The Basics
A jet engine can be divided into several distinct sections: intake, compressor, diffuser, combustion chamber, turbine, and exhaust. These sections are much like the different cycles in a four-stroke reciprocating engine: intake, compression, power and exhaust. In a four-stroke engine a fuel/air mixture is is brought into the engine (intake), compressed (compression), and finally ignited and pushed out the exhaust (power and exhaust). In it's most basic form, a jet engine works in much the same way.
* Air comes in the front of the engine where it enters the compressor. The air is compressed by a series of small spinning blades aptly named compressor blades and leaves at a high pressure. The pressure ratio between the beginning and end of the compressor can be as much as 48:1, but almost always 12:1 or more.
* The air now enters the diffuser, which is nothing more than an area where the air can expand and lower it's velocity, thus increasing its pressure a little bit more.
* The high pressure air at the end of the diffuser now enters the combustion chamber where it is mixed with fuel, ignited and burned.
* When the fuel/air mixture burns, the temperature increases (obviously) which makes the air expand.
* This expanding gas drives a set of turbine blades located aft of the combustion chamber. At least some of these turbine blades are connected by a shaft to the compressor blades to drive them. Depending on the type of engine, there may be another set of turbine blades used to drive another shaft to do other things, such as turn a propeller or generator.
* The left over energy not extracted by the turbine blades is pushed out the back of the engine (exhaust section) and creates thrust, usually used to drive an airplane forward.
The types of jet engines include:
* Turbojet
* Turbofan
* Turboprop
* Turbo shaft
Turbojet
The turbojet is the simplest of them all, it is just as described in "The basics" section. This style was the first type of jet engine to be used in aircraft. It is a pretty primitive style used mostly in early military jet fighters such as the F-86. Its use was discontinued, for the most part, in favor of the more efficient turbofans. Actually, I should clarify that. Each type of engine is most efficient under certain conditions. Turbojets are most efficient at high altitudes and speeds above the speed of sound. See the diagram at the end of this page for relative efficiencies of each style engine.
Turbofan
Turbofans make up the majority of jet engines being produced and used today. A turbofan engine uses an extra set of turbine blades to drive a large fan, typically on the front of the engine. This fan differs from a propeller in that there are many small blades and they are inside of a duct. The fan sits just in front of the normal intake, some of the air driven by this fan will enter the engine, while the rest will go around the outside. The amount of air that bypasses the engine is different for each type of airplane. The different styles are called high and low bypass engines. Bypass ratio is the ratio of how much air goes through the fan, to how much goes through the engine. Typical bypass ratios would be 1:1 for a low bypass and 5:1 or more for a high bypass. Low bypass engines are more efficient at higher speeds, and are used on planes such as military aircraft, while high bypass engines are used in commercial airliners.
Turboprop
Turboprops are similar to turbofans in that they incorporate an extra set of turbine blades used to drive the propeller. Unlike the turbofan engines, nearly all the thrust produced by a turboprop is from the propellor, hardly any thrust comes from the exhaust. These engines are used mostly on smaller and slower planes such as commuter aircraft that fly to the smaller airports. As you can see from the efficiency chart below, turboprops are very efficient over a fairly wide range of speeds. They would probably be used more often on large transport aircraft, except for one problem: they have propellors. The general public does not like propellors, as they appear to be old-fashioned and unsafe. However, the military knows better and uses them on several large transport aircraft.
Turbo shaft
Turbo shaft engines are very similar to turboprop engines, but instead of driving a propellor, they are used to drive something else. Many helicopters use them to drive their rotors, and airliners and other large jets use them to generate electricity. Also, the Alaska Pipeline uses them at the pump stations to pump oil.
Overall
Overall the big difference between these engines is how they take a chunk of air and move it. Newton's third law states that Force equals mass times acceleration. Applying this to turbine engines: the turboprop takes a large chunk and accelerates it a little bit, while the turbojet takes a small chunk and accelerates the heck out of it, and the turbofan is somewhere in between these two.
These different methods of moving air also have to do with how much noise each engine makes. The turbojet makes the most noise because there is a large difference in velocities of the blast of air coming out the exhaust and the surrounding air. The air from the fan on a turbofan engine "shields" the blast in the center by having the slower moving air from the fan surround it. Then the turboprop is the quietest of all because the air it's moving is relatively slow.
A pressure - volume diagram (or a P-V diagram) is a useful tool in thermodynamics. In this case, it relates the pressure and volume of the gas moving through the engine at different stages. A P-V diagram can also be helpful in finding the work output of an engine. Work equals the integral of pressure with respect to volume. Or is simpler form, work equals the area enclosed in the diagram above. The above cycle is the Brayton cycle, or the cycle used by aircraft gas turbine engines.
