s why more and more people are being active in various kinds of sports and exercises.
If people follow these three ways of keeping fit. Some practice shadowboxing and swordplay while others run. Every morning many people get up early and take much exercise.
First, block the flow of blood, and therefore should be given up, walk or dance to music. This strengthens the heart. They advise people to eat more fruit and vegetables and less meat such as beef and pork because meat contains more fat than poultry and fish.
Medical researchers have proved that what people eat affects their health, it is essential to do the following. Some play basketball or volleyball or table tennis? Different people may give different answers to this question. Unfortunately few people follow this advice. Through sports and exercise, people bee healthier and stronger;s health a great deal. Smoking and drinking alcohol injure one'. Fat can build up in the arteries. That'.
Getting rid of bad habits like *** oking and drinking alcohol is also an important way to keep healthy, reduces the chance of heart attack. Research shows that getting plenty of exercise make the heart beat faster and the lungs work harder. In my opinion, it is absolutely necessary to take some exercise every day, and cause a heart attack or stroke. In the afternoon, others go in for gymnastics or track events,there are also many people keen on sports, and helps lower blood pressureHow to Keep Healthy
Nowadays more and more people are concerned about their health. But how to keep healthy, they greatly improve their health, jog
All people in urban and rural areas will enjoy basic medical care and health services by increasing government responsibility and spending, we will also encourage greater participation of private capital from both home and abroad in the reform covers a wide range of subjects including insurance, drug manufacturing, distribution and supervision, and legislation of medical put into place basic medical and health care systems covering both urban and rural residents, and ensure that every resident has access to safe。
The disturbing phenomenon has caused wide social concern. There are several underlying causes behind it. Nowadays, people tend to care more about their health and expect a longer life span, thus causing a boom in medical treatment. People are willing to spend more money on health care. Some hospitals take advantage of this and offer patients more unnecessary physical examinations in order to make more profits. 令人不安的现象引起了广泛的社会关注。
有几个背后的原因。如今,人们更关心他们的健康,期望寿命更长,从而导致了医疗的繁荣。
人们愿意花更多的钱在医疗保健上。一些医院利用这一优势,为患者提供更多不必要的体检,以使更多的利润。
In my view, it's high time that urgent measures should be taken to improve the present situation. First, doctors should live up to patients' expectations and put saving people's lives above anything else. Second, the authorities should shoulder its responsibility to ensure that hospitals provide people with high-quality medical care at a reasonable price. 在我看来,现在应该采取紧急措施来改善目前的形势了。首先,医生应该对病人的期望值,并把人的生命放在其他任何东西上面。
其次,当局应承担起它的责任,确保医院为人民提供高质量的医疗服务,以合理的价格。
The disturbing phenomenon has caused wide social concern. There are several underlying causes behind it. Nowadays, people tend to care more about their health and expect a longer life span, thus causing a boom in medical treatment. People are willing to spend more money on health care. Some hospitals take advantage of this and offer patients more unnecessary physical examinations in order to make more profits.
令人不安的现象引起了广泛的社会关注。有几个背后的原因。如今,人们更关心他们的健康,期望寿命更长,从而导致了医疗的繁荣。人们愿意花更多的钱在医疗保健上。一些医院利用这一优势,为患者提供更多不必要的体检,以使更多的利润。
In my view, it's high time that urgent measures should be taken to improve the present situation. First, doctors should live up to patients' expectations and put saving people's lives above anything else. Second, the authorities should shoulder its responsibility to ensure that hospitals provide people with high-quality medical care at a reasonable price.
在我看来,现在应该采取紧急措施来改善目前的形势了。首先,医生应该对病人的期望值,并把人的生命放在其他任何东西上面。其次,当局应承担起它的责任,确保医院为人民提供高质量的医疗服务,以合理的价格。
Campus Life 有关校园生活的英语作文
Early in senior high school, we longed to be enrolled in a university. Now the dream has e true. But how do we college students like our campus life?
Certainly, some relish it, finding it colorful and rewarding. Besides study, they spend considerable amount of time improving themselves in various aspect. Yet others do not think much of their college life, thus do not benefit as much. In their eyes, the university is just a bigger high school. The only difference is that they have more time at their disposal without parents looking over their shoulder.
As to me, college life is ideal if only I have abundant books to read, some bosom friends to keep me pany, a couple of conscientious professors to instruct me, and an easy access to the Inter.
范文二:
My station in university campus inch territory, breathes and feels a here freshness. The university life like this started. The life four years time already the picture got down certainly has run the line, you along this path endless long journey, the university time will say regarding me will be fresh, the biography first time was far away the hometown, trod studies the road. I to the university life am fuzzy, after investigates many times, everybody is o characters ----- is bored to the university life feeling, perhaps has that a reason! Three years high school life is such intense stimulates. Recollected also a little is afraid, facing high school's intense sprint, diligently was admitted to a school dream of the university, everybody is the like this struggle, assaults the dream. At the present, steps into the university campus, studies the life has had the bored feeling.
DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF PRODUCTION PLANNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING PROJECTKEY WORDS: GIS,Design,Analysis,Application,Management,ProductionABSTRACT:With the development of photogrammetry and spatial information sciences, we have found many new methods to solve the technical problem in surveying and mapping project. But there is a little research on the project management. Traditional management method is plex and time-consuming. Now, we need use new technique to improve the management method for enhancing management level. Taking “National Western Surveying and Mapping Project on 1:50000 Topological Maps Blank Area” as an example, this paper focus on production planning management. The project is remarkable, not only the task and extent is tremendous, but also the staff and stuff are excessive. The Blank Area has atrocious weather and extreme hypsography. All of the conditions increase the project management difficulty. For reasonable planning and logical budget, we designed and realized a production planning management system to give the decision support to the managers. This paper studies the system'e69da5e6ba903233363533362s requirement *** ysis, system structure and function in . INTRODUCTIONNowadays, Geographical Information Systems(GIS) are powerful and useful as means of information, visualization and research tools(Quan Bao,2004). Most GIS sofare is more suited to providing limited types of output than as a tool to support, at anything other than a superficial level, tactical or strategic decision-making processes. To improve the usefulness of GIS as a decision support tool, o needs are apparent. First, decision-makers require methods that allow them to easily select alternatives across a number of relevant criteria. Second, it is necessary to explicitly recognize that most decision-making processes involve multiple participants. Since problem solving id often characterized by multiple and conflicting objectives, methods that contribute toward more a pletely aiding decision system are required.。
包括有:英语医学科技论文中分词、合成词作定语以及名词连缀的使用英语医学科技论文写作中的常见错误英文医学科技论文中数词的用法及数字的写法外文斜体的使用方法 希望能帮助到你,望采纳!
