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药学论文选题英语怎么写

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药学论文选题英语怎么写

abstract是论文正文前面的摘要,是用简洁的语言指出论文的主要内容、研究方法和成果发现,行文简洁,逻辑性强,具有程式化的特点。

introduction是论文主体部分的开端词,用较为详细的语言指出论文写作所涉及的内容或者要着力解决的问题,是论文正文的引论部分,起到提纲挈领的作用。

英语论文的写作,主要用于参加国际学术研讨会,促进中外学术文化交流;在国际学术刊物上发表,在国际上共享科研成果,英语论文也是达到学术交流的目的;另外英语论文还包括英语相关专业人员必要地用英语撰写学术报告或毕业论文等等。

不同的学科或专业领域、不同的刊物对英语论文的内容、格式等有不同的要求,不同领域的研究论文在文体和语言特点上既有许多共性,也不乏各自特点。

选择语言学的毕业论文选题可以在两个大的方向进行:普通语言学和应用语言学。普通语言学的研究就是对于英语语言的任何一个方面的研究,如对一种词性、或一种时态、或拼写、语调等等方面的研究(如“一般现在时及其交际功能”)。

应用语言学包括教学法的研究和其它一些新兴的应用语言学分支的研究。师范专业或本身从事教师职业的学生选择教学法方向的较多。

在这个方向选题,也要避免过大范围的选题,而应对一个具体问题进行研究,最重要的是要结合教学实践或实验。这个方向的好的选题有:“个性与英语教学”,“方言对英语学习的影响”等。

Introduction 是导论,绪论,主要写目的,意义,范围,研究设想,方法,选题依据;Abstract是摘要,主要概括一下整篇文章的主要内容。

引言:言简意赅。说明前人的研究状况,本项研究的价值和意义,引出本文的主题,一般与结论相呼应。引言类似于导火索说明。

摘要:说明研究目的、要解决的问题、使用的方法,结果和结论。主要是论文的缩影。

具体可以看下这篇文章:

一、勤于思索,刻意求新一篇论文作业成功与否、质量高低、可以说很大程度上取决于文章是否有新意,如果满篇文章都是抄袭柔和而成,不仅过不了检测这一关,更逃不过教授的法眼。建议大家论文求新的话可以从下面几个方面去做:①论文观点、题目、材料以及论证方法都是全新的。当然这肯定是由难度,但是这样的条件下完成的论文作业学术价值是非常高的。难度系数:☆☆☆☆☆②可以用新的材料去论证旧的课题,从而提出新的或部分新的观点、新的看法。难度系数:☆☆☆③以新的角度或新的研究方法再重新论证已有的课题,然后得出全部或部分新观点。难度系数:☆☆☆④对已有的观点、材料、研究方法提出质疑,这样即使没有能提出自新的观点,但是足以发人们重新思考那些已有的观点和问题。 难度系数:☆☆上面四个方面并不是对“新意”的全部介绍,但如果大家能在自己的论文中能做到其中某一点,相信也是比较有新意了。想要自己的论文题目有新意,留学生们在生活中需要善于观察,勤于思索,从大处着眼,小处入手,同时还要善于积累和分析文献资料。二、知己知彼,量力而行论文作业是对留学生们学习成果的综合考核,不论是选题的方向还是难易程度都应该和自己知识积累、分析问题和解决问题的能力结合起来。“知己”,就是要知道自已的知识储备情况和分析问题的能力。能力的积累和知识的积累是一个非常漫长的过程,想要通过读完几本书或者处理完几件事就觉得自己已经完全具备了能力和掌握了知识是不可能的。因此大家在选题时要量力而行,客观地分桥和估计自己的能力。另外,选题还要充分考虑自己对那些领域感兴趣。在选题时,要尽可能选择那些跟自己所学专业很相关,学有所得、学有所感的题材,这样自己有了写下去的兴趣同时也展现了自己的专业能力。“知彼”,就是要考虑到是否有资料或资料来源。文献资料是一篇论文写作的基础,没有资料或资料不足就写不成论文,即使勉强写出来,也缺乏说服力。资料又可分为第一手资料和第二手资料。第一手资料是指作者亲自考查获得的,包括各种观察数据、调查所得等。第二手资料的主要来源是图书馆和资料室的文献资料。二是要了解所选课题的研究动态和研究成果,大致掌握写作中可能遇到的困难,以避免盲目性和无效劳动。要注意在已有的研究成果中寻找薄弱环节,即他人研究中存在的疑点、漏洞或不足。有疑点、漏洞的问题,不少是重要的学术论题,以此作为研究的突破口,在理论上修正、补充或丰富已有的结论。三、难易适中,大小适度要选好论文的题目,把握“适中”的原则是很重要的。①目的难易要适中。很多留学生在拟定论文题目的时候,想到什么就写什么,很容易盲目的拟定一些学术价值较高、角度较新、内容较奇的题目,这种题目固然很富有新意很,但是如果自己的只是储备不够全面,资料不全,分析问题能力不足等等问题就极有可能陷入中途写不下去的被动境地,从而不得不半途而废,再重新思考论文的题目和方向,这样一来不仅造成了时间、精力的浪费,同时也容易让自己失去信心。反观,将题目拟定得太没有水平太肤浅也不行,假如以为硕士生写的论文跟一个高中生写出来的作文没有两样,试问如何让老师满意?②题目的大小要适度。不论在中外论文题目,都是宜小不宜大,宜窄不宜宽的拟定原则。题目太大范围太广不好把握,难以深入细致,容易泛泛而论。因为大题目需要掌握大量的材料,不仅要有局部的,还要有全局性的,不仅要有某一方面的,还要有综合性的。而写作毕业论文的时间有限,业余学习的学员还要受到工作、家务等牵累,要在短时间内完成大量的资料收集工作是比较困难的。另外,大学的几年学习,对学生来讲还只是掌握了一些基本理论,而要独立地研究和分析一些大问题,还显得理论准备不足。再加上缺乏写作经验,对大量的材料的处理也往往驾驭不了,容易造成材料堆积或过于散乱,写得一般化。选定小题目,有两种方式,一是直接选个小题目,二是在大题目中选定小的论证角度。

