):. Chen N, Hu HX, Zhang ZF, Shuai JB, Fang WH. Genetic diversity of the envelope glycoprotein E2 of classical swine fever virus: Recent isolates branched away from historic and vaccine strains. Veterinary Microbiology, 2007, 127:. Shuai JB, Wei W, Li XL, Chen N, Zhang ZF, Chen XY, Fang WH. Genetic characterization of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) from pigs in high-seroprevalence areas in southeastern China. Virus Genes, 2007, 35:. 陈健舜,江玲丽,方维焕。李斯特菌毒力因子及其进化探讨。微生物学报,2007, 47(4):738-742。14. 徐 程,陈亚波,方维焕。O型口蹄疫病毒结构蛋白VP1的原核表达与抗原性分析。动物医学进展,2007,28(6):14-18。15. 应薇芳,赵焕灿,钱 娅,方维焕。浙江部分地区屠宰场待宰猪链球菌的检测及药敏试验。动物医学进展,2007,28(6):24-26。16. 潘自降,坎 布,沈 飙,娄高明,方维焕。副溶血弧菌海产品和临床分离株的表型及溶血素相关基因分析。微生物学报,2007,47(3):508-511。17. 田国明,李肖梁,陈健舜,陈雪燕,方维焕。单核细胞增多性李斯特菌LMO1847基因在不同应激条件下的表达。畜牧与兽医,39(7):7-10。18. Chen XY, Xu JJ, Shuai JB, Chen JS, Zhang ZF, Fang WH. The S-layer proteins of Lactobacillus crispatus strain ZJ001 is responsible for competitive exclusion against Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella typhimurium. International Journal of Food Microbiology,2007,115(3):. Yang ZZ, Habib M, Shuai JB, Fang WH. Detection of PCV2 DNA by SYBR Green I-based quantitative PCR, Journal of Zhejiang University Science B, 2007, 8(3):. Jiang LL, Ke CL, Xu JJ, Chen JS, Chen XY, Chen N, Shuai JB, Fang WH. Listeria monocytogenes mutants carrying Newcastle disease virus F gene fused to its actA and plcB: In vitro expression and immunogenicity in chickens, Acta Biochimica et Biophysica Sinica, 2007, 39(1):57-6621. 陈亚波,徐 程,张桂芝,方维焕。新城疫病毒HN蛋白抗原表位分析及结构域基因原核表达。中国预防兽医学报,2007,29(1):32-3522. Li XL, Shuai JB, Fang WH*. Protection of Carassius auratus Gibelio against infection by Aeromonas hydrophila using specific immunoglobulins from hen egg yolk. Journal of Zhejiang University Science B, 2006, 7(11):. Yang ZZ, Fang WH, Habib M. First Results of Detection of PRRSV and CSFV RNA by SYBR Green I-based Quantitative PCR. Journal of Veterinary Medicine B, 2006;53(10):. Li L, Fang WH, Li JR, Huang YW, Yu L. Oral DNA vaccination with the polyprotein gene of infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) delivered by attenuated Salmonella elicits protective immune responses in chickens. Vaccine, 2006, 24(33-34):. John Dikki M, Chen XY, Chen N, Fang WH*. Attenuated Salmonella typhimurium as a carrier for prokaryotic and eukaryotic expression vectors, Journal of Zhejiang University (Agric. & Life Sci., ed), 2006, 32(3):. Fang WH, Birgitte B, Siegumfeldt H. Leucocins 4010 from Leuconostoc carnosum cause a matrix related decrease in intracellular pH of Listeria monocytogenes, FEMS Microbiology Letters, 2006, 258(2): 208-21327. Jiang LL, Xu JJ, Chen N, Shuai JB, Fang WH. Virulence phenotyping and molecular characterization of a low-pathogenicity Listeria monocytogenes isolate from milk, Acta Biochimica et Biophysica Sinica, 2006, 38(4):. 