智慧树知到《英语学术论文写作(西安外国语大学)》章节测试答案 第一章测试 1、People do research in order to have a better understanding of our world. A.正确 B.错误 正确答案:A 2、We don’t need to be creative in research as any research is based on evidences. A.正确 B.错误 正确答案:B 3、Good research questions are important in research. A.正确 B.错误 正确答案:A 4、Literature review is needed in some research papers. A.正确 B.错误 正确答案:B 5、A good research paper needs careful revising and proofreading. A.正确 B.错误 正确答案:A 6、Unintentional plagiarism can be excused as it is not committed deliberately. A.正确 B.错误 正确答案:B 7、Academic falsification is one common type of academic dishonesty. A.正确 B.错误 正确答案:A 8、What role does a literature review play in a research paper? A、It synthesizes the existing studies in your area. B、It proves the existence of a research gap. C、It provides evidences for your argument. D、It enhances the credibility of your paper. 正确答案:BD 9、Which of the following is NOT an essential step in a research paper writing? A、Choosing a topic B、Locating sources C、Outlining the Paper D、Consulting instructors 正确答案:D 10、Which of the following may lead to academic dishonesty? A、Academic interest B、Academic plagiarism C、Academic promotion D、Academic fabrication 正确答案:D 第二章测试 1、In choosing a research topic, which of the following do we need to consider? A、Our manageability B、Our research interest C、Academic importance D、Publication possibilities 正确答案:ABC 2、To check the validity of a research topic, we need to be critical enough. A.正确 B.错误 正确答案:A 3、It is an act of plagiarism if one simply paraphrases a book for a research paper. A.正确 B.错误 正确答案:A 4、Students should be brave enough to try challenging issues for their BA theses. A.正确 B.错误 正确答案:B
写论文需要一个好的软件来帮助你进行组织和撰写,下面列出几款比较常用的软件:
去领测国际问问吧 他们挺专业的
1.文字处理系列word:是进行论文综述写作的必备软件,用得好可以单独应用它实现整个论文的写作,包括插入图片,参考文献的引用等。这个不多介绍。powerpoint:开题报告,论文答辩,大会小会发言,宣传自己作品,这个软件最好不过了,它可以查入动画,声音,视频等演示文件,增加您的说服力。可以在网上找个教程自己来学 excel:电子表格,有简单的统计功能,作统计图表很方便,输入数据就可以生成标准的统计图表,方便在word里引用。还可以用它作记帐本呀,我就是这样,把实验费用都记在这里,可以随时统计金额。 onenote:这个在office2003里有,相当于记事本,但功能比记事本强大得多,可以插入图片,表格等。2.字典工具:当然是金叶公司的产品了,这是专业的医学软件制作公司,最早出的网际金典相信很多朋友都用过吧.新编全医药学大词典,对于医学生来说,这个词典比金山词霸要好很多,可以翻译出很专业的医学词组,词汇量极大.医师用药参考:提供专业的用药参考,包括药物的相互作用,禁忌等3.统计软件用spss或sas都得啊,这可是论文中统计分析必不可少的哦。有中文版的,但是很大,有6CD,,安装后也很大,spss占用空间比较小,100M左右。4.参考文献管理软件: manager,推荐使用,它和 endnote都是isi公司的产品,但我个人认为RM比endnote好用,新出的支持中文,但常出问题,不知是***的原因还是软件本身的bug,但RM就很少出问题。外文的参考文献用它的规范可以做得很标准。医学文献王:这是金叶公司推出的国内首款个人参考文献管理软件,对中文献的支持绝对比任何软件都好,但第一次做这种软件,仍有很多细节没处理好,不久将升级,让我们拭目以待吧。5.图片处理软件:.抓图软件如 hypersnap-DX,snagit等都不错,可以截取任意图片的任意部分,这个在做幻灯是特别有用。.处理软件一般就用photoshop,学得好可以做出很多漂亮图片来。 pro是一个专业的图像分析软件,可以分析各种医学图片,如免疫组化,一般只能定性,用它分析后可以定量。6.浏览软件adode ,现在已有的正式版了,这时浏览外文文献的必备工具,可以在上面作简单标记。 国内的就是vip和caj的浏览器了,用来看vip和 cnki和全文。7.专业软件 :序列分析软件DNAMANDNAMAN是一种常用的核酸序列分析软件。由于它功能强大,使用方便,已成为一种普遍使用的DNA序列分析工具。质粒绘图的专业软件Winplas作为一个质粒绘图的专业软件,功能强大,而且极易上手,它可以绘制出具有发表质量的质粒图谱。可广范应用于论文、教程的质粒插图,它的特性包括:无论是否知道质粒的原始序列都能绘制质粒图,像Vector NTI等综合软件也能绘制质粒图,但有一个前提就是首先得知道质粒得原始序列;可读入各种流行得序列格式文件,能方便地导入各种序列信息; 可自动在识别序列中的限制性酶切位点;可对序列进行各种编辑,如:从文件插入序列、置换序列、序列编辑、部分序列删除等 绘图功能强大,如:位点标签、任意位置文字插入、生成彩图、线性或环形质粒图谱,可输出到剪贴板或图像文件。数字影像读片软件-DISC或OSIRIS,用于读x 片及CT片等,没用过,只听说过。 Gdicom医学图像浏览器Ⅰ :医学Dicom格式图像文件浏览器软件,是中国医学共享网又一软件,能浏览及加工标准DICOM接口下文件,别存为JPG,BMP格式文件,能测量长度及角度等等