药学论文选题英语怎么说

Common crime awareness of errors and criminal responsibility

问题一:毕业论文 用英语怎么说? Graduation thesis 问题二:论文题目中的“以...为例”怎么翻译? illustrated by the case of Chengdu illustrated by the exampl俯 of Chengdu 也可以。 然后其实很多英文教材书名都会说: An Asia Perspective,你觉得你这里用A Chengdu Perspective如何呢。就是从成都的角度来分析。 问题三:论文题目英文翻译 Cultivation of Senior Students' Ability in Solving Chemistry Problems --- Examples with Chemical Flow Diagrams 问题四:写论文时,要英文题目。那么 论 字如何翻译? 一般不翻译,若翻译可用 On \ talk about \ A report about \ A report on 恭 sth. report 也可换成talk 建议用On 希望有帮助 问题五:论文题目的英语翻译 Analytical research report on the particularities of major traffic accidents(或 incidents) in our country recently. 我国近年来重大交通事故的特征分析 问题六:论文标题翻译成英语 1、Research on Process Reengineering of Corporate Payment Based on Bank-pany Direct Linkage 2、Research on Process Reengineering of Corporate Payment Based on Bank-pany Direct Linkage-A Case of pany A 问题七:在学士论文英文题目翻译中以…为例英文和汉语格式是怎样的? take A for example 问题八:英语论文一级标题二级标题怎么表示 A Contrastive Study between English and Chinese Idioms (题目:二号,黑体,加粗,居中,除了英语小词外,其他单词首字母都要大写;另外:除了题目外,论文中所有英文的字体均采用“Times New Roman”) (学院、专业、学号、作者姓名、指导教师姓名(小四号宋体字,加粗),依次排印在论文题目下,上空二行,居中) 【Abstract】 This paper centers on the different expressions of …… (英文摘要:上空二行;题目采用五号“Times New Roman”字体,加粗,置于粗体方括号【】内,顶格放置;随后的内容与前面的粗体方括号【】之间空一格,不用其他任何标点符号;采用五号“Times New Roman”字体,不加粗;单倍行距。) 【Key Words】 idiom; parison; English; Chinese (英文关键词:题目采用五号“Times New Roman”字体,加粗,两个单词的首字母要大写,置于粗体方括号【】内,顶格放置;随后的内容与前面的粗体方括号【】之间空一格,不用任何其他标点符号,采用五号“Times New Roman”字体,不加粗,除了专有名词外,其他单词的首字母不大写,各单词之间用分号“;”隔开,分号之后空一格;最后一个关键词之后不用任何标点符号;单倍行距。) 1. Introduction (顶格,除了第一个单词及专有名词外,其他单词首字母都不要大写;标题最后不用任何标点符号,上空两行) In both English and Chinese, …. So, this essay is trying to focus on the differences between Chinese and English idoms in terms of their essential meaning, customary usage and typical expression (Chang Liang, 1993:44; Li Guangling, 1999). (段落第一行缩进4个英文字符;夹注的标注法:出现在夹注中的作者必须与文后的参考文献形成一一对应关系;注意一个或多个作者间的标点符号,时间、页码等的标注法;另外,汉语参考文献的作者要以拼音形式出现,不能出现汉语姓氏;夹注出现在标点符号之前) 2. The similarities between English idioms and Chinese idioms In English, …. And it can be clearly seen in the below examples: (1) I don’t know。我不知道。 (2) I am not a poet. 我不是诗人。 (正文中的例子以(1),(2)…为序号排列,直至最后一个例子;而①, ②…则为脚注或尾注的上标序号) 3. The differences between English idioms and Chinese idioms The characteristics of English idioms (正文章节序号编制:章的编号:1. ,2., 3.,…;节的编号:…,…;小节的编号为:, …。小节以下层次,采用希腊数字加括号为序,如(i),(ii)…;之后再采用字母加括号,如(a),......>> 问题九:论文题目英语怎么说 the title of the dissertation 论文题目 the title of the dissertation 论文题目 问题十:论文题目英文翻译 Cultivation of Senior Students' Ability in Solving Chemistry Problems --- Examples with Chemical Flow Diagrams

