从中西饮食文化看文化差异论文
饮食是一个广泛的称呼与概念,包含吃、喝相关的文化及做为。 饮食是现代的一种文化,而中华美食则誉满天下。中国饭好吃,外国人爱吃也是不争的事实。下面是我为你带来的从中西饮食文化看文化差异论文 ,欢迎阅读。
摘 要: 本文通过阐述中西餐饮文化差异,分析中西餐饮文化在在哲学体系、价值观念、思维方式等方面的差异,从而促进中西方文化的融合,让更多的人通过饮食了解饮食背后的文化。
关键词: 中西文化 饮食文化 差异比较
提到饮食文化,人们总是会不约而同地首先想到“吃”,不错,饮食的确是人类生存和发展的第一需要,是社会生活的基本形式之一。然而加上了“文化”二字以后,饮食就不仅仅是“吃”这么简单了,它包括饮食文化的整体,是人类在饮食方面的创造行为及其成果,凡涉及人类饮食方面的思想、意识、观念、哲学、宗教、艺术等都在饮食文化的范围之内。
一、中西餐饮文化差异
中西方饮食文化最显而易见的不同就是使用的饮食器具。西方人以刀叉为食器,并且规定显明,不同规格的刀叉所使用的方式及场合不同,而且是不可以混用的。
中国人的餐桌上却不如西方人那么复杂,虽然是简简单单的一双筷子,但它在饮食文化中担任着十分重要的角色:筷子可以是我们的烹饪的工具,也是每家每户的搅拌器,打个鸡蛋,冲个饮料,无疑都需要筷子的帮忙。与西方如此严谨的规范相比,中国的筷子的确随意得多。
受科学导向的影响,西方烹饪的全过程必须严格按照科学规范行事,每道菜肴每次烹饪的过程、方法几乎完全一致,并且其所用的调料会精确到克,烹饪时间会精确到秒。
西方人对食物的选材极具规范,他们多以荤食为主,烹饪时往往以一整块肉或是一整只的禽类为主要食物,并且不吃内脏,认为内脏是弃料;对于蔬菜的选择上也比较单一,而且在饮食中以蔬菜为装点辅助之用,所以在西方人的饮食中蔬菜多为装饰工具。
相较于西方人而言,中国人在食物的选择与烹饪方式上就要随意得多。在中国厨师的手上也能变成一道味美的佳肴,这样的菜例比比皆是,如爆炒猪腰、糟猪肚、韭菜炒猪肝,等等。说到烹饪方式,更是层出不穷。不同于西方人的“精确到克”、“精确到秒”,中国人历来都是“随心所欲”,强调凭经验对结果进行把握。中国人喜素食,蔬菜的种类远多过于西方,这样,食材的相互搭配就变化多端,就以炒猪肝为例,可以是大葱炒猪肝,也可以是青椒炒猪肝,更可以是韭菜炒猪肝,每一道菜都各有风味。
西方人的饮食文化中注重食物的营养价值,因此,他们提倡吃生食,他们认为高温烹调会破坏了食物本身的营养,唯有生食才能最大限度地保存食物的天然属性和原汁原味,那么他们所追求的营养价值也可以被很好地保留。
中国饮食文化更重食物的味道,“美味”是中国饮食文化的第一要义,因此,中国人会借助一切技术手段、烹饪方式、调味方法使自己的食物变得鲜美无比,在中国,炒、煮、炖、烩、烧、烤、蒸、煎、炸、焖、熘等都是十分常见的熟食性烹调技术。
二、差异背后的文化根源
(一)哲学体系:形而上学与适度原则
西方哲学体系以形而上学为主要特点,也就是用孤立、静止、片面的观点看世界,认为一切事物都是孤立的,永远不变的;如果说有变化的话,那么只是数量的增减和场所的变更,这种增减或变更的原因不在事物内部而在于事物外部。反映到饮食文化就是所闻即所见,无论是菜单还是对食物的装点、摆盘,都是以一种最直接的方式呈现给人看,追求真实性,没有华丽的点缀,只体现食物的本源属性,这点与西方人的处事原则不谋而合,这样的哲学背景下就促成了西方人视“营养价值”为饮食的第一要义的观念,不在乎饮食的艺术性、创造性,目标性明确,即食物就是用来补充人对于营养需求的工具。
与西方人不同,中国传统哲学思想中最显著的特点之一是模糊、不可捉摸。它不像西方的形而上学那样追求事物的客观性、真实性,强调所闻即所见,而是凡是讲求分寸、讲求整体配合、讲求一个“度”。反映在饮食文化上的就是中国人将“美味”作为饮食的第一要义。在烹饪上,中国人讲究整体融合,没有西方人的精确,讲究的是凭经验将一道菜的各个部分相协调进而形成一道美味的佳肴。其中的经验又是模糊的,同一道菜,同一个师傅,每次做可能也会做出不同的味道,凭借经验对菜肴进行整体的把握,追求烹饪技术的随意性与艺术性,这便是中国人的传统哲学观念――模糊而完美。
(二)价值观:个人主义与集体主义
西方人推崇个人主义价值观念,个人目标高于对群体的忠诚。也就是说每一个只需要对自己负责即可,不需要服从其他任何一个集体,可以根据自己的喜好、需要选择自己喜欢的群体,但这样的选择并不是永久的,可以随时因为自己需求的改变而重新进行选择。如改变祈祷的教堂,更换雇主,等等。反映在饮食文化中最显著的就是西方人实行分餐制。
与之相对的,中国人崇尚集体主义价值观。在中国文化中,人们推崇谦虚知礼,不喜欢争强好胜,社会风气往往封杀过于突出的个人,正所谓“行高于众,人必非之”。在饮食文化中,这样的集体主义观念的确是受到了中国传统思想的影响,中国人的宴席多喜用圆桌,从形式上体现了团结、礼貌、共享的氛围。美味佳肴摆在桌子的中心,既是欣赏品尝的对象,又是交流感情的媒介。在这样的宴会气氛下,饮食已经不是宴会的主要目的,情感的交流才是宴会的中心。与西方人直截了当的交际方式不同,中国人的饮食目的依仗于一大群人的情感触碰、交流和共鸣。
(三)思维方式:个性与整体
西方人注重个性的发展,强调在集体中个性的最大限度发挥。他们追求差异性,凡事求异,认为每一个人都是独一无二的,强调天下万物都是独立的个体,彼此间没有联系,认为个性与个体的独立自主是人类社会发展的动力之一,因此对事物的看法与考虑往往从个性出发,西方人将独特的个性发展放置于一切行为活动的大前提之下。这无疑体现在了他们的饮食文化中,泾渭分明的摆盘和装点,虽同在一个盘子中,确是个性突出的各自为政,没有任何调和,肉即是肉,菜即是菜,土豆即是土豆,个性鲜明,味道明确,不会相互影响、相互混合。在烹饪上,同一个盘子中的不同食材也是被分开进行加工的,不会将它们放在一起烹煮,处处彰显西方人对于个体与个性的尊重和重视。 中国人注重整体的.发展,强调圆满、整合的思维方式和思想观念。不喜欢过于鲜明的个性张扬,反映在烹饪上更显见,无论是什么样的食材全部倒入锅中,再配以各种佐料进行烹调,即使原本个性鲜明,味道独特的食材在这样的磨合之下不会再显得如此锋芒。因此,中国菜尝起来滋味丰富,层次感强烈。再回过头看每一道菜,红不是那样鲜艳的红,绿也不是那样扎眼的绿,而是一种经过调和以后产生的和合之美。
(四)生活方式与生活节奏
在西方,流水线上的重复作业,实行计件工资制,生活节奏急促,人们有意无意地受到机械的两分法影响,将游戏与工作分得很清楚,即工作时工作,游戏时游戏,这样的生活方式十分单调、刻板,机械的工作生活模式逐步影响到了西方人对饮食的需求,导致饮食本身的单一性和简单性。
中国人则不然,中国人的随意性在这里体现无遗,不喜欢单纯的、机械的工作生活模式,推崇一种经验性的工作方式或者喜欢在工作中加入自己喜欢的元素或方法,就像中国的饮食烹饪一样,存在不稳定性,这样的不稳定性既指工作模式、工作方法的不稳定,又指工作结果的不稳定。就好像一道菜如果想要让它尝起来不那么咸,南方人可能会选择放糖冲淡咸味,如南方人的糖醋风味,就是用糖的甜与醋的酸中和酱油的咸味;而北方人则可能会把这道菜加水烹制食材,让食材变淡的同时改变了菜的性质,可能从一道炒菜变成了一道靓汤,因为生活经验、生活环境的不同而不同。这样并不稳定的经验性的改变方式,使原来单纯的一道菜变成了现在的三道菜而非两道菜,其中创造性与艺术性油然而生。
三、当前的餐饮文化发展与中西文化之间的融合
然而如今的中西方餐饮文化已不再像以前那样泾渭分明了,中餐中也融入了西式元素,西餐中处处彰显中国风,这是一种新型的饮食文化模式,中西合璧的饮食文化队伍将会越来越壮大,人们也可以通过了解饮食文化了解这个世界。
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only found one. hope that works~American table manners[edit] Table Layout * Bread plates are to the left of the main plate, beverage glasses are to the right. * Salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon. Dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.[edit] General Behavior * Chew with your mouth closed. * Do not talk at an excessively loud volume. * Refrain from coughing, sneezing or blowing nose at the table. * Never tilt back your chair while at the table, or at any other time. * Do not make unbecoming noises while eating. * Do not play with food or table utensils. * Do not single out or chastise someone who has shown poor table manners. * Do not put your elbows on the table or slouch. * Always ask the host or hostess to be excused before leaving the table. * Do not stare at anyone while he or she is eating. * Never talk on your phone at the table. If urgent, ask host or hostess to be excused, and go outside. Apologize when returned.