软件测试在软件企业中的作用和意义检索文献一. 维普数据库检索(一) 第一篇文章【题目】:软件测试及其在软件质量控制中的作用【作者】:马英 驻西飞公司军代表室【摘要】:软件质量是软件的生命,实施软件工程则是软件质量的保证。软件测试是软件 工程的重要组成部分,直接影响软件产品的质量及其开发周期的长短。本文对软件测试 的基本概念及技术作简要介绍,结合某重点型号软件工程,就软件测试的组织实施作具 体探析。【检索方法】:1. 登陆首页,在快速检索中,选[M=题名或关键字],输入:软件测试,按检索按钮【检索表达式】: 题名或关键词=软件测试*年=2000-2006【检索结果】:共找到 989条2. 在[M=题名或关键字]中,输入:作用,在结果中搜索检索表达式:(题名或关键词=软件测试*年=2000-2006)*(((Keyword_C=(作 用)+Title_C=(作用)))*Year=2000-2006)【检索结果】:共找到 3条二. 中文期刊全文数据库(一) 第二篇文章【题目】:软件园建立软件开发测试中心的思考【作者】:汤伟;【中文摘要】:软件开发测试中心可以提供高质量的环境和工具帮助软件企业规范管 理,提升产品质量,通过CMM评级,增强企业的竞争力,对软件园为软件企业提供增值 服务是非常关键的。目前,国内11家软件园大部分都有开发测试中心,也都在发择重 要作用。但开发测试中心投资规模普遍较大,如果前期考虑不够充分,很容易【检索方法】:1. 登陆, 进入“中文期刊全文数据库”2. 在搜索范围中选中:教育与社会科学 与 电子技术及信息科学3. 在搜索条中,选篇名,输入:软件测试,按搜索按钮【搜索结果】:共有记录1210条4. 选中在结果中搜索,选中关键词,输入:企业,按搜索按钮【搜索结果】:共有记录8条(二)三. ACM美国计算机学会全文数据库(一) 第三篇文章【题目】:Developing an object-oriented software testing and maintenance environment【作者】:David Kung, Jerry Gao, Pei Hsia, Yasufumi Toyoshima, Chris Chen, Young-Si Kim, Young-Kee Song【英文摘要】:The object-oriented (OO) paradigm is rapidly gaining acceptance in the software industry. However, the powerful features of this new paradigm also introduce a new set of OO software testing and maintenance problems. The pioneering work in identifying these new problems includes [7, 10-12, 14, 16, 18]. The problems can be summarized as: 1) the understanding problem; 2) the complex interdependency problem; 3) the object state behavior testing problem; and 4) the tool support problem. Detailed ...【检索方法】:1. 登入ACM美国计算机学会全文数据库,. 在sort result by 框中选title,在搜索框中输入:software company test。按search按钮【搜索结果】:Results 1 - 20 of 200评价和结论【评价】:以上三篇文章都符合了软件测试这一主题,也都是从各大论文、期刊数据库中检索出来的文献,其中两篇涉及了软件测试的作用,一篇涉及软件企业。总体来说基本符合课题检索的要求。但若是以课题作为论题,进行论文写作时,这些文献相对较少,要检索既满足课题又丰富的文献资料却相当的困难。【总结】:为了提高检索精度。应该采用多次检索,逐层检索(逐层筛选)的方法。但是又要提高文献的数量,就必须多方面搜集。例如:从不同的数据库中搜集;利用多种检索手段,包括:数据库检索,图书馆查阅、搜索引擎检索、相关课题检索等。对检索过程中运用课本知识的总结和建议【总结】:对于课本上的知识对于我检索过程中的帮助主要体现在:1. 课本罗列了常用的检索方法——即告诉我怎么找2. 课本上告诉我常用的几大数据库检索系统——即告诉我去哪里找3. 检索效率的几大因素1) 检索的查全率2) 检索的查准率运用以上知识,再加上我对这个课题本身的了解,进行检索,这样的检索效率,比以前没学过这门课之前检索的效率高出很多。【建议】:信息检索课的目的在于:提高学生应用网络进行信息收集的能力。因此有必要告诉学生这门课的实用性。并且应该以即学即用为宜。
第一,实验对象,实验对象一般都是人,动物以及一些组织。描述时候要完整清晰。但是这里要注意的是,有一些影响因子较高的期刊所在国家,会对实验对象有一些立法要求,比如在该国家在找个领域里不让用人体作为实验对象。如果偏偏你的实验对象又选择的是人体的话,那SCI论文被采纳的可能性就不高。所以事先都要先看看该期刊的一些实验要求和标准。第二,实验设.备,实验设.备这方面描述时,要对生产厂家,仪器名称型号,以及在实验过程中的用途都要进行详细描述,设.备在实验过程中一些重要的用途步骤要记录详细,因为这些有可能导致结果不同。另外更重要的是实验设.备的使用,连接,方法要科学规范,否则会认为操作不正规导致结果不可信。第三,实验材料,一般没有什么特别的问题,主要是要对你所选择的材料进行详细说明,说明为什么要选择这个材料以及相应的功效。第四,实验流程,这部分就是要对整个实验操作流程进行详细描述。一般来说SCI医学论文都要求有实验流程图,流程图一般有文字,图表,大多数论文都会采用文字和示意图并举的方式,如果你的流程图画的很好的话,给审稿编辑的印象就会很好,不要小视它。流程图描绘的时候,要有鲜明的层次感,流程之间的关系要表达清楚。
医学毕业论文写作技巧
导语:医学毕业论文写作的技巧有哪些呢?医学论文的标题要简明扼要,突出重点。下面是我分享的医学毕业论文写作的技巧,欢迎阅读!