Explanation of the above cycle:
* Air enters the inlet at point 1 at atmospheric pressure.
* As this air passes through the compressor (from point 1 to 2), the pressure rises adiabatically (no heat enters or leaves the system).
* Now the air enters the combustion chamber (from point 2 to 3), is mixed with fuel, and burned at a constant pressure.
* Finally, the air goes through the turbine and out the exhaust (point 3 to 4) where the gases expand and do work. Thus, the pressure drops and the volume increases.
The Compressor
There are two main styles for turbine compressors: the axial and the centrifugal.
The Axial Compressor
* The axial type compressor is made up of many small blades, called rotor vanes, arranged in rows on a cylinder whose radius gets larger towards the back (as can be seen from the above picture). These blades act much like small propellors.
* In between these rotor vanes are stator vanes which stay in a fixed spot and straighten the air coming out of the previous stage of rotor vanes before it enters the next stage.
* On some newer engines, the angle of these stator vanes can be adjusted for optimum efficiency.
* Each stage (1 row of rotor and stator vanes) generally provides for a pressure rise of about 1.3:1 (so after the first stage, the pressure would be 1.3 above atmospheric, after the second it would be 1.69, 2.2, etc...).
The Centrifugal Compressor
* Air enters the centrifugal compressor at the front and center. The blades then sling the air radially outwards where it is once again collected (at a higher pressure) before it enters the diffuser.
* Pressure rise per stage is usually about 4 to 8:1 (higher than axial). These can be sombined in series (that is the exit of the first leads to the entrance of the next) to produce a greater pressure rise. But more than two stages is not practical.
- Jet engines are rated in "pounds of thrust," while turboprops and turboshaft engines are rated in "shaft horsepower" (SHP). This is because it is difficult to hook up a dynamometer (power measuring device) to the column of air coming out of a jet engine, while it is easy to hook one to the shaft of a turboprop.
- An equivalent measure to horsepower is thrust horsepower (THP). THP = (Thrust x MPH) / 375. or THP = SHP x 80% in the case of turboprop engines (the 80% is because the propeller "slips" a little in flight).
- Exhaust gases exit the exhaust at upwards of 1000 mph or more and can use 1000 gallons of fuel/hour or more.
- Turbine engines run lean. Unlike gasoline engines, turbines take in more air than they need for combustion.
- Fuel can be injected into the exhaust section to burn with this unused air for extra thrust. This is called an afterburner.
- A water/methanol mixture can be injected into the intake to increase the air density, and thus increase thrust.
- Turbine engines can be built on a small scale as well. The turbine pictured below has a diameter of 4mm and runs at 500,000 rpm. It was built by at MIT for purposes of powering an aircraft with a wing span of about 5 inches that was projected to fly about 35 - 70 mph with a range of about 40 - 70 miles.
micro turbine
- The ignition system on turbine engines is only necessary for starting, afterwards it is self sustaining. In jets, the ignition system is also turned on for added saftey in "critical" stages of flight, such as takeoff and landing.
- A device similar to a spark plug is used for the ignition process, but it has a larger gap. The spark is about 4 to 20 Joules (watts/second) at about 25000 volts and occurs between 1 and 2 times per second.
- Turbine engines will run on just about anything, they prefer Jet-A (AKA diesel, kerosene, or home heating oil), but can burn unleaded, burbon, or even very finely powdered coal!
- The above snowmachine uses an Allison turbine engine, a very common engine in helicopters (such as the Bell 206 Jet Ranger shown below). A lot of horsepower can be put into a small package! Note the intake and compressor are at the front of the engine, then the two side tubes take the compressed air and bring it around back to the combustion chamber and turbine and the exhaust exits out the middle. There are many engines out there with strange configurations like this.
Communications Technology
Your Rights and what the Data Protection Commissioner can do to help
Right of Access
The personal information to which you are entitled is that held on
computer or in a manual filing system that facilitates access to
information about you. You can make an access request to any
organisation or any individual who has personal information about you.
For example, you could make an access request to your doctor, your
bank, a credit reference agency, a Government Department dealing with
your affairs, or your employer.
If you find out that information kept about you by someone else is
inaccurate, you have a right to have that information corrected (or
"rectified"). In some circumstances, you may also have the information
erased altogether from the database - for example, if the body keeping
the information has no good reason to hold it (i.e. it is irrelevant
or excessive for the purpose), or if the information has not been
obtained fairly. You can exercise your right of rectification or
erasure simply by writing to the body keeping your data.
