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Insurance, in law and economics, is a form of risk management primarily used to hedge against the risk of potential financial loss. Insurance is defined as the equitable transfer of the risk of a potential loss, from one entity to another, in exchange for a premium and duty of care. there are a few principles of insurance, which are considered as the uncertain losses, the predictable rate and distribution of losses,the sinificant of loss and the loss must be catastrophic. A property or liability insurance policy is a "personal contract," a "conditional contract," a "unilateral contract," a "contract of adhesion," a "contract of indemnity," and a contract which requires that the person insured have an insurable interest at the time of the insured-against contingency. Further: An Insurance Contract is one of Uberrima fides. This is a Latin phrase meaning "utmost good faith" (or translated literally, "most abundant faith"). It is the name of a legal doctrine which governs insurance contracts. This means that all parties to an insurance contract must deal in good faith, making a full declaration of all material facts in the insurance proposal. This contrasts with the legal doctrine of caveat emptor (let the buyer beware). An entity seeking to transfer risk (an individual, corporation, or association of any type) becomes the 'insured' party once risk is assumed by an 'insurer', the insuring party, by means of a contract, defined as an insurance 'policy'. This legal contract sets out terms and conditions specifying the amount of coverage (compensation) to be rendered to the insured, by the insurer upon assumption of risk, in the event of a loss, and all the specific perils covered against (indemnified), for the term of the contract. When insured parties experience a loss for a specified peril, the coverage entitles the policyholder to make a 'claim' against the insurer for the amount of loss as specified by the policy contract. The fee paid by the insured to the insurer for assuming the risk is called the 'premium'. Insurance premiums from many clients are used to fund accounts set aside for later payment of claims—in theory for a relatively few claimants—and for overhead costs. So long as an insurer maintains adequate funds set aside for anticipated losses, the remaining margin becomes their profit. Insurers make money in two ways. Through underwriting, the process through which insurers select what risks to insure and decide how much premium to charge for accepting those risks and by investing the premiums they have collected from insureds Some people consider insurance a type of wager (particularly as associated with moral hazard) that executes over the policy period. The insurance company bets that you or your property will not suffer a loss while you put money on the opposite outcome. The difference in the fees paid to the insurance company versus the amount for which they can be held liable if an accident happens is roughly analogous to the odds one might expect when betting on a racehorse (for example, 10 to 1). For this reason, a number of religious groups, including the Amish and some Muslim groups, avoid insurance and instead depend on support provided by their communities when disasters strike. This can be thought of as "social insurance," as the risk of any given person is assumed collectively by the community who will all bear the cost of rebuilding. In closed, supportive communities where others can be trusted to step in to rebuild lost property, this arrangement can work. Any risk that can be quantified probably has a type of insurance to protect it. Among the different types of insurance are: Automobile insurance, also known as auto insurance, car insurance and in the UK as motor insurance, is probably the most common form of insurance and may cover both legal liability claims against the driver and loss of or damage to the vehicle itself. Over most of the United States purchasing an auto insurance policy is required to legally operate a motor vehicle on public roads. Recommendations for which policy limits should be used are specified in a number of books. In some jurisdictions, bodily injury compensation for automobile accident victims has been changed to No Fault systems, which reduce or eliminate the ability to sue for compensation but provide automatic eligibility for benefits. Boiler insurance (also known as Boiler and Machinery insurance or Equipment Breakdown Insurance) Casualty insurance insures against accidents, not necessarily tied to any specific property. Credit insurance pays some or all of a loan back when certain things happen to the borrower such as unemployment, disability, or death. Financial loss insurance protects individuals and companies against various financial risks. For example, a business might purchase cover to protect it from loss of sales if a fire in a factory prevented it from carrying out its business for a time. Insurance might also cover failure of a creditor to pay money it owes to the insured. Fidelity bonds and surety bonds are included in this category. Health insurance covers medical bills incurred because of sickness or accidents. Liability insurance covers legal claims against the insured. For example, a homeowner's insurance policy provides the insured with protection in the event of a claim brought by someone who slips and falls on the property, and brings a lawsuit for her injuries. Similarly, a doctor may purchase liability insurance to cover any legal claims against him if his negligence (carelessness) in treating a patient caused the patient injury and/or monetary harm. The protection offered by a liability insurance policy is two-fold: a legal defense in the event of a lawsuit commenced against the policyholder, plus indemnification (payment on behalf of the insured) with respect to a settlement or court verdict. Life insurance provides a cash benefit to a decedent's family or other designated beneficiary, and may specifically provide for burial, funeral and other final expenses. Annuities provide a stream of payments and are generally classified as insurance because they are issued by insurance companies and regulated as insurance. Annuities and pensions that pay a benefit for life are sometimes regarded as insurance against the possibility that a retiree will outlive his or her financial resources. In that sense, they are the complement of life insurance. Total permanent disability insurance insurance provides benefits when a person is permanently disabled and can no longer work in their profession, often taken as an adjunct to life insurance. Locked Funds Insurance is a little known hybrid insurance policy jointly issued by governments and banks. It is used to protect public funds from tamper by unauthorised parties. In special cases, a government may authorise its use in protecting semi-private funds which are liable to tamper. Terms of this type of insurance are usually very strict. As such it is only used in extreme cases where maximum security of funds is required. Marine Insurance covers the loss or damage of goods at sea. Marine insurance typically compensates the owner of merchandise for losses sustained from fire, shipwreck, etc., but excludes losses that can be recovered from the carrier. Nuclear incident insurance — damages resulting from an incident involving radioactivive materials is generally arranged at the national level. (For the United States, see Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act.) Environmental Liability Insurance protects the insured from bodily injury, property damage and cleanup costs as a result of the dispersal, release or escape of a pollutant. Political risk insurance can be taken out by businesses with operations in countries in which there is a risk that revolution or other political conditions will result in a loss. Professional Indemnity Insurance is normally a mandatory requirement for professional practitioners such as Architects, Lawyers, Doctors and Accountants to provide insurance cover against potential negligence claims. Non licensed professionals may also purchase malpractice insurance, it is commonly called Errors and Omissions Insurance and covers a service provider for claims made against them that arise out of the performance of specified professional services. For instance, a web site designer can obtain E&O insurance to cover them for certain claims made by third parties that arise out of negligent performance of web site development services. Property insurance provides protection against risks to property, such as fire, theft or weather damage. This includes specialized forms of insurance such as fire insurance, flood insurance, earthquake insurance, home insurance, inland marine insurance or boiler insurance. Terrorism insurance Title insurance provides a guarantee that title to real property is vested in the purchaser and/or mortgagee, free and clear of liens or encumbrances. It is usually issued in conjunction with a search of the public records done at the time of a real estate transaction. Travel insurance is an insurance cover taken by those who travel abroad, which covers certain losses such as medical expenses, lost of personal belongings, travel delay, personal liabilities.. etc. Workers' compensation insurance replaces all or part of a worker's wages lost and accompanying medical expense incurred due to a job-related injury. A single policy may cover risks in one or more of the above categories. For example, car insurance would typically cover both property risk (covering the risk of theft or damage to the car) and liability risk (covering legal claims from say, causing an accident). A homeowner's insurance policy in the . typically includes property insurance covering damage to the home and the owner's belongings, liability insurance covering certain legal claims against the owner, and even a small amount of health insurance for medical expenses of guests who are injured on the owner's property. Potential sources of risk that may give rise to claims are known as "perils". Examples of perils might be fire, theft, earthquake, hurricane and many other potential risks. An insurance policy will set out in details which perils are covered by the policy and which are not. Insurance companies may be classified as Life insurance companies, who sell life insurance, annuities and pensions products. Non-life or general insurance companies, who sell other types of insurance. In most countries, life and non-life insurers are subject to different regulations, tax and accounting rules. The main reason for the distinction between the two types of company is that life business is very long term in nature — coverage for life assurance or a pension can cover risks over many decades. By contrast, non-life insurance cover usually covers a shorter period, such as one year.