人们读书看报,首先要看的是标题,题目常常能概括地反应文章的内容。题目取得好,简练又吸引人,才会引起读者的兴趣。标题“居文之首,句文之要”,被人们比喻为文章的眼睛。标题在学术论文中同样起着至关重要的作用。随着经济全球化的发展,医学界国际交流活动日趋频繁,在交流活动中起主导作用的学术期刊更加“规范化、标准化”,国内越来越多刊物须附英文标题和摘要。因此,学术论文的标题英译也越来越重要。医学论文题名具有高度概括集中反映文献主题的功能,指导读者查找文献资料的导读功能和信息储存提供编制文献检索的功能。本文主要探讨医学论文英文标题写作中应遵循的主要修辞原则及表达策略,以期更好地发挥学术论文标题的功能,促进学术交流。
1、突出主题原则及修辞策略
题名是论文最重要的、浓缩的信息点,是读者最先得到的直接信息,即文章的主要观点和主要论点。因此,标题应简明扼要、重点突出、反映论文主题。根据国际医学期刊编辑委员会制定的《生物医学期刊投稿的统一要求》中对文题的要求:简练和反映论文主题,英文标题应切题准确,反映文章的中心内容,便于索引,利于论文广泛流通。
好的标题不仅能起到“画龙点睛”的作用,还可以提高论文索引的利用价值。通常读者总是先浏览期刊的文章标题,在对其感兴趣后才会通读全文。因此,在标题英译时,应从以下两个方面注意修辞策略:
在信息传递上,要充分反映论文的创新内容,重要内容前置,突出中心;准确使用题名的必要结构要素来完整表达医学文献主题,在医学论文中最常见的结构类型是由研究对象、研究目的和研究方法三要素组成的题名。在表达方式上,多用名词、名词词组、动名词来表达。文字安排应结构合理、选词准确、详略得当,重要的词放在文题的起始,如association,application,determination,effect,detection,establishment等词所引导的短语都是研究的中心内容。
2、准确规范原则及修辞策略
准确是修辞的基本原则,也是翻译必须遵循的原则。科技文体写作更应遵循这一原则,因为学术研究特别强调准确,不能模糊不清、模棱两可。措辞准确、表达客观、逻辑严密、行文简洁、词义明确、含义固定是科技文体所共有的文体特征[2]。医学英语除了具备以上特征外,它还有大量的专业词汇、术语以及特定的词汇结构体系、语法规则和语篇结构。因此,在医学论文题名写作时语言表达要合乎医学论文写作的规范标准。论文标题英译要在正确理解原文的基础上进行,必须忠实地传达原文的内容,保持原文的风格。具体可采取以下方法:
首先,格式要求规范。标题译文可采用首字母大写,其余的用小写(首字母缩略词全大写,专有名词的首字母大写);也可采用标题首字母大写,其余实词首字母大写,虚词小写(4个字母以上的介词或连词的首字母大写);排列时可根据具体学术期刊的规范分别采用居中排与左对齐的方式;书名应用斜体表示。
其次,选词应强调专业化。与其它学科的英语术语相比,医学英语术语特征相对明显,专业化是医学英语的一大特色。因此,熟知医学英语术语,选择专业词汇,避免使用通俗语是医学工作者治学严谨的表现。例如,“先天性皮肤并指畸形”应译为“syndactylyoffingers”而不是“congenitalskinwebbedfingers”;“大黄”“丹参”分别为“Rhubarb”和“Salviamiltiorrhiza”,而不是“DaHunag”和“DanShen”。另一方面,科技英语用词强调词义单一、准确,忌用多义词。根据科技英语的这一修辞特点,在英译时应用词义明确单一的词来代替词义较多的词,如用totransmit,toconvert,toobtain,toinsert,toconsume,toabsorb,application,sufficient,superior来替代常用的tosend,tochange,toget,toputin,touseup,totakein,use,enough,better。
此外,用词要准确。注意不使用非标准化的缩略语,应使用公认的缩略词语、代号、符号、公式等。国际上《核心医学期刊文摘》中,对缩写词的使用非常谨慎,对非公认的缩略词语,第一次出现必须先写全名,缩写附后加括号。如丙型肝炎病人:hepatitisCvirus(HCV),维甲酸:all-transretinoicacid(ATRA)。
语言的习惯搭配也是医学论文英语标题写作特征的一种重要表现形式。在英语中,有相当数量的动词、名词、形容词都有其固定的介词搭配,在使用此类词语时一定要多加注意,以避免错误。医学英语标题多采用逻辑动宾关系的名词性组合形式,常见的搭配如:patientswith,casesof,operationon,curefor,responseto,effecton,researchin/into/on,approachto,observation(s)of/on/in,treatmentof等等。下面的标题译文很好地说明了正确使用介词搭配能有助于准确明了地反映论文的主题。
3、简明有效原则及修辞策略
好的标题应是高度概括、言简意赅、便于检索。在完整、准确地概括全文内容的基础上,用尽量少的文字恰当反映所研究的范围和深度,不可夸大其词,以偏概全,也不可缩小研究范围,以偏代全。做到简明有效主要从以下两个方面着手:
在信息处理上,遵循科技写作中语言运用的最小信息差原则以谋求语言运用的最大信息量的输出和最佳交际效果,即“作者应该写的都能写出来,读者对作者所表达的意思都能读明白”。
在选词用语上,文题力求语言精炼,中心词突出,一般在10个单词以内,通常不超过16个单词。标题起始处的冠词“A”“The”可以省略,但文题中间的“the”不能省。采用短语翻译题名,医学论文英语标题采取的主要短语结构有:名词+动词不定式;名词或名词短语+过去分词;现在分词短语;介词短语结构;名词或名词短语+介词短语;以动词形式开始的短语结构等。以短语形式来表达一个句子,结构言简意赅,内部组织严密,而且可以把更多的信息融于一体,使彼此的逻辑关系更明确,表达更细密,更有利于达到交际目的。
由于医学英语要求客观和精确,一些旨在加强语言感染力和宣传效果的修辞格不常见。但是,医学英语强调注重有效的.语法和词汇修辞,如英语讲求结构平行对称。论文标题中并列的内容,应注意到语法结构上的对称,即名词与名词并列,动名词与动名词并列,不要混杂使用。例如:TheRoleofArthroscopyinDiagnosingandtheTreatmentofJointDiseasesinChildren(关节镜在儿童关节疾病诊治中的作用)宜改为:TheRoleofArthroscopyintheDiagnosisandTreatmentofJointDiseasesinChildren。修改后两个动名词并列,既简化了文字,符合修辞原则,而且还更为醒目。平行结构的使用可以增强修辞效果,不仅使主题更加突出,而且还富有美感,引起读者兴趣。请看下面两个例子:
例1:“Clinical,physiological,andradiologicalstudyofanewpurpose-designedartificialbowelsphincter”
例2:“Socioeconomicstatus,standardofliving,andneuroticdisorder”
例1中3个形容词平行排列加强了语音的节奏感,也明确了与中心词的修饰关系,既美观又醒目;例2中的3个并列名词短语排列有序、结构工整、逻辑关系明确,读者能很快抓住论文的中心。
4、得体原则及修辞策略
一个修辞行为的有效性,还取决于它是否合乎语体的规范,是否符合言语交际环境的规定,是否符合社会交往的礼仪,是否符合文化的习俗,是否符合双方的审美倾向。[5]如用戏曲语体撰写科技论文是不得体的。科技论文的行文要符合科技文体的特点,保持文体的严肃性,是为得体。医学论文的英语题名写作与翻译要求标题与论文的内容协调一致,包括风格的一致,语言表达应符合英语习惯。因此,在医学论文标题英译时,要考虑其语法、修辞特点,尽可能体现出英语的固有风格,避免中式英语的弊病。下面介绍几种表达得体的主要修辞策略。
英文标题的写作可以不拘一格,但应突出主题,服从英语的表达习惯,避免使用中国式的英语表达形式。比如,汉语医学论文标题中常常出现“初探”、“探讨”、“经验”、“体会”等词以示谦逊,而在国外的医学刊物中使用带有“浅谈”“初探”这类句式的题名会被认为所论述的内容没有多大参考价值,缺乏严肃性。这是因为欧美人认为科技论文应立足于事实材料,不必谦虚客套。
汉语论文主标题与副标题之间一般用破折号,而英文的主标题与副标题之间通常用冒号表示。病例数在汉语中一般放在正标题中,在英语中大多放在副标题中,如:Posttransfusionhepatitis:Areportof60cases(输血后肝炎60例报告)。
由于受汉语语法的限制和语言习惯的影响,在中文标题中常含有“……的研究”和“……的观察”等词语,题名英译时应省略“Regarding…”、“Observation(s)of…”、“Investigationof…”、“Studieson…”、“Research(es)on…”、“Somethoughtson…”、“Introductionto…”等冗余套语,使之更简洁且符合英语的表达习惯。
