论文摘要:《圣经义,从各个方面都对西方社会产生了深刻影响,西方社会的各方面,都包含《圣经》的影子。本文旨在从亚当这一人物形象对美国文学创作产生的影响方面,来论述圣经对西方文学发展的影响。主要包括三个部分:圣经的经典人物场景、亚当在文学作品中的印记、为什么作家热衷于圣经中的人物形象。
论文关键词:圣经亚当 新亚当
圣经是西方 文化 的精神代表,对西方的文学产生了深刻的影响。了解圣经,认识圣经,从整体上把握圣经的脉络,这对我们认识西方文学有着重大的作用。
西方世界经历了两次世界大战,人们的整体价值观受到了很大的冲击,但从整体上看,其文化核心与信仰根本还是圣经。在西方,各种文学创作都与圣经有着不可分割的关系。但由于读者不了解圣经的 故事 ,体会不到作家在作品当中的良苦用心,造成文化隔膜。
1《圣经》中的伊甸园,亚当和夏娃
《旧约·创世纪》中记载了伊甸园、亚当和夏娃的故事。按《圣经》的说法,人类是这个世界的管理者和支配者。亚当的含义是“人”,夏娃的含义是“生命之母”。上帝在东方的伊甸,为亚当和夏娃造了一个乐园。后来,撒旦引诱他们吃了善恶树上的果实,上帝把他们赶出了伊甸园。
而被文学家所青睐的正是这些意蕴深远的人物。在文学作品中,出现频率最高的就是亚当、夏娃、耶稣、撒旦、亚伯拉罕等人。他们的故事往往能激发作家的丰富 想象力 ,从而塑造出一个又一个独特而新颖的主人公形象。其中,较为突出的就是十九世纪美国文学作品中所创造的“新亚当”形象。
2亚当在十九世纪美国文学作品中的印记
在美利坚民族形成和美国建国的过程中,圣经深刻影响了来自英国的清教徒对美洲大陆的设想和规划。他们用圣经中的词语,把海外移民的行为神圣化。十九世纪美国的飞速发展,激起了人们建立伊甸园的构想,于是,这给美国文学引入了~个全新形象——新亚当。
2.1开创亚当形象先河的库柏
库柏创作了著名的“皮袜子五部曲”,主要描写了森林中的猎手“皮袜子”——纳蒂·班波的一生。在《圣经》当中,上帝命亚当守护伊甸园。而“皮袜子”俨然是一个守护伊甸园的亚当。库柏曾说“皮袜子”是“具有两种生活条件的最好品质而又不走极端”。就是说,它除了具有淳朴的品质以外,还具有__文明的特征。库柏的“新亚当”虽然也有一定的局限性,但是,可以说他是库柏自己心目中美国人的形象。
2.2瓦尔登湖上的亚当
梭罗是美国超验主义运动的重要领袖。他的一个重要思想就是认为人要回到大自然中寻找生活的意义。他在 散文 《瓦尔登湖》中将自己描写成生活在伊甸园中的亚当。他号召人们要像圣经中的亚当那样,成为“大自然的一员”。这让我们看到了一个与大自然完美融合的新亚当形象。
2.3作为亚当的女性——海丝特
对于《红字》与圣经关系的论述有很多,其中不乏专门论述的专著。在这里,我谨把《红字》中的主人公海丝特·白兰作为众多“亚当”形象中的一个来简要加以说明。
霍桑在对人物进行塑造方面,受《圣经》的影响极为深刻。他用隐晦曲折的手法向大家展示出一个诚实、善良的“新亚当”形象。海丝特和牧师犯了通奸罪,海丝特鼓励牧师逃走,她说:“你还可以得到幸福。”这暗示着人类虽然因为犯罪而失去了伊甸园,但是只要勇于赎罪,就能有光明的前途,重新找到失去的乐园。
《红字》这部书提出了作者所处时代的问题。而海丝特这一形象成功表现了要勇于开创新生活的意识。另外,《红字》中“A” 的记号也取材于《圣经》。《创世纪》记载,该隐杀掉兄弟亚伯,遭到流放。但是上帝在他额头上做了记号,使他免受杀害。这个记号表示此人既是罪人,又是圣人。海丝特最后变成了“能力”、“天使”的象征。海丝特是一个敢于冒犯社会道德冲破习俗的英雄,她作为“新亚当”的代表是当之无愧的。
2.4美国新形象
诗人惠特曼用诗歌呼唤着富有进取心、积极向上的亚当。读完惠特曼的诗歌,会让人有一种精神振奋的感觉,总是想着要迫不及待的做些有意义的事情。可能这就是惠特曼所要到达的目的,让每个人都有激情,充满对新事物的憧憬和渴望,去开创一个新天地。
从他的作品中可以看出,惠特曼所呼唤的“亚当”,就是一个逐渐成长起来的美国民族的形象,是对自我的积极肯定。他的“新亚当”形象比其他作品中的“亚当”更加鲜明、富有特点。
3作家为什么热衷于使用《圣经》中的人物形象
《圣经》中的人物形象,越来越多的被推陈出新。究竟是什么原因,让《圣经》经久不衰,并根深蒂固的影响着美国的文学创作呢?