In addition, you can request a data controller to block your data i.e.
to prevent it from being used for certain purposes. For example, you
might want your data blocked for research purposes where it held for
other purposes.
If an organisation holds your information for the purposes of direct
marketing (such as direct mailing, or telephone marketing), you have
the right to have your details removed from that database. This right
is useful if you are receiving unwanted "junk mail" or annoying
telephone calls from salespeople. You can exercise this right simply
by writing to the organisation concerned. The organisation must write
back to you within 40 days confirming that they have dealt with your
request.
Right to complain to the Data Protection Commissioner
What happens if someone ignores your access request, or refuses to
correct information about you which is inaccurate? If you are having
difficulty in exercising your rights, or if you feel that any person
or organisation is not complying with their responsibilities, then you
may complain to the Data Protection Commissioner, Mr Mead, who will
investigate the matter for you. The Commissioner has legal powers to
ensure that your rights are upheld.
The Data Protection Commissioner will help you to secure your rights:
* with advice and information
* by intervening directly on your behalf if you feel you have not
been given satisfaction
* by taking action against those failing to fulfil their
obligations.
SEE APPENDIX 2 FOR CASE STUDY
Ergonomics
Ergonomics (from Greek ergon work and nomoi natural laws) is the study
of designing objects to be better adapted to the shape of the human
body and/or to correct the user's posture. Common examples include
chairs designed to prevent the user from sitting in positions that may
have a detrimental effect on the spine, and the ergonomic desk which
offers an adjustable keyboard tray, a main desktop of variable height
and other elements which can be changed by the user.
Ergonomics also helps with the design of alternative computer input
devices for people who want to avoid repetitive strain injury or
carpal tunnel syndrome. A normal computer keyboard tends to force
users to keep their hands together and hunch their shoulders. To
prevent the injuries, or to give relief to people who already have
symptoms, special split keyboards, curved keyboards,
not-really-keyboards keyboards, and other alternative input devices
exist.
Ergonomics is much larger than looking at the physiological and
anatomical aspects of the human being. The psychology of humans is
also a key element within the ergonomics discipline. This
psychological portion of ergonomics is usually referred to as Human
factors or Human factors engineering in the U.S., and ergonomics is
the term used in Europe. Understanding design in terms of cognitive
workload, human error, the way humans perceive their surrounds and,
very importantly, the tasks that they undertake are all analysed by
ergonomists.
[IMAGE]
With video conferencing consideration should be taken in positioning
of camera and screens so as to avoid neck strain.
Codec
1. (COder/DECoder or COmpressor/DECompressor) Hardware or software
that encodes/compresses and decodes/decompresses audio and video
data streams. The purpose of a codec is to reduce the size of
digital audio samples and video frames in order to speed up
transmission and save storage space. The goal of all codec
designers is to maintain audio and video quality while compressing
the binary data further. Speech codecs are designed to deal with
the characteristics of voice, while audio codecs are developed for
music. Codecs may also be able to transcode from one digital
format to another; for example, from PCM audio to MP3 audio.
The codec algorithms may be implemented entirely in a chip or entirely
in software in which case the PC does all of the processing. They are
also commonly implemented in both hardware and software where a sound
card or video capture card performs some of the processing, and the
main CPU does the rest.
When analog signals are entered into a computer, cellphone or other
device via a microphone or video source such as a VHS tape or TV,
analog-to-digital converters create the raw digital audio samples and
video frames. Speech, audio and video codecs are typically lossy
codecs that compress data by altering the original format, which is
why "codec" means "encoder/decoder" and "compressor/decompressor." If
a codec uses only lossless compression in which the original data is
restored exactly, then it would not be a coder/decoder. This is a
subtle point, but the two meanings of the acronym have been confusing.
LAN
A local area network (LAN) is a computer network covering a local
area, like a home, office or small group of buildings such as a
college. The topology of a network dictates its physical structure.
The generally accepted maximum size for a LAN is 1000m2. LANs are
different from personal area networks (PANs), metropolitan area
networks (MANs) or wide area networks (WANs). LANs are typically
faster than WANs.
The earliest popular LAN, ARCnet, was released in 1977 by Datapoint
and was originally intended to allow multiple Datapoint 2200s to share
disk storage. Like all early LANs, ARCnet was originally
vendor-specific. Standardization efforts by the IEEE have resulted in
the IEEE 802 series of standards. There are now two common wiring
technologies for a LAN, Ethernet and Token Ring. Wireless technologies
are starting to evolve and are convenient for mobile computer users.