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网络保险 Internet Insurance Network insuranceNet Insurance保险学 Insurance , in law and economics, is a form of risk management primarily used to hedge against the risk of a contingent loss. Insurance is defined as the equitable transfer of the risk of a loss, from one entity to another, in exchange for a premium. An insurer is a company selling the insurance. The insurance rate is a factor used to determine the amount, called the premium, to be charged for a certain amount of insurance coverage. Risk management, the practice of appraising and controlling risk, has evolved as a discrete field of study and of insuranceA large number of homogeneous exposure units. The vast majority of insurance policies are provided for individual members of very large classes. Automobile insurance, for example, covered about 175 million automobiles in the United States in 2004.[2] The existence of a large number of homogeneous exposure units allows insurers to benefit from the so-called “law of large numbers,” which in effect states that as the number of exposure units increases, the actual results are increasingly likely to become close to expected results. There are exceptions to this criterion. Lloyd's of London is famous for insuring the life or health of actors, actresses and sports figures. Satellite Launch insurance covers events that are infrequent. Large commercial property policies may insure exceptional properties for which there are no ‘homogeneous’ exposure units. Despite failing on this criterion, many exposures like these are generally considered to be insurable. Definite Loss. The event that gives rise to the loss that is subject to insurance should, at least in principle, take place at a known time, in a known place, and from a known cause. The classic example is death of an insured on a life insurance policy. Fire, automobile accidents, and worker injuries may all easily meet this criterion. Other types of losses may only be definite in theory. Occupational disease, for instance, may involve prolonged exposure to injurious conditions where no specific time, place or cause is identifiable. Ideally, the time, place and cause of a loss should be clear enough that a reasonable person, with sufficient information, could objectively verify all three elements. Accidental Loss. The event that constitutes the trigger of a claim should be fortuitous, or at least outside the control of the beneficiary of the insurance. The loss should be ‘pure,’ in the sense that it results from an event for which there is only the opportunity for cost. Events that contain speculative elements, such as ordinary business risks, are generally not considered insurable. Large Loss. The size of the loss must be meaningful from the perspective of the insured. Insurance premiums need to cover both the expected cost of losses, plus the cost of issuing and administering the policy, adjusting losses, and supplying the capital needed to reasonably assure that the insurer will be able to pay claims. For small losses these latter costs may be several times the size of the expected cost of losses. There is little point in paying such costs unless the protection offered has real value to a buyer. Affordable Premium. If the likelihood of an insured event is so high, or the cost of the event so large, that the resulting premium is large relative to the amount of protection offered, it is not likely that anyone will buy insurance, even if on offer. Further, as the accounting profession formally recognizes in financial accounting standards, the premium cannot be so large that there is not a reasonable chance of a significant loss to the insurer. If there is no such chance of loss, the transaction may have the form of insurance, but not the substance. (See the . Financial Accounting Standards Board standard number 113) Calculable Loss. There are two elements that must be at least estimable, if not formally calculable: the probability of loss, and the attendant cost. Probability of loss is generally an empirical exercise, while cost has more to do with the ability of a reasonable person in possession of a copy of the insurance policy and a proof of loss associated with a claim presented under that policy to make a reasonably definite and objective evaluation of the amount of the loss recoverable as a result of the claim. Limited risk of catastrophically large losses. The essential risk is often aggregation. If the same event can cause losses to numerous policyholders of the same insurer, the ability of that insurer to issue policies becomes constrained, not by factors surrounding the individual characteristics of a given policyholder, but by the factors surrounding the sum of all policyholders so exposed. Typically, insurers prefer to limit their exposure to a loss from a single event to some small portion of their capital base, on the order of 5 percent. Where the loss can be aggregated, or an individual policy could produce exceptionally large claims, the capital constraint will restrict an insurers appetite for additional policyholders. The classic example is earthquake insurance, where the ability of an underwriter to issue a new policy depends on the number and size of the policies that it has already underwritten. Wind insurance in hurricane zones, particularly along coast lines, is another example of this phenomenon. In extreme cases, the aggregation can affect the entire industry, since the combined capital of insurers and reinsurers can be small compared to the needs of potential policyholders in areas exposed to aggregation risk. In commercial fire insurance it is possible to find single properties whose total exposed value is well in excess of any individual insurer’s capital constraint. Such properties are generally shared among several insurers, or are insured by a single insurer who syndicates the risk into the reinsurance market. [edit] IndemnificationMain article: IndemnityThe technical definition of "indemnity" means to make whole again. There are two types of insurance contracts; 1) an "indemnity" policy and 2) a "pay on behalf" or "on behalf of"[3] policy. The difference is significant on paper, but rarely material in "indemnity" policy will never pay claims until the insured has paid out of pocket to some third party; . a visitor to your home slips on a floor that you left wet and sues you for $10,000 and wins. Under an "indemnity" policy the homeowner would have to come up