首先,从《圣经》的地位来看,它是__的经典教义,而美国又是一个信奉上帝的国家,几乎每个人都熟知圣经的故事。所以,对经典教义的引用,第一,可以增加文学作品的亲和性,第二,更有说服性,使大众广为接受。
其次,美国的作品中,有一些是对《圣经》中人物形象的颠覆。如马克吐温的《亚当 日记 》与《伊甸园的一天》等作品。这些带有一定讽刺与幽默效果的对传统的颠覆,使文学作品很有震撼力。
第三,__在美国传播广泛,其思想深入人心。十九世纪的美国作家基本上都是从小受到《圣经》文化的熏陶,这个自然会影响到他们后来的文学创作。由于根深蒂固的__思想,使得作家的创作中总能体现出《圣经》的方方面面。
最后,从社会历史条件来看。十九世纪的美国正值发展时期。民族文学经历了长时期的酝酿,终于在十九世纪繁荣起来。
文学创作上,反映独立战争、谋求发展的题材增多。自然而然就会想到《圣经》中的经典,其中的人物形象也就这样登上了十九世纪美国文学创作的舞台。正是由于上述四个原因,让十九世纪的美国文学中大量涌现了“新亚当”的形象。我们也由这些人物中,汲取了积极健康的品质,看到了自身光明的未来。
总之,《圣经》与文学的关系可以说是贯穿在西方文学史的整个过程当中。《圣经》为西方作家提供了大量的素材、人物形象、语言风格和艺术技巧。《圣经》塑造了西方文学家的 思维方式 和情感内涵,在他们的文学创作中产生了不可低估的影响和作用。
RECOGNIZING FALSE PROPHETS
Prove All Things
1 Thessalonians 5:21: "Prove all things; hold fast that which is good.''
To recognize false prophets we must heed the above verse and "prove all things." One does not arrive at being an overcomer until he first learns the all important lesson of testing or "proving" the issues of this life. In the hour that we live there are so many things that are false and evil. We must be constantly on guard and "prove" or test things, lest we become ensnared by something that is wicked. Cults are spreading. Eastern idolatrous religions are creeping into our country in very subtle forms, and many Christians are being deceived and have accepted their practices without even being aware of their evil. Some religious groups have existed for years under the guise of Christianity, and yet are far from the teachings of Jesus Christ. The Lord warns us of these false teachers and tells us to beware of them.
Looking at Matthew 7:15-23, we find Jesus gives us the guideline for determining false prophets:
"Beware of false prophets, which come to you in sheep's clothing, but inwardly they are ravening wolves. Ye shall know them by their fruits. Do men gather grapes of thorns, or figs of thistles? Even so every good tree bringeth forth good fruit; but a corrupt tree bringeth forth evil fruit. A good tree cannot bring forth evil fruit, neither can a corrupt tree bring forth good fruit. Every tree that bringeth not forth good fruit is hewn down, and cast into the fire. Wherefore by their fruits ye shall know them. Not every one that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven; but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven. Many will say to me in that day, Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in thy name? and in thy name have cast out devils? and in thy name done many wonderful works? And then will I profess unto them, I never knew you: depart from me, ye that work iniquity."
God's Standard, The Bible
Certainly, we are admonished to be on guard. However, some go to such extremes as to become narrow-minded and closed to some beautiful truths in the name of being careful. What should our role as Christians be in regard to acceptance of a new thought, idea or doctrine? We are told to prove all things, not to reject them because they might be strange or new to us. However, we should not receive them either, until we first prove them. How do we prove things? All true Christians are in agreement that our standard is the Word of God, the Bible. God left us this Book as a reference, standard, or gauge so we could know whether something is good or evil, truth or error, right or wrong. (2 Timothy 3:16-17: "All scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness: That the man of God may be perfect, thoroughly furnished unto all good works.'')
