很多，你自己看看后总结一下吧！！ 关于霍桑《红字》的主题，学者们有着不同的理解。在众多评论中，最耐人寻味的，当属美国评论家尼娜·贝姆教授的观点：《红字》是一部描绘自然人与社会人分岐的小说。尼娜·贝姆提到“（‘市场’）这个场景显示在个人与由个人组成的社会之间原先具有的一致中出现了一个可想而知的分歧，一道裂隙。”而事实上，整部小说或多或少反映了自然的个人与社会的个人之间的矛盾、冲突。这种冲突试着达成某种一致，最后以一种相融状态结束。谁胜？谁负？ 《红字》中自然人与社会人的冲突可从两个层次来理解。首先是代表自然人利益的一伙人与代表社会人利益的一伙人之间的冲突；然后是每个人的自然属性与社会属性的冲突。 一、作品中代表自然人利益的主要是女主人公海斯特及其女儿珀尔，而代表社会人利益的是两个情敌丁梅斯德与齐林窝斯 霍桑将海斯特追求自然人利益的思想表现得淋漓尽致。在海斯特看来，追求爱情这是个人的事，与社会、道德、宗教无关。所以她形式上虽然接受了惩罚胸前佩带红色a字，而在思想上却“没有接受惩罚她的那些社会道德规范”。而且这一罪之罚的形式标志a字也被她绣得光彩夺目，并成为“她进入别的女人不敢涉足的领域的通行证”。为拯救行将失去生活勇气的牧师，海斯特劝牧师离开小镇，到自由美好的地方生活，过一家三口的正常生活这也是自然人最起码的要求。 珀尔的存在本身便是自然人与社会人的矛盾。作为“自然”的产物，爱的结晶，珀尔来到世上，其与生俱来的“自然”品质在作品中得到充分渲染。珀尔与太阳、森林融合为一体，与狼成为朋友，说明珀尔是自然的一部分。正如尼娜·贝姆教授所说，“她具有清教徒所竭力否定的一切自然的品质。”而珀尔的存在作为一种惩罚，使海斯特想起自己的罪恶。珀尔在行使“社会”对海斯特的监控权利，只要海斯特做出违背社会约束的事情，珀尔就会提醒她（如海斯特摘掉a，珀尔不认她的一幕）。因而福格勒在《霍桑的小说》中将珀尔看成“是将海斯特的通奸始终呈现在她的面前，使她怎么也无法逃脱她自己行为所招致的后果。” 丁梅斯德，这个受过良好的教育，文雅而持重的年轻牧师，在教区中担任至高的社会责任，是教区里德才出众的人物，自认自己是教区中最神圣的人，并笃信自己是“受上帝的招呼”，作为上帝的替身来从事牧师工作的，自然应该被仰慕、被爱戴。他忍受严酷的精神折磨是为了维护加尔文清教教义并奢望通过为教民们超渡、赎罪、布道以达到内心平安，但七年过去了，这种奢望却一天也未得到满足。最终以死亡来向上帝谢罪。从这一点来看，丁梅斯德已失去人的自然属性，成为清教教义的工具。 老齐林窝斯本应是位受害者的形象，但他选择了向情敌复仇，这也是在维护17世纪新英格兰的社会公德及当时的妇道。 海斯特与两个男人的冲突，一个表现在追求幸福的家庭生活与维护教义，牧师形象的矛盾；另一个表现在追求女人真正的幸福与坚守妇道之间的矛盾。 二、人的自然属性与社会属性的冲突集中表现在几个人物身上 海斯特的自然属性是真实的，她的社会属性却是虚伪的、虚假的。因而她不存在两种属性（两个自我）的矛盾，她自始至终都只有一个自我。表面上看，海斯特“诚实”地“招认”了自己的罪行，并“顺从”地接受社会、宗教、法律对她的惩罚。但她内心深入并没有一刻顺从过。在《红字》第十九章中，她将a字摘掉仍在林间地上。这表明她憎恨这一切。她始终游离于社会之外，并伺机逃离社会。是社会抛弃了她还是她抛弃了社会？ 人的自然属性与社会属性冲突的焦点体现在丁梅斯德身上。“他充当着牧师和情人的双重角色，是宗教与自然，社会与人性之间冲突的一个焦点。”〔4〕这里的宗教、社会正是人的社会属性的内容，而自然与人性则是人的自然属性的内容。