with the $10,000 to pay for the visitors fall and then would be "indemnified" by the insurance carrier for the out of pocket costs (the $10,000)[4].Under the same situation, a "pay on behalf" policy, the insurance carrier would pay the claim and the insured (the homeowner) would not be out of pocket for anything. Most modern liability insurance is written on the basis of "pay on behalf" language[5].An entity seeking to transfer risk (an individual, corporation, or association of any type, etc.) becomes the 'insured' party once risk is assumed by an 'insurer', the insuring party, by means of a contract, called an insurance 'policy'. Generally, an insurance contract includes, at a minimum, the following elements: the parties (the insurer, the insured, the beneficiaries), the premium, the period of coverage, the particular loss event covered, the amount of coverage (., the amount to be paid to the insured or beneficiary in the event of a loss), and exclusions (events not covered). An insured is thus said to be "indemnified" against the loss events covered in the insured parties experience a loss for a specified peril, the coverage entitles the policyholder to make a 'claim' against the insurer for the covered amount of loss as specified by the policy. The fee paid by the insured to the insurer for assuming the risk is called the 'premium'. Insurance premiums from many insureds are used to fund accounts reserved for later payment of claims—in theory for a relatively few claimants—and for overhead costs. So long as an insurer maintains adequate funds set aside for anticipated losses (., reserves), the remaining margin is an insurer's profit.[edit] Insurer’s business modelProfit = earned premium + investment income - incurred loss - underwriting make money in two ways: (1) through underwriting, the process by which insurers select the risks to insure and decide how much in premiums to charge for accepting those risks and (2) by investing the premiums they collect from most difficult aspect of the insurance business is the underwriting of policies. Using a wide assortment of data, insurers predict the likelihood that a claim will be made against their policies and price products accordingly. To this end, insurers use actuarial science to quantify the risks they are willing to assume and the premium they will charge to assume them. Data is analyzed to fairly accurately project the rate of future claims based on a given risk. Actuarial science uses statistics and probability to analyze the risks associated with the range of perils covered, and these scientific principles are used to determine an insurer's overall exposure. Upon termination of a given policy, the amount of premium collected and the investment gains thereon minus the amount paid out in claims is the insurer's underwriting profit on that policy. Of course, from the insurer's perspective, some policies are winners (., the insurer pays out less in claims and expenses than it receives in premiums and investment income) and some are losers (., the insurer pays out more in claims and expenses than it receives in premiums and investment income).An insurer's underwriting performance is measured in its combined ratio. The loss ratio (incurred losses and loss-adjustment expenses divided by net earned premium) is added to the expense ratio (underwriting expenses divided by net premium written) to determine the company's combined ratio. The combined ratio is a reflection of the company's overall underwriting profitability. A combined ratio of less than 100 percent indicates underwriting profitability, while anything over 100 indicates an underwriting companies also earn investment profits on “float”. “Float” or available reserve is the amount of money, at hand at any given moment, that an insurer has collected in insurance premiums but has not been paid out in claims. Insurers start investing insurance premiums as soon as they are collected and continue to earn interest on them until claims are paid the United States, the underwriting loss of property and casualty insurance companies was $ billion in the five years ending 2003. But overall profit for the same period was $ billion, as the result of float. Some insurance industry insiders, most notably Hank Greenberg, do not believe that it is forever possible to sustain a profit from float without an underwriting profit as well, but this opinion is not universally held. Naturally, the “float” method is difficult to carry out in an economically depressed period. Bear markets do cause insurers to shift away from investments and to toughen up their underwriting standards. So a poor economy generally means high insurance premiums. This tendency to swing between profitable and unprofitable periods over time is commonly known as the "underwriting" or insurance cycle. [6]Property and casualty insurers currently make the most money from their auto insurance line of business. Generally better statistics are available on auto losses and underwriting on this line of business has benefited greatly from advances in computing. Additionally, property losses in the US, due to natural catastrophes, have exacerbated this , claims and loss handling is the materialized utility of insurance. In managing the claims-handling function, insurers seek to balance the elements of customer satisfaction, administrative handling expenses, and claims overpayment leakages. As part of this balancing act, fraudulent insurance practices are a major business risk that must be managed and of insuranceAny risk that can be quantified can potentially be insured. Specific kinds of risk that may give rise to claims are known as "perils". An insurance policy will set out in detail which perils are covered by the policy and which are not. Below are (non-exhaustive) lists of the many different types of insurance that exist. A single policy may cover risks in one or more of the categories set forth below. For example, auto insurance would typically cover both property risk (covering the risk of theft or damage to the car) and liability risk (covering legal claims from causing an accident). A homeowner's insurance policy in the . typically includes property insurance covering damage to the home and the owner's belongings, liability insurance covering certain legal claims against the owner, and even a small amount of health insurance for medical expenses of guests who are injured on the owner's insurance can be any kind of insurance that protects businesses against risks. Some principal subtypes of business insurance are (a) the various kinds of professional liability insurance, also called professional indemnity insurance, which are discussed below under that name; and (b) the business owners policy (BOP), which bundles into one policy many of the kinds of coverage that a business owner needs, in a way analogous to how homeowners insurance bundles the coverages that a homeowner needs.