One of our major faults as Christians is that we tend to quote men on certain subjects instead of referring to the Book God gave us. We recognize that God gave us men to lead us into the truths of God, but our problem becomes who are the true men of God and who are the false ones that Christ warned us about? Sometimes we tend to evaluate men according to the size of their ministries, their popularity with men, or their endowment of certain gifts, etc.
Check the Fruit
The Lord said in verse 20 of Matthew 7 that we would know them by their fruits. What are these fruits? Galatians 5:22-24 defines them as being the fruit of the Spirit. "But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, longsuffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, temperance: against such there is no law. And they that are Christ's have crucified the flesh with the affections and lusts." We are told to look at their lives and see if these fruits are predominant in them and examine if they are living the crucified life. Of course, we must allow for imperfections that have not been overcome yet; but we should readily see the fruit of the Spirit in more abundance than the imperfections. One way we can check this is to notice the words that a man speaks. The Scripture says in Matthew 12:33-35, "Either make the tree good, and his fruit good; or else make the tree corrupt, and his fruit corrupt: for the tree is known by his fruit. O generation of vipers, how can ye, being evil, speak good things? for out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh. A good man out of the good treasure of the heart bringeth forth good things: and an evil man out of the evil treasure bringeth forth evil things.''
Pride and Lustful Lifestyles
Many people have been led astray when they could have recognized the wrong spirit simply by the braggadocios and prideful words of men who exalted themselves instead of Christ. Others would have been spared if they had examined the lifestyles of certain men who claim to be God's anointed. Their lifestyles are far from being temperate, reflecting the most expensive and extravagant clothes, diamonds, homes, cars, etc. This is not referring to well-dressed men and women, nice homes, and quality things but the extremes which reveal anything but the nature of Christ. Of course, neither is the other extreme of poverty the nature of Christ. Men of God should live temperate, moderate lives, overcoming poverty and avoiding extreme wealth. Jesus always went about giving to the poor. He never stored up His wealth even though He apparently handled a lot of money, thus the need for a treasurer, Judas (John 13:29). He gave away the things He could have used on Himself, yet He never lacked as He went about ministering. He should be our example today. The affection and lust for the things of this world do not portray the Spirit of Christ.
True Prophets Reflect Jesus
Examining the conversation of these leaders can quickly reveal the God they serve. Do they speak of God's kingdom, His righteousness, and His love; or does their conversation center on the things of this world and life? Are they peacemakers, sowing mercy and love? Are they gentle and patient, or do they lose their temper easily? Do they walk in faith, or are they continually looking to other men for their needs to be supplied? Are they always pressuring people for money, or do they simply receive those gifts of money as unto the Lord? Do they have the joy of the Lord, or do they minister out of duty? Are they truly joyous with that joy spilling over to others, or do they continually complain and gripe over all the things that are not pleasing to them? Is goodness evident in their lives instead of evil? Do they put people in bondage by always threatening them with the wrath of God, or is freedom of choice extended with the warning of the penalties of sin? Jesus came to set us free, not to bring us under the bondage of men.
Let us prove all leaders and see if their fruit is good fruit. Do they love and not hate, have joy instead of depression, and promote peace instead of strife? Are they longsuffering (patient) or impatient, gentle or harsh? Do they show love and tolerance for those that oppose them? Do they walk in faith, or doubt and unbelief? Are they meek, giving God the glory for their talents and gifts, or do they pridefully talk of all they are doing or their group is doing? Does temperance prevail not only in their lifestyle, but in their personal habits as well, or do extremes exist that do not glorify God? In essence they will not live for themselves, but for others as Jesus did. Do they reflect Jesus? They will live a crucified life that glorifies God! Proverbs 20:11 says, "Even a child is known by his doings, whether his work be pure, and whether it be right.''
Examining lives by this standard we must be careful not to go to extremes ourselves and expect total perfection of all ministers. There are many godly men and women who are called of God, who have overcome in many areas, although they still have some weak areas. They are believing as they walk with the Lord that these too will be perfected. We are especially called to be patient and loving towards our brothers and sisters in the Lord.