[edit] Utensils * Do not eat food with your fingers unless you are eating foods customarily eaten with fingers, such as bread, french fries, chicken wings, pizza, etc. * The fork may be used either in the American (use the fork in your left hand while cutting; switch to right hand to pick up and eat a piece) or the Continental (fork remains in the left hand) fashion -- either is now acceptable. (See Fork etiquette) * The fork is used to convey any solid food to the mouth. * The knife blade should be placed on the edge of your plate when not in use. The blade should always face inward. * When you have finished eating soup, the spoon should be placed to the side of the saucer, not left in the bowl. * Keep your napkin on your lap. At more formal occasions all diners will wait to place their napkins on their laps until the host or hostess places his or her napkin on his or her lap * When eating barbecue or some other messy foods such as cracked crab, a 'bib' napkin may be provided for and used by adults. Usually these foods are also eaten by hand, and wet wipes or paper napkins should be used to clean the hands. * When using paper napkins, never ball them up or allow stains to show. * Use your silverware from the outside moving inward toward the main plate. (Salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon. Dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.)[edit] Dining * A prayer or 'blessing' may be customary in some families, and the guests should join in even if they are not religious or do not follow the same religion. Most prayers are made by the host before the meal is eaten. Instead or in addition, a 'toast' may be offered [1]. * Do not start eating until (a) every person is served or (b) those who have not been served request that you begin without waiting. At more formal occasions all diners will wait to begin until the hostess or host lifts a fork or spoon. * When a dish is presented 'family style', the food is served to one's plate and then passed on to the next person. put the food on your left, take some and pass to the person next to you. * When serving, serve from the left and pick up the dish from the right. Beverages are both served and removed from the right. * Eat soup noiselessly and with the side of the spoon. * Tea or coffee should never be poured into the saucer to cool but should be sipped from the cup. Alternatively, ice may be used to cool either. * Seasoning ones meal prior to tasting can be considered rude and may insult the chef.[edit] At the end of the meal * It is acceptable in most places to not finish all of the food on your plate. * When finished with your meal, place your knife and fork with handles at the 4 o'clock position and the tines of the fork down to signal to the server you are done. * Except in a public restaurant, do not ask to take some of your uneaten food away from the meal after it ends, especially when having a formal dinner.[edit] British table manners * The fork is held in your left hand and the knife is held in your right. * You should hold your knife with the handle in your palm and your fork in the other hand with the prongs pointing downwards. * If you’re eating a dessert, your fork (if you have one) should be held in the left hand and the spoon in the right. * When eating soup, you should hold your spoon in your right hand and tip the bowl away from you, scooping the soup in movements away from yourself. * It is not acceptable to use your fingers at the table to eat or push food onto your fork. You may, however, eat some foods such as fruit, sandwiches, hamburgers, crisps, chips or pizza with your fingers. * If there are a number of knives or forks, then you should start from the outside set working your way in as each course is served. * Drinks should always be to the right of your plate with the bread roll to the left. * When eating bread rolls, break off a piece before buttering. Use your knife only to butter the bread, not to cut it. * You should not start eating before your host does or instructs you to do so. At larger meals, it is considered okay to start eating once others have been served. * When you’re finished, place your knife and fork together at five o’clock with your fork on the left (tines facing up) and knife on the right, with the knife blade facing in. This signals that you are finished. * Your napkin should never be screwed up. Nor should it be folded neatly as that would suggest that your host might plan to use it again without washing it - just leave is neatly but loosely. * Never blow your nose on your napkin. Place it on your lap and use it to dab your mouth if you make a mess. * It is considered rude to answer the telephone at the table. If you need to take an urgent call, excuse yourself and go outside. * Always ask for permission from the host and excuse yourself if you need to leave the table. You should place your napkin on your seat until you return. * If you must leave the table or are resting, your fork should be at eight o’clock and your knife at four o’clock (with the blade inwards). Once an item of cutlery has been used, it should not touch the table again. * The food should be brought to your mouth on the fork; you should sit straight and not lean towards your plate. * Dishes should be served from the right, and taken away from the right. Unless the food is placed on your plate at the table, then it should arrive from the left. * Drinks should be served from the right. * Never lean across somebody else’s plate. If you need something to be passed, ask the person closest to it. If you have to pass something, only pass it if you are