表面上丁梅斯德充当着众人信服的、虔诚的牧师，置所应负的责任于不顾，内心虽也受着煎熬，但却能若无其事地布道，这说明他的社会属性一开始战胜了自然属性，并长达七年之久。然而追求正常人生活的渴望却一刻也未停止过，在《红字》第19章中丁梅斯德谈到，“你无法想象，我的心里多么害怕这次会面，又多么渴望它！”一语道破其矛盾的自我。 他接受海斯特的怂恿，准备一起逃往英国之事，也说明他追求自然的强烈愿望。《红字》中第20章“身陷迷宫的牧师”着力描写了经过林间会面后的牧师，其自然属性开始复苏，并且这种力量一经觉醒便占胜了他外强中干的社会属性，以一种令他自己吃惊的不知疲倦的活力克服了路途上的一切困难。一时间，“整个教堂外观显得如此陌生，却又如此熟悉，致使丁梅斯德先生的头脑在两种想法之间摆动不已：要么迄今为止他只是梦中看到它，要么此时他是在做梦”。这表明了他在追求自由、幸福的正常人生活与维护其原有的社会地位，名望之间摇摆不定。自然属性与社会属性在他体内短兵相接。他的自白可以表明此时的主场：“我并不是你们当作是我的那个人！我已经把他留在那边森林里啦……，去吧，去寻找你们的牧师，看看他那消瘦的身躯，憔悴的脸颊，他那白皙、饱满突出、布有痛苦皱纹的额头是否像一件被丢弃的衣服那样被掷在那儿了！”这表明丁梅斯德要与过去的自我社会属性的一面一刀两断。并终于在他作了激动人心的节日宗教宣讲之后撕下“牧师”的面纱，现出“情人”的本色。“经过复杂痛苦的内心斗争，‘人性’终于获取了胜利”。 至于老齐林窝斯，表面上看他在维护婚姻的社会地位，主张妇女坚守妇道，向情敌复仇以讨回自己做丈夫的权力及尊严俨然一个道德裁判者的形象。这也是其社会属性的外在表现。但内心是在满足其报复的私欲和在心理上，精神上折磨别人的快感。这是他自然属性中最阴险的一面。
1、《红字》的主题思想
《红字》以两百多年前的殖民地时代的美洲为题材，但揭露的却是19世纪资本主义发展时代美利坚合众国社会典法的残酷、宗教的欺骗和道德的虚伪。主人公海丝特被写成了崇高道德的化身。她不但感化了表里不一的丁梅斯代尔，同时也在感化着充满罪恶的社会。
至于她的丈夫奇林渥斯，小说则把他写成了一个一心只想窥秘复仇的影子式的人物。他在小说中只起情节铺垫的作用。
2、《红字》象征手法
《红字》用略带神秘色彩的自然景象烘托环境、渣染气氛和映衬人物心理的手法俯拾皆是，最突出的便是丁梅斯代尔牧师和海丝特及珠儿在夜晚和密林中的两次会见：由红字连系在一起的几个主要人物的同时出场，如同戏剧中迭起的高潮，把全书紧织在一个严密的结构之中。
作者还把这种手法用于刻画人物液他的笔下次要人物的是非善恶和他们之间的思恩怨怨写得十分含蓄，而几个主要人物则通过个别的心理挖掘、成双的组合的冲突和同时出场亮相的交汇，交待出各人与红字相关的象征。
《红字》是美国浪漫主义作家霍桑创作的长篇小说。
扩展资料：
《红字》创作背景
霍桑的先祖威廉·霍桑1630年来到美洲大陆，曾经担任过马萨诸塞殖民地的官员，当众驱逐鞭打过一位教友派的妇女，而霍桑的曾曾祖父约翰·霍桑则是臭名昭著的1692年塞莱姆女巫审判中的三位法官之一，根据他的裁决，数名女巫被送上了绞架。
霍桑创作《红字》的目的之一就是希望通过写作，“替他们（祖先）蒙受耻辱，并祈求从今以后洗刷掉他们招致的任何诅咒。”
在霍桑撰写《红字》的同时，第一次妇女大会正好在纽约召开（1848）。在这次大会上，女权主义者们提出了女性和男性拥有平等财产权的问题，指出女性“一旦结婚，在法律的角度看如同死亡。他（丈夫）拿走了她所有的财产权，甚至是她所赚取的工资。”
女权主义者们提出女性应该和男性一样平等地工作，以便从经济的角度摆脱对男性的依附。