recognition mistakes and Criminal Responsibilities of joint offenders

药学论文题目英语怎么写

论文的英文题目大小写原则如下:

1、题目的第一个单词要大写。

2、冠词都不需要大写。

3、字母老猛多于三个(不含三个)的介词、连词首字母要大写。(另一种说法:满五字母的虚词可以大写,不满五字母的不得大写、满七个字母的虚词(through)则在标题或条标中必须大写。)(PS.这两种说法不矛盾,相互参照使用)。

4、名词、动词、形容词、副词、代词、感叹词首字母要大写。

5、大写所有英语中要求大写升嫌的单词,如月份、人名、地名等等。

一、注意事项

题目的第一个单词必须要大写,冠词都不需要大写,字母多于三个的介词、连词首字母要大写,名词、形容词、动词、副词、代词、感叹词首字母大写,大写所有英语中要求大写的单词,比如月份,人名,地名等,原则出现矛盾按顺序优先。

二、按照规则的优先级从高到底应该是:

1、标题的第一个单词的首字母要大写。

2、冠词都不需要大写。

3、字母个数多于3个(不含3个)的介词、连词的首字母要大写。

4、名词、动词、形容词、副词、代词、感叹词首字母应大写。

5、大写所有英语中要求大写的单词。如月份、人名、地名等等。根据优先级递减的规则,如果后面的规则与前面的规则冲突,则优先执行前面的规则。

英文论文标题的格式如下:

英语论文标题一共有三种写法。 第一种就是你们老师说的“:” ,冒号左边为主标题,冒号右边为副标题, 是比较规范的标题格式,同时是应用最为广泛的格式。 比如:Hand and Mind : What Gestures Reveal about Thought

第二种的话是 破折号 。 其实近年来文化大融合,中西方的一些习惯都在互相渗透。 但是英文中破折号同中国传统的书写方法不同,一般不需要另起一行,而是直接跟在后面。 比如:Challenger——A Lesson for the Future

第三种则是 语意衔接式 ,最常见的为提问回答型的。 比如:What Is Africa to Me? Language,Ideology,and African American