closest to it and pass it directly to them if you can. * Salt & pepper should be passed together. * Do not take food from a neighbour’s plate and don’t ask to do so. * You must not put your elbows on the table. * If pouring a drink for yourself, offer to pour a drink for your neighbours before serving yourself. * If extra food is on the table, ask others first if they would like it before taking it yourself. * When chewing food, close your mouth and only talk when you have swallowed it. * Swallow all food before eating more or having a drink. * Do not slurp your food or eat loudly. Burping or sneezing at the table should be avoided, too. * Never pick food out of your teeth with your fingernails. * Try to eat all the food you are served. * Glasses served in a wine glass or other stemmed-glass should be held at the stem. * Always remember “regular” manners. Remember to say "please" and "thank you".[edit] Chinese table mannersThese are mostly concerned with the use of chopsticks. Otherwise generally Chinese table manners are rather more informal, what would be considered rude in other cultures such as talking with the mouth full may be acceptable but better not to do so. * Chopsticks must always be held in the correct manner. It should be held between the thumb and fingers of the right hand, * Chopsticks are traditionally held in the right hand only, even by the left-handed. Although chopsticks may now be found in either hand, a few still consider left-handed chopstick use improper etiquette. One explanation for the treatment of such usage as improper is that this can symbolise argument, as the chopsticks may collide between the left-handed and right-handed user. * When communal chopsticks are supplied with shared plates of food, it is considered impolite to use your own chopsticks to pick up the food from the shared plate or eat using the communal chopsticks. An exception to this rule is made in intimate family dinners where family members may not mind the use of one's own chopsticks to transfer food. * It is considered impolite to use the blunt end of the chopsticks to transfer food from a common dish to your own plate or bowl. Use the communal chopsticks instead. * Never wave your chopsticks around as if they were an extension of your hand gestures, bang them like drumsticks, or use them to move bowls or plates. * Decide what to pick up before reaching with chopsticks. Do not hover around or poke looking for special ingredients. After you have picked up an item, do not put it back in the dish. * When picking up a piece of food, never use the tips of your chopsticks to poke through the food as if you were using a fork. Exceptions include tearing larger items apart such as vegetables. In informal use, small, difficult to pick-up items such as cherry tomatoes or fishballs may be stabbed but this use is frowned upon by traditionalists. * Chopsticks can be rested horizontally on one's plate or bowl to keep them off the table entirely. A chopstick rest can also be used to keep the points off the table. * Never stab chopsticks into a bowl of rice, leaving them standing upwards. Any stick-like object facing upward resembles the incense sticks that some Asians use as offerings to deceased family members. This is considered the ultimate faux pas on the dining table. * Chinese traditionally eat rice from a small bowl held in the left hand. The rice bowl is raised to the mouth and the rice pushed into the mouth using the chopsticks. Some Chinese find it offensive to scoop rice from the bowl using a spoon. If rice is served on a plate, as is more common in the West, it is acceptable and more practical to eat it with a fork or spoon. The thumb must always be above the edge of the bowl. * It is acceptable to transfer food to people who have a close relation with you (. parents, grandparents, children or significant others) if you notice they are having difficulty picking up the food. Also it is a sign of respect to pass food to the elderly first before the dinner starts (part of the Confucian tradition of respecting seniors). * Traditionally, it is polite for the youngest members of the table to address each and everyone of the elderly members of the table before a meal starts and literally tell them to "eat rice", which means "go ahead and start the meal", to show respect. * The host should always make sure the guests drinks are sufficiently full. One should not pour for ones self, but should (if thirsty) offer to pour for a neighbor. When your drink is being poured, you should say "thank you" and/or tap your fingers on the table to show appreciation. * When people wish to clink drinks together in the form of a cheer, it is important to observe that younger members should clink the edge of their drink below the edge of an elder to show respect. * When eating food that contains bones, it is customary that the bones be spit out onto the table to the right of the dining plate in a neat pile.