事实上，在父权社会中，男性拒绝给予女性平等的经济权利，不仅仅是因为他们想要占有全部的财富，拒绝让女性来分一杯羹，更因为男性们早已意识到，女性在获得经济独立的同时，将不再满足雌伏于男性的羽翼之下，会努力寻求独立的思想和更为广阔的天地。
红字》的象征意义
关键词：红字 象征主义 中国论文 职称论文
摘 要:分析了《红字》中红字“A”丰富而深刻的内涵,指出作者通过塑造“小珠儿”的形象,增强了美与丑,善与恶的对比,寄托了作者对爱的绝对自由的向往。关键词:红字;A Pearl;象征主义
纳萨内尼·霍桑是浪漫主义时期美国最具天赋的小说家。他开创了美国文学史上“象征浪漫主义”的创作手法。作为生活在19世纪中期的浪漫主义作家,霍桑深受清教意识、超验哲学和神秘主义三种思想的影响,他对社会充满了怀疑,使得他的作品具有强烈的象征主义倾向。长篇小说《红字》是霍桑的代表作,作品以一通奸案为题材,通过描述小说人物的思想矛盾和生活遭遇来揭露黑暗的社会。霍桑在《红字》中艺术技巧独具匠心,特别是广泛地运用象征手法,像变魔术一样给予平凡的单词以不平凡的意义,给人以深刻的启示。《红字》中使用的象征手法有其深刻的思想根源和美学理论基础,体现了霍桑对“生命力受到压抑”的切肤之痛。鲁迅曾经指出“生命受到压抑而生的苦闷懊恼是文学的根底,而其表现手法乃是广义的象征主义”。霍桑的代表作《红字》正是在继承传统象征意义的艺术手法的基础上,开创了象征主义的新篇章。作为小说名字的“红字”贯穿于故事的全过程,并带有不同的象征含义,具有多义性和不确定性。随着故事情节的发展,红字“A”的内涵发生了由Adulteress到Able再到Angle的变化。这种象征的多义性和不确定性正是作者思想矛盾的反映,同时,作者一方面控诉清教对人性的摧残和压抑;另一方面又认同清教的道德观和教义。《红字》以17世纪北美清教殖民统治下的新英格兰为背景,取材于1642—1649年在波士顿发生的一个恋爱悲剧。故事一开始的场景发生在该镇监狱的门前,而这个场景的主角是海丝特·白兰,一个年轻、美丽的女人,她怀里抱着3个月大的女婴———珠儿,站在刑台上,等待政教合一的加尔文教(即清教)政权在大庭广众面前宣布对她的判决。那么,受审的女罪犯是什么人?她又犯了什么罪?故事开始于几年前,出身英国破落贵族家庭的白兰嫁给了一个畸形的年老学者。婚后,两人决定移居波士顿。途径荷兰时,丈夫因有事留下,妻子先独自来到波士顿,一住近两年。期间丈夫毫无音信。据传他在赶来的途中被印第安人俘虏,生死不明。在独居生活中,海丝特与当地牧师阿瑟·丁梅斯代尔相爱,生下了一个女婴。显然,她犯下了基督教“十戒”中的“一戒”,即通奸罪,为清教的教义所不容。她被投入监狱,法庭判她有罪,令她在刑台上站立三个小时当众受辱,并终身佩带一个红色的字母A(英文通奸Adultery的第一个字母)作为惩戒。但是作者霍桑赋予了在刑台上的“A”更深层的含义。对于压抑人民和毒害人民思想的清教而言,红字“A”为通奸的标记,事实上“A”不仅是海丝特深爱着的恋人Arthur Dimmesdale名字的第一个字母,也是法语中爱情Amour这个词的第一个字母。从字里行间中,读者可以品味出作者霍桑同情海丝特对爱的追求,甚至认为那是人的纯真本性,笔下洋溢出对海丝特的赞美之词:“斯特胸前红色的“A”字之精美仿佛不是屈辱的标志,而是艺术饰品。这个红色的“A”字是用细红布做的,四周用金色的丝线精心刺绣而成,手工奇巧。对于这个“A”字,霍桑设计的独具匠心,包含了丰富而华美的想象,配在她穿的那件衣服上真成了一件美丽的装饰品”。文中的描写给读者的感觉是海丝特仿佛不是一个“犯下无耻罪行的犯人”,而是一个怀抱圣婴的美丽端庄的妇人。