Oral Administration 口服给药 For oral administration, the most common route, absorption refers to the transport of drugs across membranes of the epithelial cells in the GI tract. Absorption after oral administration is confounded by differences in luminal pH along the GI tract, surface area per luminal volume, blood perfusion, the presence of bile and mucus, and the nature of epithelial membranes. Acids are absorbed faster in the intestine than in the stomach, apparently contradicting the hypothesis that un-ionized drug more readily crosses membranes. However, the apparent contradiction is explained by the larger surface area and greater permeability of the membranes in the small intestine. 口服是最常用的给药途径,其吸收涉及药物通过胃肠道上皮细胞膜的转运。由于给药时相关环境条件的不同,如胃肠道管腔内pH及单位腔道容积的表面积,组织血流灌注情况,胆汁和粘液的存在以及上皮细胞膜的性质等,口服给药的吸收也有差异。酸性药物在肠中的吸收较胃中快,这显然与非解离药物更易透过细胞膜这一假设相矛盾。然而,这种明显的矛盾却可以从小肠具有很大的表面积和小肠细胞膜具有较大的通透性中得到答案。 The oral mucosa has a thin epithelium and a rich vascularity that favors absorption, but contact is usually too brief, even for drugs in solution, for appreciable absorption to occur. A drug placed between the gums and cheek (buccal administration) or under the tongue (sublingual administration) is retained longer so that absorption is more complete. 口腔粘膜上皮很薄,血管丰富,有利于药物吸收。但是,接触的时间太短暂,即使是溶液剂也来不及等到明显的吸收发生。把一种药物置于齿龈和面颊之间(颊部给药)或置于舌下(舌下给药)则可保留较长时间,使吸收更加完全。 The stomach has a relatively large epithelial surface, but because it has a thick mucous layer and the time that the drug remains there is usually relatively short, absorption is limited. Absorption of virtually all drugs is faster from the small intestine than from the stomach. Therefore, gastric emptying is the rate-limiting step. Food, especially fatty foods, slows gastric emptying (and the rate of drug absorption), explaining why some drugs should be taken on an empty stomach when a rapid onset of action is desired. Food may enhance the extent of absorption for poorly soluble drugs (eg, griseofulvin), reduce it for drugs degraded in the stomach (eg, penicillin G), or have little or no effect. Drugs that affect gastric emptying (eg, parasympatholytic drugs) affect the absorption rate of other drugs. 胃具有相对大的上皮表面,但由于它有较厚的粘液层,而且药物在胃内停留的时间相对较短,吸收也较少。事实上,所有药物在小肠中的吸收速度都要比胃中快。因此,胃排空即是一限速性步骤。食物,特别是脂类食物,延缓胃排空速度(从而也延缓药物吸收速度),这也就是为何某些希望迅速奏效的药物宜空腹服用的原因。食物可增强某些溶解性差的药物(如灰黄霉素)的吸收,减少胃内降解药物(如青霉素G)的吸收,食物以裁缝折吸收或无影响,或影响甚少。影响胃排空的药物(如副交感神经阻断剂)可影响其他药物的吸收速度。 The small intestine has the largest surface area for drug absorption in the GI tract. The intraluminal pH is 4 to 5 in the duodenum but becomes progressively more alkaline, approaching 8 in the lower ileum. GI microflora may inactivate certain drugs, reducing their absorption. Decreased blood flow (eg, in shock) may lower the concentration gradient across the intestinal mucosa and decrease absorption by passive diffusion. (Decreased peripheral blood flow also alters drug distribution and metabolism.) 小肠在胃肠道中具有最大的药物吸收表面积。十二脂肠腔内pH值为4~5,管腔内pH值趋碱性逐渐增强,至回肠下部时pH接近8。胃肠道内的菌丛可使某些药物失活,降低药物的吸收。血流量的减少(如休克病人)可以降低跨肠粘膜的浓度梯度,从而减少被动扩散吸收。(外周血流减少也会改变药物的分布和代谢。 Intestinal transit time can influence drug absorption, particularly for drugs that are absorbed by active transport (eg, B vitamins), that dissolve slowly (eg, griseofulvin), or that are too polar (ie, poorly lipid-soluble) to cross membranes readily (eg, many antibiotics). For such drugs, transit may be too rapid for absorption to be complete. 肠道通过时间肠道通过时间能影响药物吸收,特别是经主动转运吸收的药物(如维生素B)、溶解缓慢的药物(如灰黄霉素),或极性太高(即脂溶性差)难以透过细胞膜的药物(如许多抗生素)。这类药物通过太快,致使吸收不全。 For controlled-release dosage forms, absorption may occur primarily in the large intestine, particularly when drug release continues for > 6 h, the time for transit to the large intestine. 对控释剂型来说,吸收主要在大肠内进行,特别是药物释放时间超过6小时,也就是药物运达大肠的时间。 Absorption from solution: A drug given orally in solution is subjected to numerous GI secretions and, to be absorbed, must survive encounters with low pH and potentially degrading enzymes. Usually, even if a drug is stable in the enteral environment, little of it remains to pass into the large intestine. Drugs with low lipophilicity (ie, low membrane permeability), such as aminoglycosides, are absorbed slowly from solution in the stomach and small intestine; for such drugs, absorption in the large intestine is expected to be even slower because the surface area is smaller. Consequently, these drugs are not candidates for controlled release. 溶液剂型的吸收药物吸收受到大量胃肠道内分泌液的影响。药物要想被吸收,就必须要在与低pH环境及潜在的降解酶的接触中生存下来。通常,即使某种药物在肠环境中很稳定,但进入大肠的仍然是极少数。低亲脂性(即膜通透性低)药物,如氨基糖苷类,经胃和小肠溶液被缓慢吸收。而在大肠中,因表面积更小,预期吸收更慢。因此,这些药物不宜制成控释剂型。 Absorption from solid forms: Most drugs are given orally as tablets or capsules primarily for convenience, economy, stability, and patient acceptance. These products must disintegrate and dissolve before absorption can occur. Disintegration greatly increases the drug's surface area in contact with GI fluids, thereby promoting drug dissolution and absorption. Disintegrants and other excipients (eg, diluents, lubricants, surfactants, binders, dispersants) are often added during manufacture to facilitate these processes. Surfactants increase the dissolution rate by increasing the wetability, solubility, and dispersibility of the drug. Disintegration of solid forms may be retarded by excessive pressure applied during the tableting procedure or by special coatings applied to protect the tablet from the digestive processes of the gut. Hydrophobic lubricants (eg, magnesium stearate) may bind to the active drug and reduce its bioavailability. 固体剂型的吸收主要是出于方便、经济、药物稳定性、及病人接受性的考虑,大多数药物都以片剂或胶囊剂口服给药。这些制剂必须经过崩解和溶解才能被吸收。崩解大大增加了药物与胃肠液的接触表面积,从而促进药物的溶解和吸收。在制药过程中,为了促进崩解和溶解作用,往往添加一些崩解剂和其他赋形剂(如稀释剂、润滑剂、表面活性剂、粘合剂、分散剂)。表面活性剂通过增加药物的吸湿性、溶解度和分散性来增加其溶解速率。在制片过程中压片压力过大,或为了使药片免受肠道消化作用的影响而使用特殊的包衣,可延缓固体剂型的崩解。忌水性润滑剂(如硬脂酸镁)可与活性药物结合而降低其生物利用度。 Dissolution rate determines the availability of the drug for absorption. When slower than absorption, dissolution becomes the rate-limiting step. Overall absorption can be controlled by manipulating the formulation. For example, reducing the particle size increases the drug's surface area, thus increasing the rate and extent of GI absorption of a drug whose absorption is normally limited by slow dissolution. Dissolution rate is affected by whether the drug is in salt, crystal, or hydrate form. The Na salts of weak acids (eg, barbiturates, salicylates) dissolve faster than their corresponding free acids regardless of the pH of the medium. Certain drugs are polymorphic, existing in amorphous or various crystalline forms. Chloramphenicol palmitate has two forms, but only one sufficiently dissolves and is absorbed to be clinically useful. A hydrate is formed when one or more water molecules combine with a drug molecule in crystal form. The solubility of such a solvate may markedly differ from the nonsolvated form; eg, anhydrous ampicillin has a greater rate of dissolution and absorption than its corresponding trihydrate. 溶解速率溶解速率决定药物吸收时的可用度。当溶解速率低于吸收速率时,溶解就会制约吸收。药物的总体吸收可通过改变配方来加以调控,例如,减小颗粒体积可增加药物的表面积,从而增加那些溶解缓慢吸收受限的药物的胃肠道吸收速率和分量。药物的不同形式,如盐、晶体或水合物等,都可影响溶解速率。不管介质的pH是多少,弱酸的钠盐(如巴比妥酸盐,水杨酸盐)比其相应的游离酸溶解得快。某些药物有多种形态,可以非晶体形或不同晶体形存在。棕榈酸氯霉素有两种存在形态,但只有一种形态能充分溶解吸收,也因而被临床使用。当一个或多个水分子和一个晶体形药物分子相结合时,就构成一种水合物。这种的溶解度可能与非水合物的溶解度有明显的不同。例如,无水氨苄西林的溶解速率和吸收比其它相应水合物的溶解吸收速率都要快得多。