Diet idea the Europeans said that in the world has three big good food, in each edition has China and France, only then actually had different explanations about third, has said that was Italy, also had said that was countries' and so on Turkey, Tunisia or Morocco. Although reaches a stalemate, but everybody has a mutual recognition, the diet often can reflect the different nationality aspect and so on habits and customs and cultural thought differences. one time hosts the banquet in the Chinese restaurant, on the hotel vegetable very slowly, unconscious has passed for nearly two hours, but the vegetable has as if only then gotten up half. Is first time attends the Chinese meal banquet near a place woman, cannot bear asks me, your Chinese treats on these many vegetables? I said that must be many in China, usually is above 10. She is very surprised, including said that China's banquet too has been really rich, China's good food is very no wonder famous. But after a while, she also asks me, has a phenomenon to be very strange: The Chinese eats meal each time on that many vegetables, can be why long so thinly. But France enters the vegetable to be very each time few, but is why fatter than the Chinese? I am at a loss for words for a while, but thought that she asks how many truth a little, because that day shares a table several Chinese appear quite emaciated, but several French are all tall and sturdy. Thinks that spoke an own idea with her: China is a hospitable nationality, only then on a table vegetable had only then thought that has not neglected the visitor. Sometimes moreover the Chinese pays great attention the form, therefore in China's cooking, the vegetable style is ever changing, makes concrete is fastidious about the color fragrance to each vegetable matching. But European as if some, are inferior to China obviously actually in the vegetable variety change high and low free time, what but is fastidious is its nutrition matching and the protection. This is, the French diet idea important difference, how many also reflected the French chemical property standard difference. each people have the color which to color understanding oneself like, a country and the nationality are also same, likes to the different color being possible to reflect a national or the national esthetic appeal and the likes and dislikes tendency overall. has one time bumps into an EU commission's pair of professor husbands and wives, mentions China national dress which in the Shanghai APEC conference various countries' leader puts on, they said are attractive, but has a point to be not too clear, why do the Asian leaders mostly put on red, but the Western leader has chosen the blue color. I said that the color is leader designates. The Asian country has the same cultural context probably, red in the Chinese culture, is also possibly representing lucky, the wealth in the entire Asian culture and propitious pleasant, therefore the Asian leaders as if by prior agreement have chosen red. I ask in reply them, what does the blue color represent in the Western culture? They said the westerner to believe that the blue color