随着故事的发展,霍桑不断地赋予了红字“A”更多更深层的含义。海斯特是一个向往纯真爱情,渴望幸福的女人。虽然她无法摆脱强加在她身体上的耻辱,但是她的内心深处的感情却激情澎湃,无法遏制。为了维持生计,她为别人刺绣。她的绣工巧夺天工,精妙绝伦。她精心地绣制各种美丽的“A”字。除了维持生计,海丝特别无所求,把寄托着她的青春,激情和才气的绣品换来的钱施舍给比她幸运的穷苦百姓。尽管她乐善好施,但是海丝特仍然没有摆脱精神的痛苦和世俗的磨难。但她始终没有消沉,反而变得坚强而成熟,依然反抗着清教并坚信着对丁梅斯代尔的爱情。时间是最好的证明,渐渐地她胸前所佩戴的红色字母“A”在众人的心中有了另一番含义:“没有人能够像她那样乐善好施,那样喜欢接济贫困者”;“那刺绣的红字闪射出非凡的光芒,给人以慰藉。在别的地方他是罪恶的标志,但在病房里却成为蜡烛。”虽然还有那些“执着的清教徒”认为海丝特的红字是耻辱的象征,但是更多善良的人们拒绝再用原来的意思解释“A”,他们说那个字的意思应该解释为“能干”(able)的意思。她以自己的美德赢得了人们的尊重和敬爱,她无尽的同情心和勇于献身的精神产生了巨大的力量,在众人眼中,红字“A”反而具有了天使的内涵———纯洁,美丽,善良,博爱。通过作者对红色字母“A”的驾驭,我们可以看出霍桑对主人公海丝特热情、善良、坚强、勇敢的天性的赞美。于此同时,我们也可以看出作者的另一个写作意图,通过美与丑,善与恶的对比,霍桑对清教徒的卑劣行径刻画的入木三分,痛斥得酣畅淋漓。“清教徒倡导勤俭、反对奢靡,无疑是净化社会的一剂良药,但是标榜禁欲,让世人过苦行僧般的生活,多少有些泯灭人性之嫌”。而主人公海丝特正是祭奠清教徒狂热宗教信仰的无辜羔羊。通过“A”的不断变化,作者为我们揭示了当时社会的真实图景。如果说红字A在清教徒的眼中是通奸的代表,那么赋予了象征意义的红字A就象征着善良、美好、坚强和勤劳。如果说小珠儿是永不磨灭的活着的红字的话,那么赋予了象征意义的小珠儿就象征着纯真的爱情、这个时代的曙光。Pearl(小珠儿)是这部小说中唯一的一个阳光人物,她像珍珠一样纯洁,像天使一样善良快乐。在四个主要人物中,只有小珠儿在道德上是完美没有残缺的,她象征着人性中最无暇的一面。小珠儿的出现并非是作者的心血来潮,读者从对海丝特女儿名字的设计上就可以体会到。她是海丝特和丁梅斯代尔的女儿。Pearl这个词来源于圣经,意思是“十分珍贵的东西”。在圣经中记载,上帝让一个商人卖掉所有的财产去买一颗珍珠,并告诉他这颗珍珠即是他的天堂。海丝特为这段爱情付出了沉重的代价,可以说女儿在她心中占据绝对重要的位置,是她的天堂。同时,霍桑在小珠儿情节上的设计也是恰到好处,独具匠心。小珠儿既是海丝特爱情的象征,同时也是她耻辱的象征,是活着的红字。作者总是会有意无意地描写小珠儿对红字近乎天生的热爱:小珠儿出生时第一眼看到的就是母亲胸前灿烂的红字A.而且小珠儿十分的喜欢,伸手去抓,“眼里总是含着奇怪的表情与特殊的微笑”。正是珠儿的存在才时刻提醒着海丝特和丁梅斯代尔他们曾经犯下的“罪行”,督促他们净化自己的灵魂改过自新。正是因为小珠儿的存在才使丁梅斯代尔有勇气在公众面前承认自己的“罪行”。可以说,小珠儿寄托了作者对美好生活,纯真爱情,和追求善良无暇的人性的向往。是作者的希望所在,也是社会的希望所在。总而言之,正是由于霍桑在《红字》中独具匠心的象征手法的运用,使《红字》成为美国第一部象征主义小说,也正是因为霍桑在《红字》中象征手法的成功运用,成就了《红字》在文学领域的重要地位。
参考文献
[1] 常耀信.美国文学简史[M].天津:南开大学出版社,2003.