徐晶靓, 江玲丽, 陈 宁, 帅江冰, 方维焕。携带外源基因的重组减毒单核细胞增多性李斯特菌构建与鉴定。微生物学报,2006,46(3):445-450。29. Vongxay KP, Cheng SY, Zhou XY, Shen B, He XL, Zhang GZ, Fang WH Prevalence of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in seafoods and their processing environments as detected by Duplex PCR. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 2006, 86(12): . 张桂芝,陈亚波,徐 程,张朝政,方维焕。新城疫病毒F蛋白结构域基因原核表达与抗原表位分析。浙江大学学报(农业与生命科学版)2006,32(1):82-87。31. 杨宗照, 方维焕。猪瘟合并猪繁殖呼吸综合征病毒(PRRSV)和猪圆环病毒2型(PCV2)感染。中国兽医学报, 2006,26(3):. Zeng HY, Zhang XF, Sun Z, Fang WH. Multiplex PCR identification of Listeria monocytogenes isolates from milk and milk-processing environments. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 2006, 86(3):. Yang ZG, Sun HX, Fang WH. Haemolytic activities and adjuvant effect of Astragalus membranaceus saponins (AMS) on the immune responses to ovalbumin in mice. Vaccine, 2005, 23 (44): . 李肖梁, 尹兆正, 钱娅,朱志刚,方维焕。抗嗜水气单胞菌IgY的提纯及体外抑菌效果研究。浙江大学学报(农业与生命科学版), 2005, 31(4):. 戴贤君, 方维焕。减毒沙门氏菌为载体的口服生长抑素DNA疫苗对草鱼安全性。中国兽医学报, 2005,25(5):. 戴贤君, 方维焕。减毒沙门氏菌为载体的草鱼口服生长抑素DNA疫苗构建及其稳定性。中国兽医学报 , 2005, 25(4):. 马有智,戴贤君,李肖梁,方维焕。表达猪链球菌溶血素基因的减毒沙门氏菌的构建及鉴定。中国兽医学报, 2005,25(5):478-480。38. 陈雪燕, John M. Dikki, 江玲丽, 帅江冰, 方维焕。重组质粒在减毒沙门氏菌中的稳定性及其对细菌侵袭力的影响。微生物学报,2005,45(5):. 贺晓龙, 张桂芝,方维焕。动物性食品中大肠埃希氏菌O157:H7特异性PCR方法的建立。中国兽医科技, 2005, 35(8):. Ke CL, Song HH , Jiang LL, Zeng HY, Zhang GZ, Fang WH. Construction of the recombinant Listeria monocytogenes mutant expressing green fluorescent protein. Journal of Zhejiang University (Agric. & Life Sci., ed), 2005, 31(5): . Jiang LL, Song HH, Chen XY, Ke CL, Xu JJ, Chen N, Fang WH. Characterization of a Mutant Listeria monocytogenes Strain Expressing Green Fluorescent Protein. Acta Biochimica et Biophysica Sinica, 2005, 37(1): 19–2442. Song HH, Wang ZL, Zheng DX, Fang WH, Li Y, Liu YY, Niu ZD, Qiu BS. A novel mucosal vaccine against foot-and-mouth disease virus induces protection in mice and swine. Biotechnology Letters, 2005, 27(21):. Song HH, Fang WH, Wang ZL et al. Detection of foot-and-mouth virus antibodies using a purified protein from the high-level expression of codon-optimized, foot-and-mouth disease virus complex epitopes in Escherichia coli. Biotechnology Letters, 2004, 26(16):1277-128144. 姜中其,陈晓红,方维焕,张应勤,孙建华。规模化猪场仔猪断奶腹泻大肠杆菌耐药性监测。浙江大学学报(农业与生命科学版),2004, 30(5):. 