药学论文题目英语版怎么写

Oral Administration 口服给药 For oral administration, the most common route, absorption refers to the transport of drugs across membranes of the epithelial cells in the GI tract. Absorption after oral administration is confounded by differences in luminal pH along the GI tract, surface area per luminal volume, blood perfusion, the presence of bile and mucus, and the nature of epithelial membranes. Acids are absorbed faster in the intestine than in the stomach, apparently contradicting the hypothesis that un-ionized drug more readily crosses membranes. However, the apparent contradiction is explained by the larger surface area and greater permeability of the membranes in the small intestine. 口服是最常用的给药途径,其吸收涉及药物通过胃肠道上皮细胞膜的转运。由于给药时相关环境条件的不同,如胃肠道管腔内pH及单位腔道容积的表面积,组织血流灌注情况,胆汁和粘液的存在以及上皮细胞膜的性质等,口服给药的吸收也有差异。酸性药物在肠中的吸收较胃中快,这显然与非解离药物更易透过细胞膜这一假设相矛盾。然而,这种明显的矛盾却可以从小肠具有很大的表面积和小肠细胞膜具有较大的通透性中得到答案。 The oral mucosa has a thin epithelium and a rich vascularity that favors absorption, but contact is usually too brief, even for drugs in solution, for appreciable absorption to occur. A drug placed between the gums and cheek (buccal administration) or under the tongue (sublingual administration) is retained longer so that absorption is more complete. 口腔粘膜上皮很薄,血管丰富,有利于药物吸收。但是,接触的时间太短暂,即使是溶液剂也来不及等到明显的吸收发生。把一种药物置于齿龈和面颊之间(颊部给药)或置于舌下(舌下给药)则可保留较长时间,使吸收更加完全。 The stomach has a relatively large epithelial surface, but because it has a thick mucous layer and the time that the drug remains there is usually relatively short, absorption is limited. Absorption of virtually all drugs is faster from the small intestine than from the stomach. Therefore, gastric emptying is the rate-limiting step. Food, especially fatty foods, slows gastric emptying (and the rate of drug absorption), explaining why some drugs should be taken on an empty stomach when a rapid onset of action is desired. Food may enhance the extent of absorption for poorly soluble drugs (eg, griseofulvin), reduce it for drugs degraded in the stomach (eg, penicillin G), or have little or no effect. Drugs that affect gastric emptying (eg, parasympatholytic drugs) affect the absorption rate of other drugs. 胃具有相对大的上皮表面,但由于它有较厚的粘液层,而且药物在胃内停留的时间相对较短,吸收也较少。事实上,所有药物在小肠中的吸收速度都要比胃中快。因此,胃排空即是一限速性步骤。食物,特别是脂类食物,延缓胃排空速度(从而也延缓药物吸收速度),这也就是为何某些希望迅速奏效的药物宜空腹服用的原因。食物可增强某些溶解性差的药物(如灰黄霉素)的吸收,减少胃内降解药物(如青霉素G)的吸收,食物以裁缝折吸收或无影响,或影响甚少。影响胃排空的药物(如副交感神经阻断剂)可影响其他药物的吸收速度。 The small intestine has the largest surface area for drug absorption in the GI tract. The intraluminal pH is 4 to 5 in the duodenum but becomes progressively more alkaline, approaching 8 in the lower ileum. GI microflora may inactivate certain drugs, reducing their absorption. Decreased blood flow (eg, in shock) may lower the concentration gradient across the intestinal mucosa and decrease absorption by passive diffusion. (Decreased peripheral blood flow also alters drug distribution and metabolism.) 小肠在胃肠道中具有最大的药物吸收表面积。十二脂肠腔内pH值为4~5,管腔内pH值趋碱性逐渐增强,至回肠下部时pH接近8。胃肠道内的菌丛可使某些药物失活,降低药物的吸收。血流量的减少(如休克病人)可以降低跨肠粘膜的浓度梯度,从而减少被动扩散吸收。(外周血流减少也会改变药物的分布和代谢。 Intestinal transit time can influence drug absorption, particularly for drugs that are absorbed by active transport (eg, B vitamins), that dissolve slowly (eg, griseofulvin), or that are too polar (ie, poorly lipid-soluble) to cross membranes readily (eg, many antibiotics). For such drugs, transit may be too rapid for absorption to be complete. 肠道通过时间肠道通过时间能影响药物吸收,特别是经主动转运吸收的药物(如维生素B)、溶解缓慢的药物(如灰黄霉素),或极性太高(即脂溶性差)难以透过细胞膜的药物(如许多抗生素)。这类药物通过太快,致使吸收不全。 For controlled-release dosage forms, absorption may occur primarily in the large intestine, particularly when drug release continues for > 6 h, the time for transit to the large intestine. 