represents is calm and is calm. thinks that I also said the East and West cultural difference was really too big, for example the dragon in China was nationality's symbol, but had one in Belgium's Mongolian Si Shize to hit the dragon festival, the dragon is regarded as the devil, has been massacred by fable in protection sacred · Michelle, therefore did specially hits the dragon festival to congratulate that eliminated the disaster shortcoming to thank Michelle. Professor husbands and wives also approves the East and West cultural difference hugeness, and approves the culture to need to exchange. in thinking mode West's cultural difference also displays in many aspects, but simple summarizes is not actually complex: Reflected that to the thinking mode in is abstract and the embodiment difference, reflected that to the life manner in as if may understand is more practical for the westerner, but Chinese how many stresses some mental feeling. For instance compares French word and Chinese writing, this point is very obvious. The Chinese writing makes the word to pay great attention the image much, what but in the French more pays great attention to consider is the use value. Looks like in Chinese the name card, in the French translates literally is the card which the visit uses, but the aircraft carrier calls in the French to carry airplane's warship and so on, is embarks from the actual uses makes the word. But presses the glass plate which likely the picture uses, we are also the words which makes from its use value angle, but the French has been more direct-viewing, the literal translation is “places above the picture”. reflects to the drawing in is so. Everybody knew that the traditional Chinese painting greatly opens big he, splashes ink enjoyably the human body proportion which and optics principle is fastidious with the European oil painting and so on completely belongs to the technical category which two have nothing to do with one another, is as if very difficult to have the common language. Sometimes the European not too can understand that sometimes we too abstract art expression means that we also will think European's artistic skill too practical duty, deficient divine and wonderful spirit. Looked that sometimes in many European drawing history has been presented for the classics religious theme painting, the Chinese while sighs its technique practical exquisite, also will sigh with emotion European master the imagination the deficiency: In order to explain that the angel is flying, must give these lovable young and clevers to add on a pair of wing. But our ancestor has not also drawn several thousand years, how many white clouds adds on nearby these beautiful female celestial, they have not flown? Has the ideal condition, has the imagination space. this is the cultural difference. But, the difference brings not always the difference, it gave culture masters of art to leave behind the broad creation space exactly, if could find an accurate combining site, not only that will give two nationalities, will also give the entire world to bring one kind to have forgives the significance the harmony and beautiful, for instance Zhao Wuji's painting manifested the inexhaustible charm which the culture blended 饮食观念 欧洲人都说世界上有三大美食,每一个版本里都有中国和法国的,只有关于第三家却说法不一,有说是意大利的,也有说是土耳其、突尼斯或摩洛哥等国的。