[2] 任晓晋,魏玲.红字中象征与原型的
模糊性、多义性和矛盾性[J].外国文学研究,2000,(1):121-125.
[3] 於奇.新编美国文学选读[M].郑州大学出版社,2005
[4] 田俊武.霍桑红字人名寓意研究[J].外国文学研究,1999,(1):52-54.
[5] 胡尚田.论红字中的红字[J].四川外语学院学报,1999,(4):45-48.
[6] 约翰·罗尔斯.正义论[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,1988.
A study of sym bolic m ean ingsof The Scarlet L etterZHANG W en-si(Fudan U n iversity,S hangha i 200433,Ch ina)Abstract:The author gives many rich and p rofoundmeanings of the scarlet letter A to contract beauty w ithugliness besides kindness and evil.Moreover,Haw2thorne reposes too much hope by molding the im age ofPearl.Key words:“the scarlet letter”;A Pearl;symbolism
The Scarlet Letter, published in 1850, is an American novel written by Nathaniel Hawthorne and is generally considered to be his magnum opus. Set in 17th-century Puritan Boston, it tells the story of Hester Prynne, who gives birth after committing adultery, refuses to name the father, and struggles to create a new life of repentance and dignity. Throughout the novel, Hawthorne explores questions of grace, legalism, sin and guilt.
[edit] Plot summary
The Scarlet Letter. Painting by T. H. Matteson. This 1860 oil-on-canvas was made under Hawthorne's personal supervision.
The Scarlet Letter. Painting by T. H. Matteson. This 1860 oil-on-canvas was made under Hawthorne's personal supervision.[1]
The novel begins in 17th-century Boston, Massachusetts, then a Puritan settlement. A young woman, Hester Prynne, is led from the town prison with her infant daughter in her arms and the scarlet letter “A” on her bosom. The scarlet letter "A" represents the act of adultery that she has committed and it is to be a symbol of her sin – a badge of shame – for all to see. A man in the crowd tells an elderly onlooker that Hester is being punished for adultery. Hester's husband, who is much older than she is, sent her ahead to America while he settled some affairs in Europe. However, her husband never arrived in Boston. The consensus is that he has been lost at sea. While waiting for her husband, Hester has apparently had an affair, as she has given birth to a child. She will not reveal her lover’s identity, however, and the scarlet letter, along with her public shaming, is her punishment for her sin and her secrecy. On this day Hester is led to the town scaffold and harangued by the town fathers, but she again refuses to identify her child’s father.[1]
The elderly onlooker is Hester’s missing husband, who is now practicing medicine and calling himself Roger Chillingworth. He settles in Boston, intent on revenge. He reveals his true identity to no one but Hester, whom he has sworn to secrecy. Several years pass. Hester supports herself by working as a seamstress, and Pearl (her daughter) grows into a willful, impish child, who is more of a symbol than an actual character, said to be the scarlet letter come to life as both Hester's love and her punishment. Shunned by the community, they live in a small cottage on the outskirts of Boston. Community officials attempt to take Pearl away from Hester, but, with the help of Arthur Dimmesdale, an eloquent minister, the mother and daughter manage to stay together. Dimmesdale, however, appears to be wasting away and suffers from mysterious heart trouble, seemingly caused by psychological distress. Chillingworth attaches himself to the ailing minister and eventually moves in with him so that he can provide his patient with round-the-clock care. Chillingworth also suspects that there may be a connection between the minister’s torments and Hester’s secret, and he begins to test Dimmesdale to see what he can learn. One afternoon, while the minister sleeps, Chillingworth discovers something undescribed to the reader, supposedly an "A" burned into Dimmesdale's chest, which convinces him that his suspicions are correct.[1]
Dimmesdale’s psychological anguish deepens, and he invents new tortures for himself. In the meantime, Hester’s charitable deeds and quiet humility have earned her a reprieve from the scorn of the community. One night, when Pearl is about seven years old, she and her mother are returning home from a visit to the deathbed of John Winthrop when they encounter Dimmesdale atop the town scaffold, trying to punish himself for his sins. Hester and Pearl join him, and the three link hands. Dimmesdale refuses Pearl’s request that he acknowledge her publicly the next day, and a meteor marks a dull red “A” in the night sky. It is interpreted by the townsfolk to mean Angel, as a prominent figure in the community had died that night, but Dimmesdale sees it as meaning Adultery. Hester can see that the minister’s condition is worsening, and she resolves to intervene. She goes to Chillingworth and asks him to stop adding to Dimmesdale’s self-torment. Chillingworth refuses. She suggests that she may reveal his identity to Dimmesdale.[1]