[7]HealthHealth insurance policies will often cover the cost of private medical treatments if the National Health Service in the United Kingdom (NHS) or other publicly-funded health programs do not pay for them. It will often result in quicker health care where better facilities are available. Dental insurance, like medical insurance, is coverage for individuals to protect them against dental costs. In the ., dental insurance is often part of an employer's benefits package, along with health insurance. Most countries rely on public funding to ensure that all citizens have universal access to health care.[edit] DisabilityDisability insurance policies provide financial support in the event the policyholder is unable to work because of disabling illness or injury. It provides monthly support to help pay such obligations as mortgages and credit cards. Total permanent disability insurance insurance provides benefits when a person is permanently disabled and can no longer work in their profession, often taken as an adjunct to life insurance. Disability overhead insurance allows business owners to cover the overhead expenses of their business while they are unable to work. Workers' compensation insurance replaces all or part of a worker's wages lost and accompanying medical expense incurred because of a job-related injury. CasualtyCasualty insurance insures against accidents, not necessarily tied to any specific insurance is a form of casualty insurance that covers the policyholder against losses arising from the criminal acts of third parties. For example, a company can obtain crime insurance to cover losses arising from theft or embezzlement. Political risk insurance is a form of casualty insurance that can be taken out by businesses with operations in countries in which there is a risk that revolution or other political conditions will result in a loss. [edit] Life insuranceMain article: Life insuranceLife insurance provides a monetary benefit to a decedent's family or other designated beneficiary, and may specifically provide for income to an insured person's family, burial, funeral and other final expenses. Life insurance policies often allow the option of having the proceeds paid to the beneficiary either in a lump sum cash payment or an provide a stream of payments and are generally classified as insurance because they are issued by insurance companies and regulated as insurance and require the same kinds of actuarial and investment management expertise that life insurance requires. Annuities and pensions that pay a benefit for life are sometimes regarded as insurance against the possibility that a retiree will outlive his or her financial resources. In that sense, they are the complement of life insurance and, from an underwriting perspective, are the mirror image of life life insurance contracts accumulate cash values, which may be taken by the insured if the policy is surrendered or which may be borrowed against. Some policies, such as annuities and endowment policies, are financial instruments to accumulate or liquidate wealth when it is many countries, such as the . and the UK, the tax law provides that the interest on this cash value is not taxable under certain circumstances. This leads to widespread use of life insurance as a tax-efficient method of saving as well as protection in the event of early ., the tax on interest income on life insurance policies and annuities is generally deferred. However, in some cases the benefit derived from tax deferral may be offset by a low return. This depends upon the insuring company, the type of policy and other variables (mortality, market return, etc.). Moreover, other income tax saving vehicles (., IRAs, 401(k) plans, Roth IRAs) may be better alternatives for value accumulation. A combination of low-cost term life insurance and a higher-return tax-efficient retirement account may achieve better investment insurance provides protection against risks to property, such as fire, theft or weather damage. This includes specialized forms of insurance such as fire insurance, flood insurance, earthquake insurance, home insurance, inland marine insurance or boiler insurance.字数超限了。。。
1、MDRT源于美国在中国没有机构，完全没有服务，有问题英文邮件没回复，会议是英文的国人参会买同声传译，IDA由保险行销集团设立，主要针对华人，在大陆就有9个服务机构，他们还出版保险行业的书、杂志和培训认证，大会主要是华语； 2、MDRT的申请标准可以按首单佣金、保费收入、或年收入申请，IDA申请标准只能按寿险首单佣金和新单件数申请，相对来说MDRT的提成标准高一些，但更容易达成，因为现在大陆有钱人多了，一两张保单的保费收入就很高，某些公司的首单提成可以达到35%-50%，可能几张大保单就成达了标准，如果按保费收入计算就有些虚因为某些保单佣金很少。而IDA倡导每年要服务照顾36个客户，所以除了寿险首单佣金还必须要有寿险件36件才可以申请，所以更难达成。3、MDRT设立的时间更长和国际知名度，更显得国际化，很多外资公司可能股东方要求追这个奖项，IDA因为主要针对华人，所以在亚洲及华语国家比较有影响力，国内也很多公司在推这个奖。因为IDA有件数的要求，业务员需要勤奋开发客户，达成必须有36个客户，所以业务员拥有更多客户也就更稳定。4、两个奖项都需要保险公司做业绩证明才可以申请，不过现在因为某些原因（有可能是中美关系，或者MDRT把香港和台湾跟中国一起放在国家栏立场错误，另MDRT在中国确实没有注册或设公司或机构，但确狂收中国人的很多很多钱），保监有发通知MDRT因没在中国备案或相关注册，保险公司不可以组织或推动。以上如有信息错误，欢迎指正
(美)康斯坦斯·M.卢瑟亚特()等著,英勇,于小东总译校.财产与责任保险原理[M]. 北京大学出版社, 2003 (美)小哈罗德·斯凯博()等编著,荆涛等译.国际风险与保险[M]. 机械工业出版社, 1999 (美)所罗门·许布纳()等著,陈欣等译.财产和责任保险[M]. 中国人民大学出版社, 2002 【英】Malcolm A. Clarke 著、 何美欢、吴志攀等译：《保险合同法》，北京大学出版社 2002 年版。 Mckendrick :“Contract Law”（影印本）,法律出版社 2003 年版。 H. Whincup：“Contract Law and Practice—the EnglishSystem and Continental Comparisons” 中信出版社,2003 年版。 F. Dobbyn : “Insurance Law”（影印本）,法律出版社 2001年版。 Lowry , Philip Rawlings : “Insurance Law :Doctrines andPrinciples” , Hart Publishing Ltd. (1999). Hodgin :“Insurance Law :Text and Materials” (SecondEdition) Cavendish Publishing Limited (2002) . L. Emanuel：“Contracts”，中信出版社 2003 年版。 A. Eisenberg:“Disclosure in Contract Law”，91 CaliforniaLaw Review （2003）. T. Kronman :“Mistake, Disclosure, Information, and theLaw of Contracts”,7(1) Journal of Legal Studies (1978). J :“Insurer’s breach of good faith——a newtort?”,(1992) 108 LQR 35.这些都是比较好的
您好！我在产险公司工作了这么多年，也还没有发现机动车保险相关书籍或报刊，但是考试类的书籍倒是有。1.如果只是想了解财产保险方面的知识，英文版的推荐可以看看《保险专业英语》或《金融保险英语》；2.若想看更全面一点的，推荐考试类英文书籍，CPCU考试的相关书籍不错，整体比较浅显易懂，而且都是财产保险、车险方面的知识，就是书贵了点，一般一套要几百美金。希望能帮到您。
国内保险期刊很少，并且只有《保险研究》和《保险职业学院学报》是核心（还只是北大核心而已 ，国内目前没有顶尖的保险刊物）。
市场经济的建设不断完善，发展速度不断加快 保险 业蓬勃增长，保险行业的价值和作用日益被人们重视，成为国民经济中不可或缺的组成部分。下面我给大家带来保险业论文选题方向题目参考，希望能帮助到大家!