张晓峰,方维焕,程洁,施伟良。李斯特菌选择性增菌培养分离比较研究。中国公共卫生, 2004, 20(6):. 马有智,李肖梁,方维焕。猪链球菌2型溶血素基因PCR快速检测方法研究。浙江大学学报(农业与生命科学版)2004,30(1):78-8247. 李 龙,方维焕, 樊拥军,许 健,方 立,李建荣,于 涟。减毒沙门氏菌为载体在Vero细胞中表达传染性法氏囊病病毒多聚蛋白基因。生物工程学报,2004,20(3):437-440。48. Fang WH, Siegumfeldt H, Budde BB, Jakobsen M. Osmotic stresses led to decreased intracellular pH of Listeria monocytogenes as analyzed by fluorescence ratio-imaging microscopy. Applied & Environmental Microbiology, 2004, 70(5):. Song HH, Zhou L., Fang WH, Li Yong et al. High level expression of codon optimized food-and-mouth disease virus complex epitopes and cholera toxin B subunit chimera in Hansenula polymorpha. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 2004, 315(1):. Song HH, Li Y., Fang WH, Geng YF et al. Development of a set of expression vectors in Hansenula polymorpha. Biotechnology Letters, 2003, 25:. 谢荣辉,方维焕,李建荣,卢觅佳,于涟。萧山鸡IL-2基因真核表达载体构建及其在VERO细胞中的表达。浙江大学学报,2003,29(6):649-654。52. 梁雪芽,方维焕,江玲丽。鸡新城疫口服DNA疫苗的安全性、稳定性与免疫效力。 生物工程学报,2003,19(1):24-29。53. 马有智,方维焕,柯春林,张晓峰。猪链球菌2型JX分离株的生物学特性。中国兽医学报,2003,23(4):326-328。54. 马有智,方维焕。猪链球菌血清2型JX02株溶血素基因的克隆及序列分析。中国兽医学报, 2003,23(5):460-46255. 方维焕,梁雪芽,李建荣。减毒沙门氏菌为载体传递DNA疫苗诱导对鸡新城疫病毒的免疫保护。中国兽医学报,2003,23(6):527-529。56. 张晓峰,李爱云,方维焕,江玲丽,柯春林。多重聚合酶链反应鉴别单核细胞增生李斯特菌的研究。中华检验医学杂志,2003,26(2)93。57. 张晓峰,方维焕,江玲丽,杜华华。应用聚合酶链反应检测食品中单核细胞增多性李斯特菌。中国预防医学杂志, 2003,37(3):199。58. 方维焕。食品安全标准和监控体系建设需尽快与国际接轨。国际学术动态,2003,1:15-18。59. 张晓峰,程 洁,方维焕。抗李斯特菌免疫机理研究进展。中国人兽共患病杂志,2003,19(5):113-115。60. 方维焕、梁雪芽。减毒沙门氏菌为载体在真核细胞中表达鸡新城疫病毒F蛋白的研究。生物化学与生物物理学报,2002,34(4):488-493。61. Zhong BX, Weng HB, Fang WH. Preparation of protein samples for gel electrophoresis by sequential extraction. Journal of Zhejiang University, Science ed., 2002,3(5). 宋厚辉,方维焕。猪链球菌ZJ株溶血素基因的克隆和序列分析。中国预防兽医学报,2002,24(2):103-10563. 梁雪芽,方维焕。猪生殖与呼吸综合征病毒的分子生物学研究进展。中国兽医科技.2001,31(8).14-1764. 宋厚辉,方维焕。 产气荚膜梭菌主要毒力因子的分子生物学研究进展。预防兽医学进展,2001,3(1):13-16。65. Fang WH, Almeida ., & Oliver . Effects of lactoferrin and milk on adherence of Streptococcus uberis to bovine mammary epithelial cells. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 2000, 3:. Fang WH. & Oliver S. P. Identification of lactoferrin-binding proteins from bovine mastitis causing Streptococcus uberis. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 1999, 176:. Almeida ., Fang WH., & Oliver . Adherence and internalization of Streptococcus uberis to bovine mammary epithelial cells are mediated by host cell proteoglycans. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 1999, 177:. Fang WH., Luther D. A. & Oliver S. P. Protein expression by Streptococcus uberis in co-culture with bovine mammary epithelial cells. FEMS Microbiol. Letters, 1998, 166:. Fang WH., Luther D. A., Almeida R. A. & Oliver S. P. Decreased growth of Streptococcus uberis in milk from mammary glands of cows challenged with the same mastitis pathogen. Journal of Veterinary Medicine B, 1998, 45:. Ali-Vehmas T., Vikerpuur M., Fang WH., and Sandholm M. Giving selenium supplements to dairy cows strengthens the inflammatory response to intramammary infection and induces a growth-suppressing effect on mastitis pathogens in whey. Journal of Veterinary Medicine A, 1997, 44:. Fang WH., Myllys V. & Sandholm M. Resazurin reduction as a function of respiratory burst of bovine polymorphonuclear neutrophils. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 1997, 58(6):. Fang WH. A novel fluorometric method for evaluation of postantibiotic effect on mastitis-causing Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 1996, 26:. Fang WH. Quantification of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in the liquid medium by fluorometry and its use in phagocytosis assay. Journal of Appled Bacteriology, 1996, 80:. Koivunen A-L., Maisi P., Fang WH. & Sandholm M. Inhibition of the protease activity in tracheobronchial aspirates of horses with COPD. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 1996, 57(5):. Malbe M., Salonen M., Fang WH., Oopic T., Jalakas M., Klaassen M. & Sandholm M. Disposition of enrofloxacin (BaytrilR) into the udder after intravenous and intra-arterial injections. Journal of Veterinary Medicine A, 1996, 43:. Fang WH., Vikerpuur M. & Sandholm M. Reconstitution of mastitic milk by adding blood plasma and leukocytes into low cell count milk. Veterinary Research (France), 1996, 27:. Fang WH., Shi M., Huang L. & Chen J. Antagonism of the lactic acid bacteria towards Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli on the agar plates and in milk. Veterinary Research (France), 1996, 27:. Fang WH. & Pyorala S. Mastitis-causing Escherichia coli: Serum sensitivity and susceptibility to selected antibacterials in milk. Journal of Dairy Science, 1996, 79:. Fang WH. & Vikerpuur M. Potency of antibacterial drugs in milk as analyzed by the ß-glucuronidase-based fluorometry. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 1995, 1:. Fang WH., Vikerpuur M. & Sandholm M. A fluorometric ß-glucuronidase assay for analysis of bacterial growth in milk. Veterinary Microbiology, 1995, 46:. Malbe M., Klaassen M., Fang WH., Myllys V., Vikerpuur M., Nyholm K., Sankari S., Suoranta K. & Sandholm M. Comparison of selenite and selenium yeast feed supplements on Se-incorporation, mastitis and leukocyte function in Se-deficient dairy cows. Journal of Veterinary Medicine A, 1995, 42:. Fang WH. & Sandholm M. Inhibition of the proteinase activity in mastitic milk. Journal of Dairy Research, 1995, 64:. Fang WH., Shi M., Chen J., Huang L. & Shao Q. Comparative aspects of bacterial growth in milk and whey. Chinese Veterinary Science (English), 1994, 1(1):. Fang WH., Shi M., Chen J., Huang L. & Shao Q. Turbidometric determination of bacterial growth in whey. Chinese Veterinary Science (English), 1994, 1(1):. Fang WH., Shi M., Huang L. & Shao Q. Growth of lactic acid bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in normal and mastitic milk and whey. Veterinary Microbiology, 1993, 37:. Fang WH., Jiang C. & Liu H. Epidemiological aspects of bovine mastitis and its control in several dairy herds in south-east China. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 1993, 15(2-3):. Hu SH, Fang WH, Lu HR, et al. Effect Of Teat Dipping And Dry Cow Therapy On Mastitis In A Commercial Dairy-Herd In China. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 1990, 10:(1-2), 91-96.
猪拉稀的原因昨天,我们从猪的生理构造讲了猪为什么会拉稀。最近猪场猪仔拉稀腹泻的很多,今天我们就来聊聊遇到猪拉稀该怎么治?很多养殖户,现在越来越明白,养猪治病要先懂得猪为什么会生病,只有了解病因对症下药才能有效治愈,也更好的避免病情的反复。引起猪拉稀外部原因养殖户都知道:引起拉稀的外部原因是寒冷、潮湿、不卫生。1、寒冷刺激会诱发肠蠕动增加,导致猪非感染性腹泻。2、潮湿是一种变向的寒冷,因为猪接触水,水在蒸发时会吸收猪身体的热量,使猪局部变冷,从面引起拉稀。3、不卫生是因为猪容易吃进有害细菌,损害胃肠粘膜,从而引起拉稀。其实更为重要的原因可能是母猪奶水有毒,比如说脂肪性下痢,是因为奶水中有大量不能消化吸收的脂肪;母猪发生乳房炎时,奶水也是有毒的。引起猪拉稀内部原因引起拉稀的内部原因有以下几点。一是缺乏消化酶或激活的成分这主要是指哺乳仔猪断奶时的表现,这时的仔猪体内只有消化奶水的酶而没有消化固体饲料的酶,由奶水变成固体饲料,无法消化就会拉稀。第二种情况是胃肠道受损当猪胃肠道受损时,造成消化能力下降,饲料消化不彻底,也会引起拉稀第三种情况是炎症刺激,会加快排粪速度,吸收时间不足,也会拉稀。当猪发生胃溃疡,一定会伤到神经,肚子会疼,大脑认为是胃里的东西刺激的,就会下达命令,赶快把这些东西赶走,胃肠肌肉运动,营养来不及吸收就排出去了。遇到猪拉稀后怎么办?小猪拉稀造成的死亡率是相当高的,发现问题后必须马上采取措施。但关键是采取什么样的措施才能控制住,减少死亡。许多猪场拉稀死猪并不是他们不重视,而是方法不对。当遇到猪群拉稀时,先查病因,再对症治疗。如果是外界环境刺激,使猪发生应激可先改善猪舍内温度,卫生,保持干燥环境,然后用注射用头孢配合恩诺沙星注射液进行使用。遇到严重的拉稀,这时猪随时都会出现死亡,先要给猪补液,可以采用口服补液盐水的办法,必要的时候腹腔注射糖盐水,等猪稳定后,再进行下一步治疗。
一、选题选题是论文写作关键的第一步,直接关系论文的质量。常言说:“题好文一半”。对于临床护理人员来说,选择论文题目要注意以下几点:(1)要结合学习与工作实际,根据自己所熟悉的专业和研究兴趣,适当选择有理论和实践意义的课题;(2)论文写作选题宜小不宜大,只要在学术的某一领域或某一点上,有自己的一得之见,或成功的经验.或失败的教训,或新的观点和认识,言之有物,读之有益,就可以作为选题;(3)论文写作选题时要查看文献资料,既可了解别人对这个问题的研究达到什么程度,也可以借鉴人家对这个问题的研究成果。需要指出,论文写作选题与论文的标题既有关系又不是一回事。标题是在选题基础上拟定的,是选题的高度概括,但选题及写作不应受标题的限制,有时在写作过程中,选题未变,标题却几经修改变动。二、设计设计是在论文写作选题确定之后,进一步提出问题并计划出解决问题的初步方案,以便使科研和写作顺利进行。护理论文设计应包括以下几方面:(1)专业设计:是根据选题的需要及现有的技术条件所提出的研究方案;(2)统计学设计:是运用卫生统计学的方法所提出的统计学处理方案,这种设计对含有实验对比样本的护理论文的写作尤为重要;(3)写作设计:是为拟定提纲与执笔写作所考虑的初步方案。总之,设计是护理科研和论文写作的蓝图,没有“蓝图”就无法工作。
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