Hester arranges an encounter with Dimmesdale in the forest because she is aware that Chillingworth knows that she plans to reveal his identity to Dimmesdale, and she wishes to protect him. While walking through the forest, the sun will not shine on Hester, though Pearl can bask in it. They then wait for Dimmesdale, and he arrives. The former lovers decide to flee to Europe, where they can live with Pearl as a family. They will take a ship sailing from Boston in four days. Both feel a sense of release, and Hester removes her scarlet letter and lets down her hair. The sun immediately breaks through the clouds and trees to illuminate her release and joy. Pearl, playing nearby, does not recognize her mother without the letter. She is unnerved and expels a shriek until her mother points out the letter on the ground. Hester beckons Pearl to come to her, but Pearl will not go to her mother until Hester buttons the letter back onto her dress. Pearl then goes to her mother. Dimmesdale gives Pearl a kiss on the forehead, which Pearl immediately tries to wash off in the brook, because he again refuses to make known publicly their relationship. However, he too clearly feels a release from the pretense of his former life, and the laws and sins he has lived with.
The day before the ship is to sail, the townspeople gather for a holiday and Dimmesdale preaches his most eloquent sermon ever. Meanwhile, Hester has learned that Chillingworth knows of their plan and has booked passage on the same ship. Dimmesdale, leaving the church after his sermon, sees Hester and Pearl standing before the town scaffold. He impulsively mounts the scaffold with his lover and his daughter, and confesses publicly, exposing the mark supposedly seared into the flesh of his chest. He falls dead just after Pearl kisses him.[1]
Frustrated in his revenge, Chillingworth dies a year later. Hester and Pearl leave Boston, and no one knows what has happened to them. Many years later, Hester returns alone, still wearing the scarlet letter, to live in her old cottage and resume her charitable work. She receives occasional letters from Pearl, who was rumored to have married an European aristocrat and established a family of her own. Pearl also inherits all of Chillingworth's money even though he knows she is not his daughter. There is a sense of liberation in her and the townspeople, especially the women, who had finally begun to forgive Hester of her tragic indiscretion. When Hester dies, she is buried in "a new grave near an old and sunken one, in that burial ground beside which King's Chapel has since been built. It was near that old and sunken grave, yet with a space between, as if the dust of the two sleepers had no right to mingle. Yet one tombstone served for both." The tombstone was decorated with a letter "A", and it was used for Hester and Dimmesdale.
[edit] Major themes
Nathaniel Hawthorne
Nathaniel Hawthorne
[edit] Sin
Sin and knowledge are linked in the Judeo-Christian tradition. The Bible begins with the story of Adam and Eve, who were expelled from the Garden of Eden for eating from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. As a result of their knowledge, Adam and Eve are made aware of their disobedience, that which separates them from the divine and from other creatures. Once expelled from the Garden of Eden, they are forced to toil and to procreate – two “labors” that seem to define the human condition. The experience of Hester and Dimmesdale recalls the story of Adam and Eve because, in both cases, sin results in expulsion and suffering. But it also results in knowledge – specifically, in knowledge of what it means to be human. For Hester, the scarlet letter functions as “her passport into regions where other women dared not tread,” leading her to “speculate” about her society and herself more “boldly” than anyone else in New England.[2]
As for Dimmesdale, the “cheating minister” of his sin gives him “sympathies so intimate with the sinful brotherhood of mankind, so that his heart vibrate[s] in unison with theirs.” His eloquent and powerful sermons derive from this sense of empathy.[2] The narrative of the Reverend Arthur Dimmesdale is quite in keeping with the oldest and most fully authorized principles in Christian thought. His "Fall" is a descent from apparent grace to his own damnation; he appears to begin in purity. He ends in corruption. The subtlety is that the minister is his own deceiver, convincing himself at every stage of his spiritual pilgrimage that he is saved.[3]
The rosebush, its beauty a striking contrast to all that surrounds it – as later the beautifully embroidered scarlet A will be – is held out in part as an invitation to find “some sweet moral blossom” in the ensuing, tragic tale and in part as an image that “the deep heart of nature” (perhaps God) may look more kindly on the errant Hester and her child (the roses among the weeds) than do her Puritan neighbors. Throughout the work, the nature images contrast with the stark darkness of the Puritans and their systems.[4]
Chillingworth’s misshapen body reflects (or symbolizes) the evil in his soul, which builds as the novel progresses, similar to the way Dimmesdale's illness reveals his inner turmoil. The outward man reflects the condition of the heart.[4]
Although Pearl is a complex character, her primary function within the novel is as a symbol. Pearl herself is the embodiment of the scarlet letter, and Hester rightly clothes her in a beautiful dress of scarlet, embroidered with gold thread, just like the scarlet letter upon Hester's bosom. [2] Parallels can be drawn between Pearl and the character Beatrice in Rappaccini's Daughter. Both are studies in the same direction, though from different standpoints. Beatrice is nourished upon poisonous plants, until she herself becomes poisonous. Pearl, in the mysterious prenatal world, imbibes the poison of her parents' guilt.