尽管相持不下,但大家都有个共识,饮食常能反映出不同民族的生活习惯和文化思维等方面的差异。 一次在中餐馆举行宴会,饭店菜上得很慢,不知不觉中过去了近两个小时,但菜似乎才上了一半。临座的一位女士是第一次参加中餐宴会,忍不住问我,你们中国人请客都上这么多菜吗?我说,在中国还要多,通常是10道以上。她很惊讶,连说中国的宴会实在太丰富了,难怪中国的美食很有名。但过了一会儿,她又问我,有个现象很奇怪:中国人吃饭每次都上那么多菜,可为什么都长得那么瘦。而法国入每次菜很少,但为什么都比中国人胖呢? 我一时语塞,但又觉得她问得多少有点道理,因为那天同桌的几个中国人都显得比较瘦弱,而几个法国人个个人高马大。想了想,和她讲了自己的一点想法:中国是个好客的民族,只有上了一桌子菜才觉得没怠慢客人。另外中国人有时候更注重形式,所以在中国的烹调里,菜的样式千变万化,具体到每一道菜又非常讲究色香味的搭配。而欧洲人似乎更实际一些,在菜的花色变化上下的工夫显然不如中国,但讲究的是其营养的搭配和保护。这是中、法饮食观念的重要差异,多少也反映出了中法文化性格的不同。 对色彩的认识 每个人都有自己喜欢的颜色,一个国家和民族也一样,对不同颜色的喜好从整体上可以反映出一个民族或者国家的审美情趣与好恶倾向。 有一次碰到欧盟委员会的一对教授夫妇,谈起上海APEC会议上各国领导人穿的中国民族服装,他们都说非常好看,但有一点不太明白,为什么亚洲领导人大多穿红色,而西方领导人则多选择了蓝色。我说颜色都是领导人自己选定的。大概亚洲国家有着相同的文化背景,红色在中国文化里,也可能在整个亚洲文化中都代表着幸运、财富和吉祥如意,所以亚洲领导人都不约而同地选择了红色。我反问他们,蓝色在西方文化里代表什么?他们说西方人认为,蓝色代表冷静和沉着。 想了想,我又补充说东西方文化差异实在是太大了,比如说龙在中国是民族的象征,而在比利时的蒙斯市则有一个打龙节,龙被视作恶魔,被传说中的保护神圣·米歇尔杀掉了,因此特意搞打龙节来庆贺除灾弊感谢米歇尔。教授夫妇也非常认同东西方文化差异的巨大,并认可文化需要交流。 思维方式 中西方的文化差异还表现在诸多方面,但简单加以概括其实并不复杂:反映到思维方式上是抽象和具象的差别,反映到生活态度上则似乎可以理解为西方人更加实用,而中国人则多少更偏重一些精神感受。比如把法语单词和中文文字加以比较,这一点就很明显。中国文字造词多注重形象,而法文里更多地注重考虑的是实用价值。像中文里的名片,法文里直译就是访问用的卡片,而航空母舰在法文里叫载飞机的军舰等等,都是从实际用途出发来造词的。而像压照片用的玻璃板,我们也是从其使用价值角度来造的词,但法国人就更加直观了,直译就是“放在照片上面的”。 反映到绘画上更是如此。大家都知道中国画的大开大阖、泼墨写意和欧洲油画讲究的人体比例和光学原理等完全是属于两个风马牛不相及的技术范畴,似乎很难有共同语言。欧洲人有时不太能够理解我们过于抽象的艺术表现手法,我们有时也会认为欧洲人的艺术技巧过于写实本分,缺乏灵气。看多了欧洲绘画史上被奉为经典的宗教题材画作,中国人有时在感叹其技法写实细腻的同时,也会感慨欧洲大师们想象力的贫乏:为了说明天使在飞,就非得给那些可爱的小精灵们加上一双翅膀。而我们的祖先不也画了几千年了吗,在那些美丽的仙女旁边加上几朵白云,她们不就飞起来了吗?多有意境,多有想象空间啊。 这就是文化的差异。但是,差异带来的并不总是分歧,它恰恰给文化艺术大师们留下了广阔的创作空间,如能从中找到一个准确的结合点,那不仅会给两个民族,而且也会给整个世界带来一种更具包涵意义的和谐与美丽,比如赵无极的画作就体现出了文化交融的无尽魅力。
饮食文化论文人生在世,吃穿二事,很早我们就知道了这句话。人虽然作为高级动物,但仍需要与普通动物一样:“吃”。所以,零零总总令人眼花缭乱的各类美食也孕育而生,从古至今,长盛不衰。饮食行业也成为三百六十行常展长新的行当,而饮食业也形成了自己的独特的文化,说的更直接些就是一种“吃”的文化。 中国有着5000年的悠久历史,中国有着灿烂丰富、博大精深的饮食文化;中国人注重“天人合一”,中餐以食表意、以物传情的特点。所以也就使得中国传统的饮食美食都“食出有门”如中华饮食文化理论奠基人??孔子的《论语》中就有关于饮食“二不厌、三适度、十不食”的论述。直至两千年后的今日,仍具有极高的理论指导性。中华茶道始主??陆羽认为茶道在中华饮食文化中的地位几乎与酒等量齐观,他曾遍访名茶产区荐评品第,又精研泉水,次第品级。中华食文化之圣??袁枚其《随园食单》经历五十年才写成,成为中华饮食史上光前裕后之作,也有中华饮食文化“食经”的美誉。还有以味道治国的大臣??伊尹将饮食的“色、香、味、形”与治国相融合,所以就有了 “治国若烹小鲜”之说。 由此,这就形成了我们传统的饮食有“四重”的特点: 1、重食:古人就有:“民以食为天”之说,见面常问“吃过没有?”足见饮食文化的地位。 2、重养:以“五谷”养“六脏”,饮食中重视人体养生保健。 3、重味:中华饮食最注意食物的味,讲究“色、香、味、型”。各种味道差异构成各种菜系的基础。 4、重理:注意各种食物的搭配,以相生相克、相辅相成等阴阳调和之理性认识指导烹饪。 正是由于中华饮食讲究料、作、食等等的精细,内容丰富且博大精深,民族特色鲜明,既兼容又特别,从古到今,历代相传又推陈出新。 不同的饮食习惯造就了不同的饮食文化。中国人大而全的一贯作风,吃饭时自然是七大盘、八大碗,一是显示了富足,二是摆足了排场;近而各地比吃、全国争雄,最终形成了八大菜系,也就是吃方面八个不同的“高手”;说得虽有些低俗,但还是很能传情达意的。 因此,中华饮食文化就其深层内涵,可以简单概括成八个字:精致、悦目、坠情、礼数。这八个字,反映了饮食活动过程中饮食品质、审美体验、情感活动、社会功能等所包含的独特文化意蕴,也反映了饮食文化与中华优秀传统文化的密切联系。 精致;我们在得意时都喜欢在酒馆、餐厅里点几个精致小菜,或自己做几个精致小菜来犒赏自己与亲戚友人,而这时就需要吃出一种气氛、品位甚至是文化来。饮食既然作为一种文化,一种“吃”的文化,精品意识作为一种文化精神,却越来越广泛、越来越深入地渗透、贯彻到整个饮食活动过程中。选料、烹调、配伍乃至饮食环境,都体现着 “精致”。尤其是现在非常注重个人身体保健的现代社会,更是要求我们的饮食向精致化发展,使饮食中融入文化,透出文化,从而“吃”出文化来,避免和摒弃那种“过之屠门而大嚼”不雅行为和有损健康的不良习惯。 悦目;这是将“吃”的文化与内涵进行升华的高级阶段,体现了饮食文化的审美特征。中华饮食之所以能够征服世界,重要原因之一,就在于它美,它令食者有“三月不知肉味”的同时,更令人拍案叫绝和赏心悦目。这种悦目,是指中国饮食活动形式与内容的完美统一,是指它给人们所带来的审美愉悦和精神享受,首先是味道美。孙中山先生讲“辨味不精,则烹调之术不妙”,将对“味”的审美视作烹调的第一要义。 令人悦目的美味佳肴作为饮食文化的一个基本内涵,它是中华饮食的魅力之所在,悦目贯穿在饮食活动过程的每一个环节中。 