世界末日指人类走向一个纪元的终点,地球将发生大灾难,不可抗拒的毁灭性的大灾难,许多人明明知道这只是一种迷信和骗局,但还是在心中存在不同程度的疑虑,主要原因在于人们对未知灾难的恐惧。美国杂志网站12月21日发表文章,列举了2012年十个最糟糕的预测。其中,日前在网络盛传的“12月21日是世界末日”的预测被列在第一位。
2060末日
据《今日早报》报道,一份此前从未为世人所知并研究过的牛顿手稿,日前在耶路撒冷的一家博物馆中被研究人员发现,让人惊讶的是,这份手稿内容研究的根本不是有关宇宙和地心引力等科学问题,而是有关《圣经密码》和虚幻的神学;尤为耸人听闻的是,在这份秘密手稿上,这位英国最伟大的科学家竟将世界末日定为2060年!牛顿“预言”手稿的发现在英国引发了新一轮的“牛顿热”。
艾萨克.牛顿是近代科学家中最杰出的代表人物,被誉为“现代科学之父”。然而,就是这样一位被一只苹果砸中脑袋就悟出地心引力的科学天才,竟将后半生的宝贵时间全部花费在神学上,研究起所谓的《圣经密码》来。不过,由于大多数牛顿神学手稿都在上世纪30年代的一个拍卖会上被一位名叫亚伯拉罕·雅胡达的神秘收藏家买走,这些手稿后来的下落一直不为世人所知,因此后世科学家也根本无从知道牛顿穷半生之力,到底在手稿上算出了些什么。直到日前,耶路撒冷希伯莱民族博物馆的研究人员竟然在馆藏中发现了这些尘封的牛顿手稿,在数千页写得密密麻麻的纸上,研究人员看到牛顿尝试用复杂的公式破译所谓“圣经密码”,并试图计算宇宙的“末日”时期。
随着牛顿手稿“惊人内容”的披露,一部有关加拿大学者研究牛顿生平的纪录片《牛顿:黑色异教徒》也将在英国播出,英国再次掀起一股“牛顿热”。
牛顿死后270多年,一位以色列数学家伊利雅胡·瑞普斯和物理学家多伦·维茨顿通过电脑数学运算程式来研究圣经,不久后发表出一篇《创世纪等距离字母顺序解码》的论文,称他们已经用计算机发现了真正的“圣经密码”。据他们称,通过一定的跳跃序列选择出圣经中的字母,然后再拼成新的单词,他们竟然从中拚出了“希特勒”、“大屠杀”:“毕加索”、“艺术家”:“爱因斯坦”、“绝顶聪明的人”等词语,并称还从中发现了诸如“拉宾被暗杀”等预言。这篇论文发表之后,引起了全世界学者的争议,包括美国前国防部解码专家哈罗德。盖恩斯教授在内的多名研究者都对此提出了质疑。反对论学者认为伊利雅胡·瑞普斯所研究的圣经原文已经跟古抄本有一定的差别,包括句点和字距等都不一样,瑞普斯用计算机算出的所谓“圣经密码”,只不过是一种断章取义的“撞大运”罢了。整本圣经希伯莱文有30多万个字母,起码可以发生100亿种字母组合,若按自己的意思随便断字,相信还会找到更多五花八门的东西,如果有朝一日“圣经密码”研究者从圣经中找到诸如戴安娜去世、WINDOWS2000问世的预言,他们也一点不会感到惊讶。
随着牛顿这份预言“世界末日”时间的手稿在耶路撒冷博物馆再见天日,一些专家认为,如果圣经中根本不存在什么密码,那么牛顿尽毕生之力研究出的这个“末日数字”,也只不过是个耸人听闻的“伟大错误”罢了。 [2]
2012末日
美国宇航局天体生物学研究所也曾收到过许多民众关于此事的质疑信件或网上留言。该研究所资深科学家大卫-莫里森等人针对神秘的玛雅预言为普通大众一一进行了科学的解读。
科学家们首先利用玛雅历法来揭穿所谓的“世界末日”预言。玛雅历法并没
2012末日传说(3张)有结束于2012年,因此玛雅人自己也没有把这一年当作是世界的末日。不过,2012年12月21日(冬至)肯定是玛雅人的一个重要日子。美国科尔盖特大学考古天文学家安东尼-阿维尼是一名玛雅文化研究专家。阿维尼表示,“在玛雅历法中,1872000天算是一个轮回,即5125.37年。”