名词化结构较多地使用抽象名词表达动作和状态,这也是英语表达和汉语表达上的主要差别之一。在汉语中用行为动词表达的意思在英语中多转换为名词。英汉语的用词顺序有很大的不同。在汉语中,定语置于中心词之前,而在英语中,“中心词+后置定语”的结构应用非常广泛。例如:葡萄糖在体外和体内对神经细胞瘤的疗效:EffectofGlucoseonNeuroblastomainVitroandinVivo;心脏病患者肌酐激酶同功酶的测定:DetectionofCreatineKinaseIsoenzymesInheartDisease;严重脑外伤患者大断面骨折接骨时间选择:TimingofOsteosynthesisofMajorFractureinPatientswithSevereBrainInjury。
总之,标题在论文中起着至关重要的作用。论文的标题应能准确地概括论文的内容,提纲挈领、点明主题、吸引读者、便于检索。要写好译好英文标题,作者不仅要有严谨的治学态度,还要掌握专业英语知识,熟悉医学英语文体的写作特点,熟记常用的句式结构及英语习惯表达方法,在正确理解论文主旨的基础上,力求重点突出,行文准确、规范、简洁、得体。
1、科学性。所谓科学性就是要求论文资料详实、内容先进。科学性是医学论文的生命。如果论文失去了科学性,不管文笔多么流畅,辞藻多么华丽,都毫无意义,只能是人力和时间的浪费。
2、创新性。创新是医学论文的灵魂。能否为促进医学发展作贡献是衡量论文水平的根本标准。医学论文非常重要的一点就是要有新创见、新观点。医学论文不同于教科书及综述讲座之类的文章,而是在于学术交流,报到新发现,发表新方法、新理论。因此在内容中必须突出新字,对于已为人知的观点不必复述,而应突出阐明自己新的观点。
3、理论性。医学论文不仅是医学科学研究的总结,而且是一个在创造的过程。它不同于一般的科研记录或实验报告,而应提炼出指导医学科研活动及临床实践的经验教训,发现规律,并上升为理论,反过来指导实践。
4、简洁性。医学论文要求简洁,这不同于一般的文学作品,需要各种修辞手段和华丽的词藻,它要求行文严谨,重点突出,文字语言规范、简明,能用一个字表达清楚的就不用两个字,不滥用同义词和罕见词。文章尽可能简短,材料方法部分应简明扼要,结果部分可用较少的图表说明较多的问题,讨论部分不赘述已公认的东西,不重复已有的讨论。总之,用最短的文字说明要阐述的问题,以减少阅读时间,使读者用较短的时间获得更多的信息。
5、逻辑性。论文的逻辑性是指论题、论点、论据、论证之间的联系一环扣一环,循序撰写,首尾呼应,顺理成章,并做到资料完整,设计合理,避免牵强附会,虎头蛇尾,空洞无物。
6、可读性。写论文的目的就是进行学术交流,最终是给人看的,因此,论文必须具有可读性,即文字通顺,结构清晰,所用词汇具有专业性,而且是最易懂,最有表达了的字眼。使读者用较少的脑力和时间理解所表达的观点和结论,并留下深刻的影响。
据学术堂了解,对于医学课题的写作,我们常常伴随着实验的探究和写作。实验是证明课题的根本,也是探究课题的需求。一个好的实验过程是获取理想结果的一个有利条件。为此,我们需要在医学论文写作中写好实验过程。一、实验对象:①动物:名称、品种、数量、来源、年龄、性别、分组标准与方法。②微生物或细胞:种、型、株、系、培养条件和实验室条件。③临床病例:来源、数量、性别、年龄、病因、病程、病理诊断、分型标准、选择标准。二、实验仪器:仪器设备名称、生产厂家、型号、操作方法、改进之点。三、实验材料:药品和试剂的名称、成份、规格、纯度、来源、出厂时间、批号、浓度、剂量、给药方法、途径、用药总量。四、实验方法与条件:①临床病例:观察方法、指标、治疗方法、药物名称、剂量、使用方法、疗程。②手术与标本:手术名称、术式、麻醉方法、标本制备过程。③实验室:实验与记录手段、观察步骤、指标、注意事项、方法改进及依据。(一)受试对象1、实验的受试对象如是病人,应说明来自住院或门诊,同时必须将疾病诊断标准纳入标准,排除标准病情判断依据、疗效判断标准、性别年龄以及有关情况加经简介,还应说明观察条件。正常对照应说明来源、健康含义、性别、年龄及有关情况。2、受试对象若是动物,则应说明来源、种系、性别、年龄、体重、健康情况、麻醉与手术方法等等。3、中医临床研究还要注意病证结合,对动物要扼要描叙模型复制的方法。4、应说明分组原则与样本分配方法(配对、配伍或完全随机)。(二)被试因素1、被试因素是药物时,应说明药物来源(包括批号)、剂量、施加途径与手段。中草药还应注明学名,说明产地与制剂方法。2、倘若以疗法作为被试因素,那么该疗法的出处、施加等级与方法、疗程等等都应加扼要介绍。3、被试因素与受试对象如何组合安排,均可以设计方案形式明确地予以表达。(三)反应指标至于反应指标的测定方法,如系通用的常规方法,仅提名称即可;如系较新方法,则应注明出处;如果为了适应本实验的需要,对某方法作了一些小的改良,则应说明修改的根据与内容;倘若本文所使用的方法是作者自己建立的新方法,那么新的方法事先应另行成文,不要将新方法介绍与运用该方法研究的新问题混在一篇文章中;若论文属于报道新的方法,则应详尽具体,特别是试剂配制与实验具体操作步骤应当清楚,便于读者学习与推广应用。试剂如系常规试剂,说明名称、来源、规格、批号即可;若系新的试剂,还需写出分子式与(或)结构式;如需要配制,则应将配方与制备方法一并交代清楚。所用重要仪器也应注明生产厂家与型号。如果在一篇论文中涉及几个不同方法与材料的实验,而且方法与结果关系甚为密切,为了使读者一目了然,必要时可将方法与结果合在一起,标题为“方法与结果”。(四)实验记录与核查1、记录。人的记忆力是有限的,在做实验的时候,不可能记住做过的每一步,所以笔记录或者标签是最好的,俗话说好记性不如烂笔头。记录一要及时,否则就会忘记,最好是随时记录。二要详细,因为一个很小的细节可能就是实验失败或者成功的原因,如果没有记下这个细节,实验出问题了就难以找到原因。三要整洁,如果过于潦草,看起来很不方便,需要找相关信息的时候就难以找到。配好的试剂做好标签也是一种记录,标签一定要详细:包括试剂名称、配置日期、配置者及其它必要信息。在配试剂的时候,为了防止忘记贴标签的情况,应该先贴标签,再加试剂。电子记录有易于检索的优点,对于某些重要信息,可以记录到电子文档里面。2、核查。很多时候,实验失败的原因是没有仔细核查,例如没有核查果蝇的表型,没有仔细检查试剂的标签,没有核查离心机的转速,没有检查heat block的温度等等。每一个小小错误都可能导致实验失败,所以一定要养成仔细核查的习惯。具体来说,在加试剂的时候,一定要仔细核查标签(包括试剂名称、配置日期),是否有沉淀,颜色是否改变等;使用仪器的时候,要核查设置,例如温度、转速、时间设置等;电泳的时候,要核查是否有气泡冒出;使用实验动物的时候,要核查表型等。
A criticism currently heard is that the Hippocratic Oath is not appropriate in the present situation and should be revised in accordance with the status quo, they say that not any one including their child want to become a doctor in this inharmonious medical environment, moreover, " Similarly I will not give to a woman an abortive remedy ", is not suited for anyone if the woman is immature. I frown on this point of recommendation for two reasons. My first reason is that it is our duty, not society, to actively deal with medical controversy and to set a good example for their children, rather than telling them not to be a member of the medical , we have the responsibility, even though the harsh reality that more and more patients do not trust doctors any more, to tell them how dangerous what they have done if there is no clearly aware of the problem. All in all, in this rapidly changing world, it is my firmly held view that we should comply with the Hippocratic Oath, and make all our efforts to practice it. Just as the last one in the Hippocratic Oath, if i keep this oath faithfully, may i enjoy my life and practice my art, respected by all men and in all times; but if i swerve from it or violate it, may the reverse be my lot.