坠情;这是对中华饮食文化社会心理功能的概括。因为菜系和饮食中蕴藏着各种感情在其中。做的人付出心血和真情用心去做,而吃者更是品味到自己喜欢的饮食则抱着的是一种感激与赞赏。吃吃喝喝,不能简单视之,它实际上是人与人之间情感交流的媒介,是一种别开生面的社交活动。一边吃饭,一边聊天,可以做生意、交流信息、采访。朋友离合,送往迎来,人们都习惯于在饭桌上表达惜别或欢迎的心情,感情上的风波,人们也往往借酒菜平息。这是饮食活动对于社会心理的调节功能。过去的茶馆,大家坐下来喝茶、听书、摆龙门阵或者发泄对朝廷的不满,实在是一种极好的心理按摩。 中华饮食之所以具有“抒情”功能,是因为“饮德食和、万邦同乐”的哲学思想和由此而出现的具有民族特点的饮食方式。对于饮食活动中的情感文化,有个引导和提升品位的问题。我们要提倡健康优美、奋发向上的文化情调,追求一种高尚的情操。 礼数;是指饮食活动的礼仪性。中国是礼仪之邦,而这种礼仪与礼数也渗透到了饮食当中。而饮食讲究“礼数”,这与我们的传统文化有很大关系。生老病死、送往迎来、祭神敬祖都是礼。《礼记?礼运》中说:“夫礼之初,始诸饮食。“礼数”中也讲究着一种秩序和规范,比如在重要场合坐席的方向、箸匙的排列、上菜的次序、有些菜的象征、来历等等都体现着“礼数”。 我们谈“礼数”,更应把它理解成一种精神,一种内在的伦理精神,这种精神,贯穿在饮食活动过程中,从而构成中国饮食文明的逻辑起点。 饮食中的精致、悦目、坠情、礼数分别从不同的角度概括了中华饮食文化的基本内涵,换言之,这四个方面有机地构成了中华饮食文化这个整体概念。但是,它们不是孤立地存在,而是相互依存、互为因果的,四者环环相生、完美统一,便形成中华饮食文化的最高境界。而中华饮食也是中华民族从古至今用嘴“吃”出来了一种文化,一种浓厚的中华饮食文化,这种文化已经得以前仆后继的不断弘扬,已经影响到了我们自己和身边,影响到了全世界的饮食行业。
人生在世,吃穿二事,很早我们就知道了这句话。人虽然作为高级动物,但仍需要与普通动物一样:“吃”。所以,零零总总令人眼花缭乱的各类美食也孕育而生,从古至今,长盛不衰。饮食行业也成为三百六十行常展长新的行当,而饮食业也形成了自己的独特的文化,说的更直接些就是一种“吃”的文化。中国有着5000年的悠久历史,中国有着灿烂丰富、博大精深的饮食文化;中国人注重“天人合一”,中餐以食表意、以物传情的特点。所以也就使得中国传统的饮食美食都“食出有门”如中华饮食文化理论奠基人??孔子的《论语》中就有关于饮食“二不厌、三适度、十不食”的论述。直至两千年后的今日,仍具有极高的理论指导性。中华茶道始主??陆羽认为茶道在中华饮食文化中的地位几乎与酒等量齐观,他曾遍访名茶产区荐评品第,又精研泉水,次第品级。中华食文化之圣??袁枚其《随园食单》经历五十年才写成,成为中华饮食史上光前裕后之作,也有中华饮食文化“食经”的美誉。还有以味道治国的大臣??伊尹将饮食的“色、香、味、形”与治国相融合,所以就有了 “治国若烹小鲜”之说。由此,这就形成了我们传统的饮食有“四重”的特点:1、重食:古人就有:“民以食为天”之说,见面常问“吃过没有?”足见饮食文化的地位。2、重养:以“五谷”养“六脏”,饮食中重视人体养生保健。3、重味:中华饮食最注意食物的味,讲究“色、香、味、型”。各种味道差异构成各种菜系的基础。4、重理:注意各种食物的搭配,以相生相克、相辅相成等阴阳调和之理性认识指导烹饪。正是由于中华饮食讲究料、作、食等等的精细,内容丰富且博大精深,民族特色鲜明,既兼容又特别,从古到今,历代相传又推陈出新。不同的饮食习惯造就了不同的饮食文化。中国人大而全的一贯作风,吃饭时自然是七大盘、八大碗,一是显示了富足,二是摆足了排场;近而各地比吃、全国争雄,最终形成了八大菜系,也就是吃方面八个不同的“高手”;说得虽有些低俗,但还是很能传情达意的。因此,中华饮食文化就其深层内涵,可以简单概括成八个字:精致、悦目、坠情、礼数。这八个字,反映了饮食活动过程中饮食品质、审美体验、情感活动、社会功能等所包含的独特文化意蕴,也反映了饮食文化与中华优秀传统文化的密切联系。精致;我们在得意时都喜欢在酒馆、餐厅里点几个精致小菜,或自己做几个精致小菜来犒赏自己与亲戚友人,而这时就需要吃出一种气氛、品位甚至是文化来。饮食既然作为一种文化,一种“吃”的文化,精品意识作为一种文化精神,却越来越广泛、越来越深入地渗透、贯彻到整个饮食活动过程中。选料、烹调、配伍乃至饮食环境,都体现着 “精致”。尤其是现在非常注重个人身体保健的现代社会,更是要求我们的饮食向精致化发展,使饮食中融入文化,透出文化,从而“吃”出文化来,避免和摒弃那种“过之屠门而大嚼”不雅行为和有损健康的不良习惯。悦目;这是将“吃”的文化与内涵进行升华的高级阶段,体现了饮食文化的审美特征。中华饮食之所以能够征服世界,重要原因之一,就在于它美,它令食者有“三月不知肉味”的同时,更令人拍案叫绝和赏心悦目。这种悦目,是指中国饮食活动形式与内容的完美统一,是指它给人们所带来的审美愉悦和精神享受,首先是味道美。孙中山先生讲“辨味不精,则烹调之术不妙”,将对“味”的审美视作烹调的第一要义。令人悦目的美味佳肴作为饮食文化的一个基本内涵,它是中华饮食的魅力之所在,悦目贯穿在饮食活动过程的每一个环节中。坠情;这是对中华饮食文化社会心理功能的概括。因为菜系和饮食中蕴藏着各种感情在其中。做的人付出心血和真情用心去做,而吃者更是品味到自己喜欢的饮食则抱着的是一种感激与赞赏。吃吃喝喝,不能简单视之,它实际上是人与人之间情感交流的媒介,是一种别开生面的社交活动。一边吃饭,一边聊天,可以做生意、交流信息、采访。朋友离合,送往迎来,人们都习惯于在饭桌上表达惜别或欢迎的心情,感情上的风波,人们也往往借酒菜平息。这是饮食活动对于社会心理的调节功能。过去的茶馆,大家坐下来喝茶、听书、摆龙门阵或者发泄对朝廷的不满,实在是一种极好的心理按摩。中华饮食之所以具有“抒情”功能,是因为“饮德食和、万邦同乐”的哲学思想和由此而出现的具有民族特点的饮食方式。对于饮食活动中的情感文化,有个引导和提升品位的问题。我们要提倡健康优美、奋发向上的文化情调,追求一种高尚的情操。礼数;是指饮食活动的礼仪性。中国是礼仪之邦,而这种礼仪与礼数也渗透到了饮食当中。而饮食讲究“礼数”,这与我们的传统文化有很大关系。生老病死、送往迎来、祭神敬祖都是礼。《礼记?礼运》中说:“夫礼之初,始诸饮食。“礼数”中也讲究着一种秩序和规范,比如在重要场合坐席的方向、箸匙的排列、上菜的次序、有些菜的象征、来历等等都体现着“礼数”。我们谈“礼数”,更应把它理解成一种精神,一种内在的伦理精神,这种精神,贯穿在饮食活动过程中,从而构成中国饮食文明的逻辑起点。饮食中的精致、悦目、坠情、礼数分别从不同的角度概括了中华饮食文化的基本内涵,换言之,这四个方面有机地构成了中华饮食文化这个整体概念。但是,它们不是孤立地存在,而是相互依存、互为因果的,四者环环相生、完美统一,便形成中华饮食文化的最高境界。而中华饮食也是中华民族从古至今用嘴“吃”出来了一种文化,一种浓厚的中华饮食文化,这种文化已经得以前仆后继的不断弘扬,已经影响到了我们自己和身边,影响到了全世界的饮食行业。国家的历史有长有短,疆域有大有小,实力有强有弱,人口有多有少,民族构成、宗教信仰、政权性质和经济结构也有差异,故而各国的饮食文化是不一样的。中国饮食文化在中国传统文化教育中的阴阳五行哲学思想、儒家伦理道德观念、中医营养摄生学说,还有文化艺术成就、饮食审美风尚、民族性格特征诸多因素的影响下,创造出彪炳史册的中国烹饪技艺,形成博大精深的中国饮食文化。