金融与保险 毕业 论文题目
1、信用保险下银行供应链金融风险评价--以山西省煤炭企业为例
2、互联网金融时代吉林省保险业发展探析
3、互联网保险使消费金融更透明
4、基于溢出指数下的我国金融系统风险溢出效应研究
5、依托精准扶贫建立涉农信贷与涉农保险互动机制的对策
6、保险公司发展住房反向抵押养老保险的市场环境分析--以湖南省为例
7、我国金融控股集团治理结构研究
8、基于碳排放约束的金融支持、技术进步与能源效率分析
9、我国城镇家庭资产对其消费行为影响的 经验 研究
10、商业银行代理保险业务的法律规制探究
11、金融科技现状与发展趋势
12、保险产业政府规制的国际经验比较与借鉴
13、金融资本化与资本金融化亟需遏制--基于马克思主义产融关系理论的思考
14、偿付能力监管制度改革与保险公司成本效率--基于中国财险市场的经验数据
15、互联网金融模式下的保险营销
16、银行代理保险销售风险的法律规制研究
17、制约我国反向抵押贷款的瓶颈分析
18、保险在绿色金融体系建设中大有可为
19、我国存款保险制度的赔偿模式选择
20、基于金融消费者保护视角的存款保险制度研究
21、普惠金融时代的互联网保险走势
22、国外科技金融风险救助法律经验及借鉴
23、基于普惠金融视角下重庆农产品保险发展现状分析
24、金融精准扶贫对策研究
25、普惠金融体系下的互联网保险创新
26、银行业互联网金融服务“三农”的形势、挑战及策略
27、互联网金融发展现状及对保险企业经营的影响
28、国际大型保险金融集团战略演变及启示--基于AIG的分析研究
29、浅谈农村金融服务创新与支持地方经济发展
30、后危机时代的金融安全网
31、基于国外经验的中国农村金融发展路径与对策分析
32、我国农业保险立法模式重构困境及其突破路径
33、消费者权益保护视角下的互联网保险营商自由
34、关于商业银行进驻保险业务的思考
35、供给侧结构性改革的金融支持研究--基于居民金融资产配置的视角
36、我国互联网保险的发展基础、过程与逻辑
37、中国家庭商业人身保险需求现状及其影响因素--基于中国家庭金融调查的实证研究
38、保险业会计处理之革新
39、存款保险制度对商业银行的影响
40、试析交叉性金融业务存在的风险与对策
41、基于国际视角的中国存款保险制度探究
42、企业社保经办部门如何针对养老保险个人账户管理进行风险控制
43、京津冀协同发展背景下河北省金融结构优化研究
44、保险公司与商业银行资本管理比较分析
45、存款保险制度下大型商业银行应对之策
46、分数布朗环境下带随机利率的保险商偿债率模型研究
47、从存款保险评级谈地 方法 人银行业金融机构风险防范思路
48、金融保险行业廉洁风险隐患防控建议
49、我国存款保险制度中的道德风险及防范 措施
50、社会保险与家庭金融风险资产投资
51、营改增背景下我国保险业流转税改革研究
52、我国存款保险基金管理机构早期纠正权问题探析
53、金融包容框架下欠发达地区金融消费者权益保护分析--以商业银行理财业务为例
54、互联网金融与 文化 产业相结合模式的研究--以阿里“娱乐宝”为例
55、金融科技发展对保险行业的影响研究
56、以绿色金融手段治理生态环境问题
医疗保险毕业论文题目
[1]医保药品目录调整之退出机制的国际经验借鉴
[2]德国长期护理保险制度的缘起、运行、调整与改革
[3]美国长期照护评估系统最小数据集升级对我国老年护理评估的启示
[4]基于RE-AIM模型的城乡居民大病保险模式评估
[5]“十四五”期间提升老龄人口医养服务路径的思考
[6]人口流动对居民商业保险需求的影响研究——基于CGSS2017数据的实证分析
[7]浅谈中医“治未病”费用补偿机制
[8]政府财政精准施策,助力医疗卫生体制高效运行——以阜南县医改实践为例
[9]美国医疗保险与药物治疗管理
[10]美国药物治疗管理服务的计费模式
[11]东营地区农村医疗保险对农村居民消费的影响
[12]全民医保“十四五”规划发展方向与商业保险的发展建议
[13]“十四五”期间财险业发展前景预测
[14]“管理式医疗+保险科技”模式在健康保险发展中的应用
[15]现行医保结算方式下的医院 财务管理 探讨
[16]公立医院医保基金内部控制的问题与对策探讨
[17]大别山连片特困地区农户多维贫困测度及治理研究——以安徽省W县为例
[18]上海市质子重离子医院商业保险模式实践及思考
[19]医疗协作模式医联体激励相容制度分析
[20]资源配置视角下长期护理险15个城市服务供给模式分析
[21]我国社会保障体系对居民就业的影响研究
[22]“一带一路”背景下针灸推拿英语复合型人才国内外就业情况分析
[23]中国医保预算影响分析的研究范式
[24]中国医保预算影响分析的研究范式
[25]20x—20x年镇江地区烧伤流行病学特征分析
[26]城乡居民医疗保险征缴问题与对策——以镇巴县税务局观音税务分局征缴实践为例
[27]对“锦欣医疗”跨界合作的营销策略分析
[28]老年女性精神分裂症患者乳腺癌患病风险因素
[29]立足新阶段 坚持新理念 开启新征程——关于医疗保障体系现代化的几点思考
[30]社会保险基金财务和会计制度改革的探索与思考——从医疗保障制度改革视角探讨
[31]海南自贸港医疗保障与国际接轨的走向思考
[32]多维度多层次推进医疗保障 应保尽保的珠海实践
[33]宁夏城乡居民大病保险制度运行情况分析与思考
[34]定点医疗机构医保基金使用规范初探
[35]我国心脑血管疾病治疗费用与基本医疗保险支出核算与分析
[36]浅谈外伤与疾病的关联性鉴定在工伤认定中的运用
[37]基本医疗保险按病种分值付费比较研究
[38]某三级公立医院出入院服务时效和患者满意度现况分析
[39]新形势下生育保险费用精细化管理探索与实践——基于某三级综合性医疗机构视角
[40]国内外DRG病种支付应用与发展的探讨
[41]经济法视野下农民工社会保障制度分析
[42]我国互联网医院服务模式分析
[43]北京市16区患者基层医疗卫生机构就诊情况及影响因素研究
[44]经济新常态环境下社会保险与商业保险融合发展研究
[45]基于层次分析法研究门诊患者选择医疗机构的影响因素
[46]农民参加城乡居民基本医疗保险满意度及其影响因素——基于湖南省5市的实证分析
[47]用人单位未缴纳基本医疗保险的侵权损害赔偿——以保定金盛公司医保纠纷案为例
[48]西宁地区ICU老年慢性阻塞性肺疾病伴严重呼吸衰竭的危险因素分析
[49]老龄化背景下我国老年人长期照护社会性保险法制构建初探
[50]政研融合构建医保治理体系与现代化初探
[51]医院医保管理中PDCA循环管理模式的应用与效果评价
保险相关论文题目
1、西部地区新型农村合作医疗资金筹集和运作的优化措施分析
2、中外国家保险业效率比较研究
3、我国保险网络营销 渠道 策略研究
4、中国平安人寿理赔服务满意度提升方案
5、保险人代位求偿权问题分析
6、我国银行保险发展问题探析
7、关于团险渠道业务发展困境的思考
8、从政府机构的视角构建我国海洋与渔业灾害风险防范体系
9、中国财产保险公司经营效率实证研究
10、互联网保险的前景分析及模式预测
11、我国淡水养殖保险发展制约因素及对策分析
12、中国保险业成熟度的测量与实证
13、人寿保险信托及其在我国推行的意义
14、我国西部民族地区巨灾保险立法探析
15、基层农机保险现状及对策建议
16、关于中国邮政保险未来发展的思考
17、电商时代下邮政保险业务创新发展策略
18、我国保险销售渠道改革创新的方向与措施
19、大学生纳入城镇居民医疗保险存在的问题与对策
20、《社会保险法》实施中的问题及对策研究
21、我国老年护理保险的法律探析
22、我国保险监管模式的现实思考
23、浅析我国电子商务保险发展
24、我国保险业中若干问题的统计分析
25、车险创新销售模式
26、大学生参加城镇居民基本医疗保险意愿影响因素分析
27、陕西地区快递保险调查与分析
28、从保险学的角度探析近代哈尔滨保险业特点
29、我国保险的现状及发展趋势分析
30、移动保险渠道 市场营销 现状与发展趋势分析
31、养老保险双轨制的影响及未来路径探讨
32、基于洪水数值模拟的溃堤保险定价研究
33、论雇主责任保险
34、浅析新形势下我国保险欺诈现状和对策
35、浅谈货物运输保险及发生事故的赔偿责任
36、论保险合同格式条款被认定无效的情形、原因及对策
37、我国保险营销现状及对策
38、我国财险保险发展现状及影响因素分析
39、农业互助保险制度的优势与创设构想
40、保险市场消费行为心理因素分析
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restraint and countermeasure of the on-line insurance’s development
保险论文英文参考文献
下面是我整理的保险论文英文参考文献，希望对大家有所帮助。
[1]Syed ， Ali ，and NJohn Kurian. Toward a Theory of Agricultural Insurance[J] .American Journal of Agricultural Economics，Vol. 64， ，Aug，1982
[2]Carl and Edna . Further Toward a Theory of Agricultural Insurance[ J] .American Journal of Agricultural Economics， Vol. 69’ ， Aug， 1987
[3] Barry . An Empirical Analysis of the Demand for Multiple Peril Crop Insurance [J].American Journal of Agricultural Economics. Vol. 75，No. 2，May， 1993
[5] ， and . "Subsidized Crop Insurance and Extensive Margin"University of California，Berkeley，Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Policy，2
[6] Moschini G and Hennessy . Uncertainty，Risk Aversion and Risk Management for Agricultural Producers [J] .American Journal of Agricultural
[7] Barry ，Monte ，and John . An EmpiricalAnalysis of Acreage Effects of Participation In The Federal Crop Insurance Program[J].American Journal of Agricultural Economics. Vol. 86， No. 4，Nov， 24
[8] Keith H. Coble，Thomas ， Rulon ，and Jeffery R. Expected-IndemnityApproach to the Measurement of Moral Hazard in Crop InsurancefJ] .American Journal of AgriculturalEconomics. Vol. 79，No. 1，Feb， 1997
我来解决吧呵呵我是sail2011
摘要 本文探讨影响消费者的态度汽车保险索赔申请夸张。使用个人反应的一项全国性调查,建造 社会上的态度、文学和测试假说了关于消费者作出许可或者不许可的索赔夸张。该研究发现支持 假定的态度对他人的索赔夸张的状态,自己的态度,不另设置对保险机构申请有关的态度言辞夸大。 由许多帐户,消费者欺保险公司近习惯性的规律。广泛引用的直接成本的估计性能及责任保险索赔欺诈,每年将近20亿美元(穆尼和萨尔瓦多,1990)。即使是大约准确,这就差不多8%的年保费收入的10%,或者行业年度亏损的产业。包括间接成本与欺诈防治会把数字甚至更高,声称欺诈问题的巨大的大小。
摘要本文探讨对申请夸大汽车保险索赔的消费者态度的因素。利用个别反应一项全国性调查，并在建设对态度的形成社会经济文献，文件制定和测试有关的假设消费者的同意或反对夸大的索赔。这项研究认为，为支持对申请夸大宣称，在自己的国家，对不诚实行为在其他设置自己的态度，对索赔的态度他人的夸张，和保险机构的看法都与假设的态度。通过多个帐户，欺消费者，近惯常规律保险公司。广泛引用的估计发生的欺诈性财产和近20元，每年10亿美元的责任保险索赔的直接成本（穆尼和Salvatore，1990）。如果连约准确，这将达到近8行业的全年保费收入的4％或10％的行业亏损的年度亏损。包括与欺诈的预防和控制有关的间接费用将使这一数字甚至更高，使得索赔欺诈的规模巨大的问题。
20000字左右？报酬也太低点了吧？建议你还是到专业汽车、保险等网站、论坛上去找吧！