[edit] Past and present
The clashing of past and present is explored in various ways. For example, the character of the old General, whose heroic qualities include a distinguished name, perseverance, integrity, compassion, and moral inner strength, is said to be “the soul and spirit of New England hardihood.” Now put out to pasture, he sometimes presides over the Custom House run by corrupt public servants, who skip work to sleep, allow or overlook smuggling, and are supervised by an inspector with “no power of thought, nor depth of feeling, no troublesome sensibilities,” who is honest enough but without a spiritual compass.[4]
Hawthorne himself had ambivalent feelings about the role of his ancestors in his life. In his autobiographical sketch, Hawthorne described his ancestors as “dim and dusky,” “grave, bearded, sable-cloaked, and steel crowned,” “bitter persecutors” whose “better deeds” would be diminished by their bad ones. There can be little doubt of Hawthorne’s disdain for the stern morality and rigidity of the Puritans, and he imagined his predecessors’ disdainful view of him: unsuccessful in their eyes, worthless and disgraceful. “A writer of story books!” But even as he disagrees with his ancestor’s viewpoint, he also feels an instinctual connection to them and, more importantly, a “sense of place” in Salem. Their blood remains in his veins, but their intolerance and lack of humanity becomes the subject of his novel.[4]
[edit] Public response
The Scarlet Letter was published in the spring of 1850 by Ticknor & Fields, beginning Hawthorne's most lucrative period.[5] When he delivered the final pages to James Thomas Fields in February 1850, Hawthorne said that "some portions of the book are powerfully written" but doubted it would be popular.[6] In fact, the book was an instant best-seller[7] though, over fourteen years, it brought its author only $1,500.[5] Its initial publication brought wide protest from natives of Salem, who did not approve of how Hawthorne had depicted them in his introduction "The Custom-House". A 2,500-copy second edition of The Scarlet Letter included a preface by Hawthorne dated March 30, 1850, that he had decided to reprint his introduction "without the change of a word... The only remarkable features of the sketch are its frank and genuine good-humor... As to enmity, or ill-feeling of any kind, personal or political, he utterly disclaims such motives".[8]
The book's immediate and lasting success are due to the way it addresses spiritual and moral issues from a uniquely American standpoint. In 1850, adultery was an extremely risqué subject, but because Hawthorne had the support of the New England literary establishment, it passed easily into the realm of appropriate reading. It has been said that this work represents the height of Hawthorne's literary genius; dense with terse descriptions. It remains relevant for its philosophical and psychological depth, and continues to be read as a classic tale on a universal theme.[9]
The Scarlet Letter was also one of the first mass-produced books in America. Into the mid-nineteenth century, bookbinders of home-grown literature typically hand-made their books and sold them in small quantities. The first mechanized printing of The Scarlet Letter, 2,500 volumes, sold out within ten days,[5] and was widely read and discussed to an extent not much experienced in the young country up until that time. Copies of the first edition are often sought by collectors as rare books, and may fetch up to around $6,000 USD.
On its publication, critic Evert Augustus Duyckinck, a friend of Hawthorne, said he preferred the author's Washington Irving-like tales. Another friend, critic Edwin Percy Whipple, objected to the novel's "morbid intensity" with dense psychological details, writing that the book "is therefore apt to become, like Hawthorne, too painfully anatomical in his exhibition of them".[10] 20th century writer D. H. Lawrence said that there could be no more perfect work of the American imagination than The Scarlet Letter.[11]
[edit] Allusions
* Anne Hutchinson, mentioned in Chapter 1, The Prison Door, was a religious dissenter (1591-1643). In the 1630s she was excommunicated by the Puritans and exiled from Boston and moved to Rhode Island.[4]
* Martin Luther (1483-1546) was a leader of the Protestant Reformation in Germany.