对控释剂型来说,吸收主要在大肠内进行,特别是药物释放时间超过6小时,也就是药物运达大肠的时间。 Absorption from solution: A drug given orally in solution is subjected to numerous GI secretions and, to be absorbed, must survive encounters with low pH and potentially degrading enzymes. Usually, even if a drug is stable in the enteral environment, little of it remains to pass into the large intestine. Drugs with low lipophilicity (ie, low membrane permeability), such as aminoglycosides, are absorbed slowly from solution in the stomach and small intestine; for such drugs, absorption in the large intestine is expected to be even slower because the surface area is smaller. Consequently, these drugs are not candidates for controlled release. 溶液剂型的吸收药物吸收受到大量胃肠道内分泌液的影响。药物要想被吸收,就必须要在与低pH环境及潜在的降解酶的接触中生存下来。通常,即使某种药物在肠环境中很稳定,但进入大肠的仍然是极少数。低亲脂性(即膜通透性低)药物,如氨基糖苷类,经胃和小肠溶液被缓慢吸收。而在大肠中,因表面积更小,预期吸收更慢。因此,这些药物不宜制成控释剂型。 Absorption from solid forms: Most drugs are given orally as tablets or capsules primarily for convenience, economy, stability, and patient acceptance. These products must disintegrate and dissolve before absorption can occur. Disintegration greatly increases the drug's surface area in contact with GI fluids, thereby promoting drug dissolution and absorption. Disintegrants and other excipients (eg, diluents, lubricants, surfactants, binders, dispersants) are often added during manufacture to facilitate these processes. Surfactants increase the dissolution rate by increasing the wetability, solubility, and dispersibility of the drug. Disintegration of solid forms may be retarded by excessive pressure applied during the tableting procedure or by special coatings applied to protect the tablet from the digestive processes of the gut. Hydrophobic lubricants (eg, magnesium stearate) may bind to the active drug and reduce its bioavailability. 固体剂型的吸收主要是出于方便、经济、药物稳定性、及病人接受性的考虑,大多数药物都以片剂或胶囊剂口服给药。这些制剂必须经过崩解和溶解才能被吸收。崩解大大增加了药物与胃肠液的接触表面积,从而促进药物的溶解和吸收。在制药过程中,为了促进崩解和溶解作用,往往添加一些崩解剂和其他赋形剂(如稀释剂、润滑剂、表面活性剂、粘合剂、分散剂)。表面活性剂通过增加药物的吸湿性、溶解度和分散性来增加其溶解速率。在制片过程中压片压力过大,或为了使药片免受肠道消化作用的影响而使用特殊的包衣,可延缓固体剂型的崩解。忌水性润滑剂(如硬脂酸镁)可与活性药物结合而降低其生物利用度。 Dissolution rate determines the availability of the drug for absorption. When slower than absorption, dissolution becomes the rate-limiting step. Overall absorption can be controlled by manipulating the formulation. For example, reducing the particle size increases the drug's surface area, thus increasing the rate and extent of GI absorption of a drug whose absorption is normally limited by slow dissolution. Dissolution rate is affected by whether the drug is in salt, crystal, or hydrate form. The Na salts of weak acids (eg, barbiturates, salicylates) dissolve faster than their corresponding free acids regardless of the pH of the medium. Certain drugs are polymorphic, existing in amorphous or various crystalline forms. Chloramphenicol palmitate has two forms, but only one sufficiently dissolves and is absorbed to be clinically useful. A hydrate is formed when one or more water molecules combine with a drug molecule in crystal form. The solubility of such a solvate may markedly differ from the nonsolvated form; eg, anhydrous ampicillin has a greater rate of dissolution and absorption than its corresponding trihydrate. 溶解速率溶解速率决定药物吸收时的可用度。当溶解速率低于吸收速率时,溶解就会制约吸收。药物的总体吸收可通过改变配方来加以调控,例如,减小颗粒体积可增加药物的表面积,从而增加那些溶解缓慢吸收受限的药物的胃肠道吸收速率和分量。药物的不同形式,如盐、晶体或水合物等,都可影响溶解速率。不管介质的pH是多少,弱酸的钠盐(如巴比妥酸盐,水杨酸盐)比其相应的游离酸溶解得快。某些药物有多种形态,可以非晶体形或不同晶体形存在。棕榈酸氯霉素有两种存在形态,但只有一种形态能充分溶解吸收,也因而被临床使用。当一个或多个水分子和一个晶体形药物分子相结合时,就构成一种水合物。这种的溶解度可能与非水合物的溶解度有明显的不同。例如,无水氨苄西林的溶解速率和吸收比其它相应水合物的溶解吸收速率都要快得多。