(美)康斯坦斯·M.卢瑟亚特()等著,英勇,于小东总译校.财产与责任保险原理[M]. 北京大学出版社, 2003 (美)小哈罗德·斯凯博()等编著,荆涛等译.国际风险与保险[M]. 机械工业出版社, 1999 (美)所罗门·许布纳()等著,陈欣等译.财产和责任保险[M]. 中国人民大学出版社, 2002 【英】Malcolm A. Clarke 著、 何美欢、吴志攀等译：《保险合同法》，北京大学出版社 2002 年版。 Mckendrick :“Contract Law”（影印本）,法律出版社 2003 年版。 H. Whincup：“Contract Law and Practice—the EnglishSystem and Continental Comparisons” 中信出版社,2003 年版。 F. Dobbyn : “Insurance Law”（影印本）,法律出版社 2001年版。 Lowry , Philip Rawlings : “Insurance Law :Doctrines andPrinciples” , Hart Publishing Ltd. (1999). Hodgin :“Insurance Law :Text and Materials” (SecondEdition) Cavendish Publishing Limited (2002) . L. Emanuel：“Contracts”，中信出版社 2003 年版。 A. Eisenberg:“Disclosure in Contract Law”，91 CaliforniaLaw Review （2003）. T. Kronman :“Mistake, Disclosure, Information, and theLaw of Contracts”,7(1) Journal of Legal Studies (1978). J :“Insurer’s breach of good faith——a newtort?”,(1992) 108 LQR 35.这些都是比较好的
Insurance, in law and economics, is a form of risk management primarily used to hedge against the risk of potential financial loss. Insurance is defined as the equitable transfer of the risk of a potential loss, from one entity to another, in exchange for a premium and duty of care. there are a few principles of insurance, which are considered as the uncertain losses, the predictable rate and distribution of losses,the sinificant of loss and the loss must be catastrophic. A property or liability insurance policy is a "personal contract," a "conditional contract," a "unilateral contract," a "contract of adhesion," a "contract of indemnity," and a contract which requires that the person insured have an insurable interest at the time of the insured-against contingency. Further: An Insurance Contract is one of Uberrima fides. This is a Latin phrase meaning "utmost good faith" (or translated literally, "most abundant faith"). It is the name of a legal doctrine which governs insurance contracts. This means that all parties to an insurance contract must deal in good faith, making a full declaration of all material facts in the insurance proposal. This contrasts with the legal doctrine of caveat emptor (let the buyer beware). An entity seeking to transfer risk (an individual, corporation, or association of any type) becomes the 'insured' party once risk is assumed by an 'insurer', the insuring party, by means of a contract, defined as an insurance 'policy'. This legal contract sets out terms and conditions specifying the amount of coverage (compensation) to be rendered to the insured, by the insurer upon assumption of risk, in the event of a loss, and all the specific perils covered against (indemnified), for the term of the contract. When insured parties experience a loss for a specified peril, the coverage entitles the policyholder to make a 'claim' against the insurer for the amount of loss as specified by the policy contract. The fee paid by the insured to the insurer for assuming the risk is called the 'premium'. Insurance premiums from many clients are used to fund accounts set aside for later payment of claims—in theory for a relatively few claimants—and for overhead costs. So long as an insurer maintains adequate funds set aside for anticipated losses, the remaining margin becomes their profit. Insurers make money in two ways. Through underwriting, the process through which insurers select what risks to insure and decide how much premium to charge for accepting those risks and by investing the premiums they have collected from insureds Some people consider insurance a type of wager (particularly as associated with moral hazard) that executes over the policy period. The insurance company bets that you or your property will not suffer a loss while you put money on the opposite outcome. The difference in the fees paid to the insurance company versus the amount for which they can be held liable if an accident happens is roughly analogous to the odds one might expect when betting on a racehorse (for example, 10 to 1). For this reason, a number of religious groups, including the Amish and some Muslim groups, avoid insurance and instead depend on support provided by their communities when disasters strike. This can be thought of as "social insurance," as the risk of any given person is assumed collectively by the community who will all bear the cost of rebuilding. In closed, supportive communities where others can be trusted to step in to rebuild lost property, this arrangement can work. Any risk that can be quantified probably has a type of insurance to protect it. Among the different types of insurance are: Automobile insurance, also known as auto insurance, car insurance and in the UK as motor insurance, is probably the most common form of insurance and may cover both legal liability claims against the driver and loss of or damage to the vehicle itself. Over most of the United States purchasing an auto insurance policy is required to legally operate a motor vehicle on public roads. Recommendations for which policy limits should be used are specified in a number of books. In some jurisdictions, bodily injury compensation for automobile accident victims has been changed to No Fault systems, which reduce or eliminate the ability to sue for compensation but provide automatic eligibility for benefits. Boiler insurance (also known as Boiler and Machinery insurance or Equipment Breakdown Insurance) Casualty insurance insures against accidents, not necessarily tied to any specific property. Credit insurance pays some or all of a loan back when certain things happen to the borrower such as unemployment, disability, or death. Financial loss insurance protects individuals and companies against various financial risks. For example, a business might purchase cover to protect it from loss of sales if a fire in a factory prevented it from carrying out its business for a time. Insurance might also cover failure of a creditor to pay money it owes to the insured. Fidelity bonds and surety bonds are included in this category. Health insurance