* Sir Thomas Overbury and Dr. Forman were the subjects of an adultery scandal in 1615 in England. Dr. Forman was charged with trying to poison his adulterous wife and her lover. Overbury was a friend of the lover and was perhaps poisoned.
* John Winthrop (1588-1649), first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
* Richard Dawkins' Out Campaign is represented with the Scarlet Letter A emblem.
[edit] Film, TV and theatrical adaptations
Main article: Film Adaptations of the Scarlet Letter
1995 film poster
1995 film poster
* 1917: A black-and-white silent film directed by Carl Harbaugh with Mary G. Martin as Hester Prynne
* 1926: A silent movie directed by Victor Sjostrom and starring Lillian Gish and Lars Hanson.
* 1934: film directed by Robert G. Vignola and starring Colleen Moore
* 1973: Der Scharlachrote Buchstabe a film directed by Wim Wenders in German
* 1979: PBS version starring Meg Foster and John Heard
* 1994: A rock musical, "The Scarlet Letter" written by Mark Governor is produced in Los Angeles.
* 1995: The Scarlet Letter, a film directed by Roland Joffé and starring Demi Moore as Hester and Gary Oldman as Arthur Dimmesdale. This version is "freely adapted" from Hawthorne according to the opening credits and takes liberties with the original story.
* 1996: The film Primal Fear references The Scarlet Letter.
* 1996: The Marilyn Manson promotional video for the song 'Man That You Fear' obliquely references the novel.
* The Red Letter Plays (In The Blood produced in 1999, and F--ing A, produced in 2000) by playwright Suzan-Lori Parks, rewrote the story placing it in contemporary New York and Houston.
* 2001: A musical stage adaptation which premiered at the Fringe Festival in Edinburgh, Scotland, by Stacey Mancine, Daniel Koloski, and Simon Gray.
* 2004: The Scarlet Letter is a Korean noir-thriller featuring an adulteress' monologue, that mentions a plan to raise her unborn child as Pearl in America, in a desperate plea to exit her obsessive affair.
* 2008: "shAme"[1], a rock opera by Mark Governor based on "The Scarlet Letter" premieres in Los Angeles. It is a major reworking of his 1994 stage musical that was also produced in Boston in 2000 and as a radio production in Berlin in 2005. The 2000 version was endorsed and presented by the Nathaniel Hawthorne Society.
[edit] References to the novel
Lists of miscellaneous information should be avoided. Please relocate any relevant information into appropriate sections or articles. (September 2008)
[edit] Literature
* The 1993 novel The Holder of the World by Bharati Mukherjee re-wrote the story, placing it in present-day Boston, Colonial America, and seventeenth-century India during the spread of the British East India Company.
* Deborah Noyes wrote a companion to this novel entitled Angel and Apostle with Pearl as the main character.
* Postmodern writer Kathy Acker borrows from The Scarlet Letter in her novel Blood and Guts in High School. Janie, the main character, identifies with Hester Prynne and intertwines their stories in a vulgar manner.
* In the novel Speak, Hairwoman, the English teacher, refers to The Scarlet Letter in her lesson. The novel's protagonist, Melinda Sordino, is a freshman in high school who is ostracized from her fellow schoolmates during the school year, much as Hester Prynne was ostracized by the Puritans in Boston.
* Maryse Condé's novel I, Tituba, Black Witch of Salem, although set at the time of the Salem witch trials, also features the character Hester Prynne.
* The title of Jhumpa Lahiri's 2008 novel Unaccustomed Earth comes from a passage from the introduction to The Scarlet Letter: "Human nature will not flourish, any more than a potato, if it be planted and replanted, for too long a series of generations, in the same worn-out soil. My children have had other birthplaces, and, so far as their fortunes may be within my control, shall strike their roots into unaccustomed earth."
[edit] Culture
Richard Dawkins's Out Campaign for atheism uses a red scarlet "A" on webpages and clothing as an emblem of atheist identification. [12]
Tennessee has drivers convicted of DUI wear vests advertising this fact while on roadside litter pick-up duty. This is a badge of shame similar to the original scarlet letter.