论文的英文题目大小写原则如下:

1、题目的第一个单词要大写。

2、冠词都不需要大写。

3、字母老猛多于三个(不含三个)的介词、连词首字母要大写。(另一种说法:满五字母的虚词可以大写,不满五字母的不得大写、满七个字母的虚词(through)则在标题或条标中必须大写。)(PS.这两种说法不矛盾,相互参照使用)。

4、名词、动词、形容词、副词、代词、感叹词首字母要大写。

5、大写所有英语中要求大写升嫌的单词,如月份、人名、地名等等。

一、注意事项

题目的第一个单词必须要大写,冠词都不需要大写,字母多于三个的介词、连词首字母要大写,名词、形容词、动词、副词、代词、感叹词首字母大写,大写所有英语中要求大写的单词,比如月份,人名,地名等,原则出现矛盾按顺序优先。

二、按照规则的优先级从高到底应该是:

1、标题的第一个单词的首字母要大写。

2、冠词都不需要大写。

3、字母个数多于3个(不含3个)的介词、连词的首字母要大写。

4、名词、动词、形容词、副词、代词、感叹词首字母应大写。

5、大写所有英语中要求大写的单词。如月份、人名、地名等等。根据优先级递减的规则,如果后面的规则与前面的规则冲突,则优先执行前面的规则。

英文论文标题的格式如下:

英语论文标题一共有三种写法。 第一种就是你们老师说的“:” ,冒号左边为主标题,冒号右边为副标题, 是比较规范的标题格式,同时是应用最为广泛的格式。 比如:Hand and Mind : What Gestures Reveal about Thought

第二种的话是 破折号 。 其实近年来文化大融合,中西方的一些习惯都在互相渗透。 但是英文中破折号同中国传统的书写方法不同,一般不需要另起一行,而是直接跟在后面。 比如:Challenger——A Lesson for the Future

第三种则是 语意衔接式 ,最常见的为提问回答型的。 比如:What Is Africa to Me? Language,Ideology,and African American

药学论文英语怎么写

,Hi!My name is am twelve years am a good I am a girl .I am not handsome but I am very lovely .I am study in ... shool is very good and like it very have big eyes and my ears are big my nose and mouse are I look like favorite sport is play basketball and table tennis I think health is very I hope you healthy 2,My name is Li Rong ,is a Class One Grade Six student of Hongshan elementary like dancing,performing,managing,and singing!The hobbies are much have written a good character,obtains teacher's performance the first grade,I has been being various branches group had obtained many certificates,and have published many that my performance can make you to satisfy!Hoped that my name can keep in your heart!