covers medical bills incurred because of sickness or accidents. Liability insurance covers legal claims against the insured. For example, a homeowner's insurance policy provides the insured with protection in the event of a claim brought by someone who slips and falls on the property, and brings a lawsuit for her injuries. Similarly, a doctor may purchase liability insurance to cover any legal claims against him if his negligence (carelessness) in treating a patient caused the patient injury and/or monetary harm. The protection offered by a liability insurance policy is two-fold: a legal defense in the event of a lawsuit commenced against the policyholder, plus indemnification (payment on behalf of the insured) with respect to a settlement or court verdict. Life insurance provides a cash benefit to a decedent's family or other designated beneficiary, and may specifically provide for burial, funeral and other final expenses. Annuities provide a stream of payments and are generally classified as insurance because they are issued by insurance companies and regulated as insurance. Annuities and pensions that pay a benefit for life are sometimes regarded as insurance against the possibility that a retiree will outlive his or her financial resources. In that sense, they are the complement of life insurance. Total permanent disability insurance insurance provides benefits when a person is permanently disabled and can no longer work in their profession, often taken as an adjunct to life insurance. Locked Funds Insurance is a little known hybrid insurance policy jointly issued by governments and banks. It is used to protect public funds from tamper by unauthorised parties. In special cases, a government may authorise its use in protecting semi-private funds which are liable to tamper. Terms of this type of insurance are usually very strict. As such it is only used in extreme cases where maximum security of funds is required. Marine Insurance covers the loss or damage of goods at sea. Marine insurance typically compensates the owner of merchandise for losses sustained from fire, shipwreck, etc., but excludes losses that can be recovered from the carrier. Nuclear incident insurance — damages resulting from an incident involving radioactivive materials is generally arranged at the national level. (For the United States, see Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act.) Environmental Liability Insurance protects the insured from bodily injury, property damage and cleanup costs as a result of the dispersal, release or escape of a pollutant. Political risk insurance can be taken out by businesses with operations in countries in which there is a risk that revolution or other political conditions will result in a loss. Professional Indemnity Insurance is normally a mandatory requirement for professional practitioners such as Architects, Lawyers, Doctors and Accountants to provide insurance cover against potential negligence claims. Non licensed professionals may also purchase malpractice insurance, it is commonly called Errors and Omissions Insurance and covers a service provider for claims made against them that arise out of the performance of specified professional services. For instance, a web site designer can obtain E&O insurance to cover them for certain claims made by third parties that arise out of negligent performance of web site development services. Property insurance provides protection against risks to property, such as fire, theft or weather damage. This includes specialized forms of insurance such as fire insurance, flood insurance, earthquake insurance, home insurance, inland marine insurance or boiler insurance. Terrorism insurance Title insurance provides a guarantee that title to real property is vested in the purchaser and/or mortgagee, free and clear of liens or encumbrances. It is usually issued in conjunction with a search of the public records done at the time of a real estate transaction. Travel insurance is an insurance cover taken by those who travel abroad, which covers certain losses such as medical expenses, lost of personal belongings, travel delay, personal liabilities.. etc. Workers' compensation insurance replaces all or part of a worker's wages lost and accompanying medical expense incurred due to a job-related injury. A single policy may cover risks in one or more of the above categories. For example, car insurance would typically cover both property risk (covering the risk of theft or damage to the car) and liability risk (covering legal claims from say, causing an accident). A homeowner's insurance policy in the . typically includes property insurance covering damage to the home and the owner's belongings, liability insurance covering certain legal claims against the owner, and even a small amount of health insurance for medical expenses of guests who are injured on the owner's property. Potential sources of risk that may give rise to claims are known as "perils". Examples of perils might be fire, theft, earthquake, hurricane and many other potential risks. An insurance policy will set out in details which perils are covered by the policy and which are not. Insurance companies may be classified as Life insurance companies, who sell life insurance, annuities and pensions products. Non-life or general insurance companies, who sell other types of insurance. In most countries, life and non-life insurers are subject to different regulations, tax and accounting rules. The main reason for the distinction between the two types of company is that life business is very long term in nature — coverage for life assurance or a pension can cover risks over many decades. By contrast, non-life insurance cover usually covers a shorter period, such as one year.