从沿革看,中国饮食文化绵延170多万年,分为生食、熟食、自然烹饪、科学烹饪4个发展阶段,推出6万多种传统菜点、2万多种工业食品、五光十色的筵宴和流光溢彩的风味流派,获得“烹饪王国”的美誉。从内涵上看,中国饮食文化涉及到食源的开发与利用、食具的运用与创新、食品的生产与消费、餐饮的服务与接待、餐饮业与食品业的经营与管理,以及饮食与国泰民安、饮食与文学艺术、饮食与人生境界的关系等,深厚广博。从外延看,中国饮食文化可以从时代与技法、地域与经济、民族与宗教、食品与食具、消费与层次、民俗与功能等多种角度进行分类,展示出不同的文化品味,体现出不同的使用价值,异彩纷呈。从特质看,中国饮食文化突出养助益充的营卫论(素食为主,重视药膳和进补),并且讲究“色、香、味”俱全。五味调和的境界说(风味鲜明,适口者珍,有“舌头菜”之誉),奇正互变的烹调法(厨规为本,灵活变通),畅神怡情的美食观(文质彬彬,寓教于食)等4大属性,有着不同于海外各国饮食文化的天生丽质。从影响看,中国饮食文化直接影响到日本、蒙古、朝鲜、韩国、泰国、新加坡等国家,是东方饮食文化圈的轴心;与此同时,它还间接影响到欧洲、美洲、非洲和大洋洲,像中国的素食文化、茶文化、酱醋、面食、药膳、陶瓷餐具和大豆等,都惠及全世界数十亿人。总之,中国饮食文化是一种广视野、深层次、多角度、高品位的悠久区域文化;是中华各族人民在100多万年的生产和生活实践中,在食源开发、食具研制、食品调理、营养保健和饮食审美等方面创造、积累并影响周边国家和世界的物质财富及精神财富。中国饮食文化特点中国是文明是国,亦是悠久饮食文化之境地。吾存于世,吃喝二十余年,有所心得有所感悟,现将饮食文化归纳出以下几个特点,望大家见教:第一,风味多样。由于我国幅员辽阔,地大物博,各地气候、物产、风俗习惯都存在着差异,长期以来,在饮食上也就形成了许多风味。我国一直就有‘南米北面’的说法,口味上有‘南甜北咸东酸西辣’之分,主要是巴蜀、齐鲁、淮扬、粤闽四大风味。第二,四季有别。一年四季,按季节而吃,是中国烹饪又一大特征。自古以来,我国一直按季节变化来调味、配菜,冬天味醇浓厚,夏天清淡凉爽;冬天多炖焖煨,夏天多凉拌冷冻。第三,讲究美感。中国的烹饪,不仅技术精湛,而且有讲究菜肴美感的传统,注意食物的色、香、味、形、器的协调一致。对菜肴美感的表现是多方面的,无论是个红萝卜,还是一个白菜心,都可以雕出各种造型,独树一帜,达到色、香、味、形、美的和谐统一,给人以精神和物质高度统一的特殊享受。第四,注重情趣。我国烹饪很早就注重品味情趣,不仅对饭菜点心的色、香、味有严格的要求,而且对它们的命名、品味的方式、进餐时的节奏、娱乐的穿插等都有一定的要求。中国菜肴的名称可以说出神入化、雅俗共赏。菜肴名称既有根据主、辅、调料及烹调方法的写实命名,也有根据历史掌故、神话传说、名人食趣、菜肴形象来命名的,如‘全家福’、‘将军过桥’、‘狮子头’、‘叫化鸡’、‘龙凤呈祥’、‘鸿门宴’、‘东坡肉’……第五,食医结合。我国的烹饪技术,与医疗保健有密切的联系,在几千年前有‘医食同源’和‘药膳同功’的说法,利用食物原料的药用价值,做成各种美味佳肴,达到对某些疾病防治的目的。”古代的中国人还特别强调进食与宇宙节律协调同步,春夏秋冬、朝夕晦明要吃不同性质的食物,甚至加工烹饪食物也要考虑到季节、气候等因素。这些思想早在先秦就已经形成,在《礼记月令》就有明确的记载,而且反对颠倒季节,如春“行夏令”“行秋令”“行冬令”必有天殃;当然也反对食用反季节食品,孔子说的“不食不时”,包含有两重意思一是定时吃饭,二是不吃反季节食品,与当代人的意识正相反,有些吃反季节食品是为了摆阔。西汉时,皇宫中便开始用温室种植“葱韭菜茹”,西晋富翁石崇家也有暖棚。这种强调适应宇宙节律的思想意识的确是华夏饮食文化所独有的。这种意识残留到现代的大约仅有节日食俗了(中医中药里也有一些,但未受到重视)。“阴阳五行”说是传统思想所设定的世界模式,也被认为是宇宙规律。人是“三才”之一,饮食是人类生活所不可少的、制作饮食的烹饪必然也要循此规律。因此,不仅把味道分为五,并产生了“五味”说(其实人能感觉到的“味”不止有五,但二三千年前,能分辨出五种也不算少),而且还削足适履地把为数众多(当时人们已经认识到这一点)的谷物、畜类、蔬菜、水果分别纳入“五谷”“五肉”“五菜”“五果”的固定模式。这使人感到荒诞。更令人惊奇的是还有“凡饮,养阳气也;凡食,养阴气也”(《礼记郊特牲》)。并认为只有饮和食与天地阴阳互相协调,这样才能“交与神明”,上通于天,从而达到“天人合一”的效果。因此在祭天时要严格遵循阴阳五行之说。这种说法被后来的道教所继承,成为他们饮食理论的一个出发点,如认为吃食物是增加人体阴气的,如“五谷充体而不能益寿”“食气者寿”等,要修炼、要获得阳气就要尽量少吃、最佳境界是不吃,走“辟谷”的境界。中和之美是中国传统文化的最高的审美理想。“中也者,天下之大本也;和也者,天下之达者也。至中和,天地位焉,万物育焉”(《礼记中庸》)。什么叫“中”?不能简单地用“中间”来概括它。这个“中”指恰到好处,合乎度。有点像河南话中的那个“中”。“和”也是烹饪概念。《古文尚书说命》中就有“若作和羹,惟尔盐梅”的名句,意思是要做好羹汤,关键是调和好咸(盐)酸(梅)二味,以此比喻治国。《左传》中晏婴(齐国贤相)也与齐景公谈论过什么是“和”,指出“和”不是“同”,和是要建立不同意见的协调的基础上的。因此中国哲人认为天地万物都在“中和”的状态下找到自己的位置以繁衍发育。这种审美理想建筑在个体与社会、人与自然的和谐统一之上。这种通过调谐而实现“中和之美”的想法是在上古烹调实践与理论的启发和影响下产生的,而反过来又影响了人们的整个的饮食生活,对于追求艺术生活化、生活艺术化的古代文人士大夫,尤其如此。与“中和”相反的是极端,极端在烹饪上也不被视为正宗,那些“咸过头,辣过头,酸过头”的食品虽然会受到一些身体处在不正常状态下的人们的追捧,但从长远看来它对身体是有害的。社会生活、政治生活中的极端主义其弊更是不可胜言。如上所述,华夏民族的饮食生活体现了传统文化的特性,尽管有些特性对于现代人来说是不可理解、或者说不太科学(近百年来,“科学”二字在中国几乎成为宗教信仰,它只是衡量一切领域是非的一把尺子,而它本身却不能受到质疑),但饮食生活难道仅仅是“科学”二字所能说尽的吗?如果我们再关注一下“文化”,那么研究中国人的饮食生活不仅是研究中国文化的必要的组成部分,甚至可以成为研究中国文化的一把钥匙。目前,饮食文化还是个模糊概念。有的研究者笼统地说,它包括吃什么、怎么做、怎么吃这三方面的问题;有的研究者认为饮食文化学孕育出六门科学,即烹调学、食品制造学、食疗学、饮食民俗学、饮食文艺学、食品制造学;有的研究者还主张加上饮食美学、饮食商业学、饮食用具学等等。本人才疏学浅,对于这么多学科未能涉猎。我所理解的饮食文化主要指饮食与人、人群的关系及其所产生的社会意义。所以我们在课题讨论中虽然也讨论食物、肴馔、食品加工、烹饪、饮食习俗乃至进餐环境、食具、餐具等等,但都围绕着它们与人、人群的关系及其所产生的社会意义等方面加以介绍和评介,至于与人关系不大的纯工艺过程、除了必要的知识介绍外,大多略去,意在突出饮食生活给人们带来的物质上和精神上的双重享受,以及中国饮食文化在这两方面的刻意追求。
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