玛雅人对于时间的计算比其他许多文化都要精细。阿维尼介绍说,玛雅人曾经发明了所谓的“长历法”,这种历法把最初的计算时间一直追溯到玛雅文化的起源时间,即公元前3114年8月11日。根据“长历法”,到2012年冬至时,就意味着当前时代的时间结束,即完成了5125.37年的一个轮回。长历法于是重新开始从“零天”计算,又开始一个新的轮回。阿维尼认为,“这仅仅是一个重新计时的思想,与我们每年元旦或周一早上重新开始一年或一周生活完全一样。”
在阿维尼看来,玛雅预言中关于世界末日的说法是一种被误解的说法。那一天是玛雅历法中重新计时的“零天”,表示一个轮回结束,一个新时代的开始,而并非指世界末日。这里指的并不是地球的毁灭,而是相当于年的一个年度的到来或者说是世纪的到来。 [3]
两极倒转
科学家对于这些所谓的预言进行了批驳。美国普林斯顿大学地质学家亚当姆-马尔卢夫对“两极互转”和玛雅预言都有深入的研究。马尔卢夫认为,岩石中的某些磁性迹象表明,地球可能发生过这样剧烈的磁场变化,但是这一过程是一个持续数百万年的缓慢过程,如此缓慢以至于人类根本感觉不到这种变化。 [3]
天体重叠
关于“天体重叠”问题,德克萨斯大学玛雅专家大卫-斯图亚特介绍说,“没有任何玛雅古书或艺术品提到过这个问题。”阿维尼也认为,玛雅长历法将2012年冬至作为一个轮回的终点正是体现了玛雅文化的天文成就。许多人通过观测天象学会了如何精确预测日蚀以及其他天文现象,同时也掌握了农业季节轮回与某些天文现象的关系,而玛雅历法又与农业季节轮回存在着紧密联系。 [4]
未知行星
这个关于未知行星撞击地球的预言最早出现于2003年,一位妇女声称她收到了来自宇宙某行星的信息。莫里森强调,如果在太阳系内确实存在这样一颗行星的话,那么天文学家肯定在过去十年中就已经开始研究它了。我们肉眼应该是可以看到了。所以说,这颗所谓的未知行星是不存在的[5]。”
[5]
太阳风暴
事实上,太阳耀斑是有规律可循的,其爆发周期大约为11年。剧烈的太阳耀斑可能会破坏地球上的通讯设施以及其他一些地面事物,但是科学家们从来没有说过太阳会释放出强大的太阳风暴足以烤焦整个地球,至少是短期内不会出现这种现象。
莫里森解释说,“除非是太阳已明显不遵循其活跃周期。我们预计,太阳耀斑这个周期的最顶峰并不是2012年,而在之后的一两年。”
[5]
玛雅预言
相反,阿维尼认为玛雅人事实上并不擅长预言。他解释说,“他们对时间的认识大多是针对过去的,而不是未来。当你了解关于长历法的记载后,你就会发现里面讲的大多是玛雅统治者和他们祖先的关系。统治者把自己的渊源说得越久远,越能说明统治者地位的合法性和正统性。我认为,这就是玛雅统治者为什么使用长历法的原因。因此,长历法并不是为了预言未来,而是为了证明过去。”
[5]
玛雅长老
12月7日,玛雅部落长老否认了“世界末日说”。当天,中南美洲危地马拉3名玛雅部落长老澄清,12月21日不是世界末日。其中一位部落长老表示“世界不会结束”。长老强调说,12月21日是玛雅人期待当前纪元结束的日子,之后应当带来新的态度和变革。“21日是一个感恩的日子,22日则是一个新的开始,黎明来到。”他说。
[5]
危机解除
2012年12月21日已经来临,世界并未发生任何末日征兆,人类生活一切正常进行。危机就此解除,但同时给我们带来很多值得反思的问题,我们应该相信科学,还有就是多去关爱身边的人。[6]
官网答疑
NASA官网答疑
1. 2012会不会是世界末日?2.“尼比鲁”或“行星X”会撞击地球吗?3.地球在23日至25日会黑暗3天吗?4. 地球的南北磁极会对换吗?5. 2012年预言中的巨型的太阳风暴对地球有威胁吗?[5]