根据学术堂的了解，参考文献是英语论文的重要组成部分，也是编辑加工和重要内容。接下来就为大家介绍英语论文参考文献格式要求，欢迎阅读。I.文内引用(一)直接引用1.引用中的省略原始资料的引用：在正文中直接引用时，应给出作者、年份，并用带括号的数字标出页码。若有任何资料省略，使用英文时，应用3个省略号在句中标出(…)，中文用6个(……);若两句间的资料省略，英文应用4个省略号标出(‥‥)，中文用6个(……)。若要在直接引用插入自己的解释，应使用方括号[ ]。若在资料中有什么错误拼写、错误语法或标点错误会使读者糊涂，应在引用后立即插入[sic]，中文用[原文如此]。下面是一些示例：例一：The DSM IV defines the disorder [dysthymic] as being in a chronically depressed mood that occurs for "most of the day more days than not for at least two years (Criterion A) .... In children, the mood may be irritable rather than depressed, and the required minimum duration is only one year" (APA, 1994, p. 345).例二：Issac (1995) states that bipolar disorder "is not only uncommon but may be the most diagnostic entity in children and adolescents in similar settings .... and may be the most common diagnosis in adolescents who are court-remanded to such settings" ().2.大段落引用当中文引用超过160字时，不使用引号，而使用“块”的形式(引用起于新的一行，首行缩进4个空格，两端对齐，之后每行都缩进)。当英文引用超过40字时，不使用引号，而使用“块”的形式(引用起于新的一行，首行缩进5个空格，左对齐，之后每行都缩进)。Elkind (1978) states:In general, our findings support Piaget's view that perceptionsas well as intelligence are neither entirely inborn nor entirely innate but are rather progressively constructed through the gradual development of perceptual regulations. The chapter has also attempted to demonstrate the applicability of Piaget's theory to practical issues by summarizing some research growing out of an analysis of beginning reading. ()(二)间接引用1.基本格式同作者在同一段中重复被引用时，第一次必须写出日期，第二次以后则日期可省略。a.英文文献：In a recent study of reaction times, Walker (2000) described the method…Walker also found…。b.中文文献：李福印(2004)提出概念隐喻的重要性，…;李福印同时建议…。2. 单一作者a. 英文文献：姓氏(出版或发表年代)或(姓氏，出版或发表年代)。例如：Porter (2001)…或…(Porter, 2001)。b. 中文文献：姓名(出版或发表年代)或(姓名，出版或发表年代)。例如：杨惠中(2011)…或…(杨惠中，2011)。3.两个作者英文引用时，在圆括号内使用两名作者的姓氏，并使用“&”来连接，在正文中，使用“and”连接两名作者。中文引用时，在圆括号内使用两名作者的姓名，并用顿号“、”来连接，在正文中，使用 “和”、“与”、“及”等字连接两名作者。例如：(Smith & Jones, 1994), or Smith and Jones (1994) found....In 1994 Smith and Jones researched.... Always cite both names in text.陈国华和田兵(2008)认为…或…(陈国华、田兵，2008)4.三至五个作者英文第一次引用参考资料时，列出所有的作者的姓氏，除最后一名作者之前在正文中使用逗号加“and”、在圆括号内使用逗号加“&”连接外，之前的其他作者之间使用逗号“，”;之后引用时，英文用第一个作者的姓随之以“et al.”。中文第一次引用参考资料时，列出所有作者的姓名，除最后两名作者之间用“和”连接外，之前的其他作者之间使用顿号“、”;之后引用时，用第一名作者加“等”字。例如：Strasburger, Jorgensen, and Randles (1996) found differences.... (第一次使用).Strasburger et al. (1996) also created tests.... (在段落中第二次使用).Starsburger et al. found discrepancies.... (在同一段落中再次使用，此时省略年份).卫乃兴、李文中与濮建忠(2005)指出…或…(卫乃兴、李文中、濮建忠，2005)。(第一次使用)卫乃兴等(2005)指出…或…(卫乃兴等，2005)。(第二次使用)5.六个作者及以上使用英文时，只用第一个人的姓氏加“et al.”;使用中文时，只列出第一名作者的姓名，再加上“等”。例如：Pouliquen et al. (2003)……或……(Pouliquen et al., 2003)王洪俊等(2007)…或…(王洪俊等,2007)6.团体作者使用中文时，第一次用全称，比如，(首都师范大学教育科学学院[首师大教科院]，2001);之后可以用简称，比如，首师大教科院(2001)的调查表明……。使用英文时，第一次引用时，拼出团体，比如, (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 1996);以后用团体缩写加年份表示，比如，The NIMH (1996) examined....。7.没有作者的文献当一部作品没有作者时，在文中引用参考文献目录单中的前几个字(通常是标题)和年份。比如，一项关于成年人抑郁症的调查(“Study Finds”, 1997)报告……。当某作品的作者列为“Anonymous”、中文使用“匿名”或“无名氏”时，英文引用时用“Anonymous”加逗号及年份，即(Anonymous, 1997)，中文用“匿名”加逗号及年份，即(匿名，1997)。8.英文文献作者姓氏相同英文文献作者姓氏相同时，相同姓氏之作者于论文中引用时均引用全名，以避免混淆。例如：R. D. Luce (1995) and G. E. Luce (1988)…。9.多篇文献a. 多篇文献，同一作者若一作者有多篇你想引用的文献，只需用逗号“，”来区隔作品的发表年份(最早到最晚依序排列)。若多篇文献在同一年内发表，请在年份后面加上a、b、c……等标注。(按：abc的使用需与参考文献部分有所对应，而这些文献的编排以标题名称的字母来决定。)例如：1)A recent study found a possible genetic cause of alcoholism (Pauling, 2004, 2005a, 2005b).2)Pauling (2004, 2005a, 2005b) conducted a study that discovered a possible genetic cause of alcoholismb.多篇文献，多位作者文献依姓氏字母(笔画)、出版年代等顺序排列，不同作者之间用分号“;”分开，相同作者不同年代之文献用逗号“，” 分开。例如：…(Pautler, 1992; Razik & Swanson, 1993a, 1993b)。例如：…(董伟，2010;周音，2011a，2011b)。
英文论文写作参考文献
参考文献是文章或著作等写作过程中参考过的文献，文后参考文献是指为撰写或编辑论文和著作而引用的有关文献信息资源。
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