去PubMed检索,列表后面有fulltext提示,部分新发布的论文免费提供全文。旧刊全文收费不便宜,一篇几美金到20多美金不等。
你可以去创新医学网上看看,而且还有翻译服务。
一些人认为希波克拉底的誓词对于当前情况不适用,应当根据情况修改。你是怎么看的,请陈述你的观点并且尽力说服读者。抱歉, stards quo这个词语查不到,不知道是不是你打错了。
英语医学科研论文的格式和要求
I.格式
The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors, ICMJE)
(The Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals, 5th Ed., 1997,URMSBJ)(国际——温哥华格式1979年创建, 2006年2月最新版)*, 一篇生物医学科研论文(以下简称"论文")应包括以下12个部分:
7. Acknowledgements
8. References
9. Legends
and Methods 10. Figures
11. Tables
12. Plates and Explanations
II.要求
1.标题
A. 标题的要求
Titles are to be written to be understood by those in your field, telling them exactly what you have done in your work.(告诉你的同行确切研究了什么)
(America)Journal of the National Cancer Institute: within 14 words.
The British Journal of Cancer: within 100 letters
China journals: Chinese within 20 words; English within 10 lexical words
要求:
(1) Short and concise(简明扼要):Write in one line (not a sentence); not containing an active verb; not exceeding 25 words or 120-140 letters and spaces; no abbreviations or chemical symbols except those that are generally accepted, . DNA, RNA, AIDS, CT, etc.; 中文标题常见的“试论”,“浅谈”,“初探”等词在英文标题中一般不用。我国的国家标准(GB-7713-87)要求将一般英文标题的实词控制在10个词以内。例:Association between Duration of Obesity and Risk of Non-insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus 肥胖期与非依赖胰岛素糖尿病之关系
(2)Informative(信息丰富):State exactly what you want the reader to know about your paper and your work;
(3)Indexing(便于索引):Pack as many key words or indexing terms as possible into the title without overloading it; key words not in the title will be in the abstract or can go in the "Key Words" section of the paper; key words are usually in the beginning or ending place of the title. 标题是读者检索文献的重要标识,是著录题录和索引等第二次文献的重要内容。标题中所选每一个实词必须是正确通用的术语,能提供文献检索,尽量包含关键词。要求尽量把关键词(索引词)安排在标题最前面或最后面的位置上
(4)Highlighting the head word. (突出中心词): 每条标题都有中心词,它们是能高度概括论文中心内容和主题的单词,要将其放在最显著突出的位置。中心词的内容一般是研究方法,研究对象,研究目的或效果,一般为名词,名词短语,分词短语或动名词短语。
例:Knowledge-based Technology in the Service of Health 论卫生事业中的知识技术
Cognitive Impairment and Intracranial Calcification in Chronic Hyparathyroidism 鉴别力受损与颅内钙化——甲状旁腺功能逐渐减退
美国医学写作协会(American Medical Writers Association)医学论文写作要领中对于标题的说明是:
1、Introduce the article into the scientific literature
2、Most important part of the article: the part most often read and often the only part read
3、Keep precise and brief( 85-character limit is typical)
4、Must stand alone: no abbreviations
5、Avoid: “declarative” or “headline” titles; “ Our Experience” titles; asking rhetorical questions in titles:
So start with : Effect of[explanatory variable(s) ]on [ response variable] under[conditions]”
6. 不同的医学期刊对标题的书写规则要求不同, 一般有两种形式:
1). Post-transfusion hepatitis: A report of 60 cases
2). A Successful Operation on a Pair of Female Twins With Conjoined Liver
标题中冠词的用法:
1). (The) Treatment of gram-negative shock
2). Carcinoma of the anal canal
Running title
B. 标题的结构
标题的结构一般都用名词作主干的名词短语型,这类标题结构中作为主干词的名词一般带有动词意义,有时也用完整句,以陈述句较多,偶尔也用疑问句。例:
Resolution of Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome after Recovery from Fulminant Hepatic Failure 治疗成年人突发性肝衰竭康复后呼吸窘迫综合症
Using a Title Table to Evaluate Syncope 列表诊断晕厥
表示诊断,治疗方式或药物治疗的标题结构
这类标题中的diagnosis, treatment, therapy 等作主干的名词都带有动词意义,后跟for, in, to, with 等引导的介词短语引出病名或接受诊治的部位及所使用的药物。例:
Adjunctive Therapy with Aspirin in Vernal Conjunctivitis 用阿司匹林辅助治疗春季结膜炎
Basic Approach in the Management of Intraocular Foreign Bodies 眼内异物的基本处理方法
(药物)治疗:A治疗B(A=name of the medicine; B= name of the disease)
A in the treatment/management of B;
treatment of B with A;
use of A in the treatment of B;
A therapy/treatment of B;
s why more and more people are being active in various kinds of sports and exercises.