句子结构——短句是准则用清楚的英语书写的文章更容易被发表,这一点需要牢记。据统计,1600年,平均每个英文句子有 40到60个单词;1900年,平均每个英文句子有 21个单词;1970年,平均每个句子有 17个单词;而现在,平均每个英语句子只有 12到 17个单词。由此可见,现代英语的发展趋势是由繁至简的。中文写作惯用长句,而英语,特别是科技英语,通常使用非常精炼的句子。短句是准则,使用简短而表意清楚的句子并不显得幼稚。专业的英语作者使用短句。No. 2可数名词和不可数(物质)名词Posted十二月 10th, 2007 by admin单数可数名词(可以计数的事物)通常用冠词修饰;复数可数名词有时用冠词修饰。不可数名词(难以计数的事物;也称物质名词)没有复数形式;不可数名词有时也用冠词修饰。首先要确定该名词是可数名词还是不可数名词,然后考虑如何对这个名词计数。No. 3逗号的正确使用方法逗号是最难掌握的标点符号类型,逗号使用不当会改变句子的意思。在表示重要的和非重要的信息时,请多留意逗号的用法。推荐用法:The equipment that we used was madeby the XX Company.可行用法:The equipment which we used was made by the XX Company.错误用法:The equipment, which we used, wasmade by the XX Company.正确用法:The equipment, which was made in Shanghai, was very expensive.当你校对标点符号的使用时,要特别注意以下单词:that、which和 who;此时应再次确认,此信息是重要信息还是是可以省略的多余信息。如果此信息是重要的,切勿使用逗号。如果此信息是附加的、不重要的,必须使用逗号。No. 4动词时态一般过去时用于表示你所做过的事:In this study, a number of functional and structuralproperties of sodium were compared to determine the underlying reason for theobserved functional changes.过去时通常用于描述研究的结果:Assessment of size using standarddenaturing gel conditions showed multiple bands whose size was consistent withdiscrete oligomeric forms of A.一般现在时用于陈述事实:Alzheimer's disease is a fatalprogressive dementia.一般现在时用于指代图表内容:The amino acid sequence of the synthetic Vpu (1-40) peptidesused in this study is shown in Figure 1A.现在完成时用于指代持续有效的已经进行过的研究或过去开始的现正正在进行的动作:The current state of GPCR researchhas evolved in large measure from observations made in two et al have shown that …检查文章是否使用了正确的动词时态:介绍性的语言的时态应该主要使用现在时和现在完成时。描述材料和方法的语言的时态应该主要使用一般过去时。对于结果和讨论的描述,结果应该主要使用过去时;而对于其他研究的观察一般使用现在时或现在完成时。No. 5冠词使用规则定冠词“the”指代当前情况:We began the experiment;the ”指代常识:The situation in Iraq isdeteriorating;the”指代之前提到的名词:We tested a new measuring device anda new mixer. The new mixer worked well.不定冠词“A/an”指代在前面没有提到的名词:We planned anew fluidwas separated with a centrifuge.冠词的使用取决于冠词出现的上下文以及冠词之后名词的类型。什么时候使用“a/an”或者“the”(所有例句选自最近的 ACS Chemical Biology):The emergence of antibioticresistance poses a major threat to human health, prompting interest in theexploration of new antibiotic is the second most abundant “trace”element in the body. This metal ion is vitalfor normal cellular function as acofactor in numerous enzymes, in transcription factors, in the immune system,and in the reproductive data provided solid evidence that theobserved IgG antibody response is T-cell dependenNo. 6词首字母大小写问题关于地名和地理学术语如何正确大写的问题。因为中文不牵涉大写问题,所以中文母语的作者可能会有点迷惑。其实大写问题对于英语母语的作者而言也不太容易理顺。大写问题虽然棘手,但是下面的小贴士会对您有所帮助。一般而言定义明确的地区的首写字母要大写,以下是 The Economist Style Guide的建议:“Use upper case for definitegeographical places, regions, areas and countries, and for vague but recognisedpolitical or geographical areas…lower case for east, west, north, south exceptwhen part of a name.”(大写用于明确的地理学位置、地区、区域、国家以及模糊但是被认可的行政或地理区域 east, west, north, south等用小写,但当他们是名称一部分的时候除外。)这条通用法则也适用于地球表面的地带,如 North Temperate Zone, the Equator等。No. 7常见易混单词英语中有许多对单词很容易混淆。此贴士主要讨论拼写相近而意义不同单词,或者充当不同词性的单词。优..助服务

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