If people follow these three ways of keeping fit. Some practice shadowboxing and swordplay while others run. Every morning many people get up early and take much exercise.
First, block the flow of blood, and therefore should be given up, walk or dance to music. This strengthens the heart. They advise people to eat more fruit and vegetables and less meat such as beef and pork because meat contains more fat than poultry and fish.
Medical researchers have proved that what people eat affects their health, it is essential to do the following. Some play basketball or volleyball or table tennis? Different people may give different answers to this question. Unfortunately few people follow this advice. Through sports and exercise, people bee healthier and stronger;s health a great deal. Smoking and drinking alcohol injure one'. Fat can build up in the arteries. That'.
Getting rid of bad habits like *** oking and drinking alcohol is also an important way to keep healthy, reduces the chance of heart attack. Research shows that getting plenty of exercise make the heart beat faster and the lungs work harder. In my opinion, it is absolutely necessary to take some exercise every day, and cause a heart attack or stroke. In the afternoon, others go in for gymnastics or track events,there are also many people keen on sports, and helps lower blood pressureHow to Keep Healthy
Nowadays more and more people are concerned about their health. But how to keep healthy, they greatly improve their health, jog
All people in urban and rural areas will enjoy basic medical care and health services by increasing government responsibility and spending, we will also encourage greater participation of private capital from both home and abroad in the reform covers a wide range of subjects including insurance, drug manufacturing, distribution and supervision, and legislation of medical put into place basic medical and health care systems covering both urban and rural residents, and ensure that every resident has access to safe。
The disturbing phenomenon has caused wide social concern. There are several underlying causes behind it. Nowadays, people tend to care more about their health and expect a longer life span, thus causing a boom in medical treatment. People are willing to spend more money on health care. Some hospitals take advantage of this and offer patients more unnecessary physical examinations in order to make more profits. 令人不安的现象引起了广泛的社会关注。
有几个背后的原因。如今,人们更关心他们的健康,期望寿命更长,从而导致了医疗的繁荣。
人们愿意花更多的钱在医疗保健上。一些医院利用这一优势,为患者提供更多不必要的体检,以使更多的利润。
In my view, it's high time that urgent measures should be taken to improve the present situation. First, doctors should live up to patients' expectations and put saving people's lives above anything else. Second, the authorities should shoulder its responsibility to ensure that hospitals provide people with high-quality medical care at a reasonable price. 在我看来,现在应该采取紧急措施来改善目前的形势了。首先,医生应该对病人的期望值,并把人的生命放在其他任何东西上面。
其次,当局应承担起它的责任,确保医院为人民提供高质量的医疗服务,以合理的价格。
The disturbing phenomenon has caused wide social concern. There are several underlying causes behind it. Nowadays, people tend to care more about their health and expect a longer life span, thus causing a boom in medical treatment. People are willing to spend more money on health care. Some hospitals take advantage of this and offer patients more unnecessary physical examinations in order to make more profits.
令人不安的现象引起了广泛的社会关注。有几个背后的原因。如今,人们更关心他们的健康,期望寿命更长,从而导致了医疗的繁荣。人们愿意花更多的钱在医疗保健上。一些医院利用这一优势,为患者提供更多不必要的体检,以使更多的利润。
In my view, it's high time that urgent measures should be taken to improve the present situation. First, doctors should live up to patients' expectations and put saving people's lives above anything else. Second, the authorities should shoulder its responsibility to ensure that hospitals provide people with high-quality medical care at a reasonable price.
在我看来,现在应该采取紧急措施来改善目前的形势了。首先,医生应该对病人的期望值,并把人的生命放在其他任何东西上面。其次,当局应承担起它的责任,确保医院为人民提供高质量的医疗服务,以合理的价格。
Campus Life 有关校园生活的英语作文
Early in senior high school, we longed to be enrolled in a university. Now the dream has e true. But how do we college students like our campus life?
Certainly, some relish it, finding it colorful and rewarding. Besides study, they spend considerable amount of time improving themselves in various aspect. Yet others do not think much of their college life, thus do not benefit as much. In their eyes, the university is just a bigger high school. The only difference is that they have more time at their disposal without parents looking over their shoulder.
As to me, college life is ideal if only I have abundant books to read, some bosom friends to keep me pany, a couple of conscientious professors to instruct me, and an easy access to the Inter.
范文二:
My station in university campus inch territory, breathes and feels a here freshness. The university life like this started. The life four years time already the picture got down certainly has run the line, you along this path endless long journey, the university time will say regarding me will be fresh, the biography first time was far away the hometown, trod studies the road. I to the university life am fuzzy, after investigates many times, everybody is o characters ----- is bored to the university life feeling, perhaps has that a reason! Three years high school life is such intense stimulates. Recollected also a little is afraid, facing high school's intense sprint, diligently was admitted to a school dream of the university, everybody is the like this struggle, assaults the dream. At the present, steps into the university campus, studies the life has had the bored feeling.
DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF PRODUCTION PLANNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING PROJECTKEY WORDS: GIS,Design,Analysis,Application,Management,ProductionABSTRACT:With the development of photogrammetry and spatial information sciences, we have found many new methods to solve the technical problem in surveying and mapping project. But there is a little research on the project management. Traditional management method is plex and time-consuming. Now, we need use new technique to improve the management method for enhancing management level. Taking “National Western Surveying and Mapping Project on 1:50000 Topological Maps Blank Area” as an example, this paper focus on production planning management. The project is remarkable, not only the task and extent is tremendous, but also the staff and stuff are excessive. The Blank Area has atrocious weather and extreme hypsography. All of the conditions increase the project management difficulty. For reasonable planning and logical budget, we designed and realized a production planning management system to give the decision support to the managers. This paper studies the system'e69da5e6ba903233363533362s requirement *** ysis, system structure and function in . INTRODUCTIONNowadays, Geographical Information Systems(GIS) are powerful and useful as means of information, visualization and research tools(Quan Bao,2004). Most GIS sofare is more suited to providing limited types of output than as a tool to support, at anything other than a superficial level, tactical or strategic decision-making processes. To improve the usefulness of GIS as a decision support tool, o needs are apparent. First, decision-makers require methods that allow them to easily select alternatives across a number of relevant criteria. Second, it is necessary to explicitly recognize that most decision-making processes involve multiple participants. Since problem solving id often characterized by multiple and conflicting objectives, methods that contribute toward more a pletely aiding decision system are required.。
Medicine is the science and art of healing. It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of medicine applies health science, biomedical research, and medical technology to diagnose and treat injury and disease, typically through medication or surgery, but also through therapies as diverse as psychotherapy, external splints & traction, prostheses, biologics, ionizing radiation and others. The word medicine is derived from the Latin ars medicina, meaning the art of most countries, it is a legal requirement for a medical doctor to be licensed or registered. In general, this entails a medical degree from a university and accreditation by a medical board or an equivalent national organization, which may ask the applicant to pass exams. This restricts the considerable legal authority of the medical profession to physicians that are trained and qualified by national standards. It is also intended as an assurance to patients and as a safeguard against charlatans that practice inadequate medicine for personal gain. While the laws generally require medical doctors to be trained in "evidence based", Western, or Hippocratic Medicine, they are not intended to discourage different paradigms of who are negligent or intentionally harmful in their care of patients can face charges of medical malpractice and be subject to civil, criminal, or professional Greek physician Hippocrates, the "father of medicine", laid the foundation for a rational approach to medicine. Hippocrates introduced the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, which is still relevant and in use today, and was the first to categorize illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and use terms such as, "exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence".Working together as an interdisciplinary team, many highly trained health professionals besides medical practitioners are involved in the delivery of modern health care. Examples include: nurses, emergency medical technicians and paramedics, laboratory scientists, pharmacists, physiotherapists, respiratory therapists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, radiographers, dietitians, and scope and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields. Dentistry, while considered by some a separate discipline from medicine, is a medical patient admitted to hospital is usually under the care of a specific team based on their main presenting problem, ., the Cardiology team, who then may interact with other specialties, ., surgical, radiology, to help diagnose or treat the main problem or any subsequent complications/ have many specializations and subspecializations into certain branches of medicine, which are listed below. There are variations from country to country regarding which specialties certain subspecialties are main branches of medicine are:1 Basic sciences of medicine; this is what every physician is educated in, and some return to in biomedical Medical specialties3 Interdisciplinary fields, where different medical specialties are mixed to function in certain education and training varies around the world. It typically involves entry level education at a university medical school, followed by a period of supervised practice or internship, and/or residency. This can be followed by postgraduate vocational training. A variety of teaching methods have been employed in medical education, still itself a focus of active regulatory authorities require continuing medical education, since knowledge, techniques and medical technology continue to evolve at a rapid rate.
医学论文(medicalpapers)的定义医学论文是对整理和发表医学研究成果的一种特殊文本的总称,就其内容和文体特点而言科分为以下几种:1.医学科研论文(scientificpapers)2.调查报告(survey)3.综述(review)4.学位论文(theses)医学科研论文的格式医学科研论文必须具备以下几个部分:(1)标题(title)(2)摘要(abstract)(3)引言(introduction)(4)材料和方法(materials andmethods)(5)结果(results)(6)讨论(discussion)(7)致谢(acknowledgement)(8)参考文献(references)一、标题(一)要求1.简明扼要(short andconcise)(1)尽量控制在一行,但不是一个句子(2)不超过25个单词或120-140个字母(3)除DNA、RNA、CT等不用缩写2.信息丰富 (informative)3.便于索引(indexing)4.较长标题可采用副标题(二)标题写作中常用词组和表达方式1.用…(方法/手段)对…进行研究/分析/观察/评价:Study(analysis/observation/evaluation/assessment) of(on) … (by) using 方法 /with 工具)2.A 对 B 的作用Effort of A on BProtective effect of omeprazole on endothelin-inducedgastric mucosal injury3.A 与 B 的关系Correlation (relation/relationship) between A and BCorrelation of A with B and C常用修饰词:positively/negatively/significantly/insignificantly4.用…治疗…Use of …in the treatment of …( 病)in…(生物)Use of omeprazole in the treatment of gastric ulcer inthe elderly5.A是BA as B二、著录部分书写(一)姓名标准式:WANG Luowei,HUANGYingfeng,GUO Xiao’an(二)地址800 Xiang Yin Road, Shanghai 200433, (三)资助A project funded by the National “863” Program三、摘要的分类与格式摘要是作者要给读者的精华,分两大类:(一)指示性摘要(二)资料性摘要1.非结构式摘要缺点:段落不明,给编辑、审稿、阅读和计算机处理带来诸多不便2.全结构式摘要(八要素摘要)(1)目的(2)设计(3)地点(4)对象(5)处理(6)主要测定项目(7)结果(8)结论全结构式摘要的优点(1)观点更明确(2)信息量更大(3)差错更少(4)符合计算机数据库建立和使用的要求