A number of network protocols may use the basic physical transport
mechanism including TCP/IP. In this case DHCP is a convenient way to
obtain an IP address rather than using fixed addressing. LANs can be
interlinked by connections to form a Wide area network. A router is
used to make the connection between LANs.
WAN
WANs are used to connect local area networks together, so that users
and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers
in other locations. Many WANs are built for one particular
organisation and are private, others, built by Internet service
providers provide connections from an organisation's LAN to the
Internet. WANs are most often built of leased lines. At each end of
the leased line, a router connects to the LAN on one side and a hub
within the WAN on the other. A number of network protocols may use the
basic physical transport mechanism including TCP/IP. Other protocols
including X.25 and ATM. Frame relay can also be used for WANs.
Ethernet
Ethernet is normally a shared media LAN. All stations on the segment
share the total bandwidth, which is either 10 Mbps (Ethernet), 100
Mbps (Fast Ethernet) or 1000 Mbps (Gigabit Ethernet). With switched
Ethernet, each sender and receiver pair have the full bandwidth.When
using Ethernet the computers are usually wired to a hub or to a switch.
This constitutes the physical transport mechanism.
Fiber-optic Ethernet (10BaseF and 100BaseFX) is impervious to external
radiation and is often used to extend Ethernet segments up to 1.2
miles. Specifications exist for complete fiber-optic networks as well
as backbone implementations. FOIRL (Fiber-Optic Inter Repeater Link)
was an earlier standard that is limited to .6 miles distance.
全封闭制冷压缩机的发展趋势 【摘要】 详细介绍了全封闭制冷压缩机的发展趋势和前景。引用大量的数据证明各种压缩机的发展空间和必然性。从而为各行业使用制冷压缩机提供了可靠的数据和指导说明。 【关键词】 电磁振动式压缩机;电动式压缩机;发展趋势 0引言 发表职称论文,就找ABC论文坊: 制冷压缩机质量的好坏将直接影响着电冰箱、空调器等小型制冷设备的制冷效果、使用寿命、噪音和震动等多种性能。就制冷压缩机的工作原理与结构而言,形式多样,性能各异。现在生产的小型制冷设备采用的全封闭式压缩机,按其结构特性可分为电磁式和电动式两大类。而电动式又可分为往复活塞式、旋转活塞式和涡旋式3种类型。以上几种全封闭制冷压缩机的性能特点。 l 电磁振动式压缩机 电磁振动式压缩机有以下3种:11动圈式电磁振动型;2)动铁芯式电磁振动型;3)悬吊动磁铁式电磁振动型。其中,动圈式在全封闭式制冷压缩机中被实际应用,它是利用通以交流电流的线圈产生的交变磁场与永久磁场之间相互作用,直接驱动活塞作往复运动的压缩 机。其特点是结构简单、零部件少、加工精度要求不高、容易制造。因此从20世纪50年代开始就用于容积较小的电冰箱。ABC论文坊但从另一方面,由于电源频率变化引起的制冷量变化大,且50 Hz和60 Hz不能通用,存在着因排气、吸气压力引起行程变化等问题,使活塞行程的长短随负荷的变化而改变,同时机内弹簧作高频谐振,易产生弹性疲劳,因此一般只适用于生产100 W 以下的压缩机。而动铁芯式和悬吊动磁铁式电磁振动型由于只在研究阶段还没有实际应用。故此不作介绍。 2 电动式压缩机 2.1 往复活塞式压缩机 按其结构分为滑管式和连杆式压缩机两类。 2.1.1 滑管式压缩机 滑管式压缩机产生于20世纪60年代,它是往复活塞式压缩机的一种类型。其特点是结构简单,工艺性好,成本较低,对零部件的加工精度要求不高,制造和装配都比较容易,所以发展较快。目前这类压缩机在国内外的电冰箱生产中应用比较普遍。缺点是活塞与缸壁间的侧力较大、磨擦功耗大、能效比偏低,因此目前滑管式压缩机正在进入衰退期,将逐渐被连杆式压缩机或旋转式压缩机所取代。 2.1.2 连杆式压缩机 连杆式压缩机也属往复活塞式,是电冰箱采用时间较早的一种。在20世纪5O年代以前生产的电冰箱几乎都是采用连杆式压缩机。其特点是运转比较平稳、噪声低、磨损小、使用寿命长、能效比较高、工作可靠、综合性能优良。但由于零部件形状复杂,加工精度要求较 高,工艺难度较大,因此其发展一度受到限制,在电冰箱及其它小型制冷设备中被滑管式和旋转式压缩机所取代。近几年来随着机械工业的不断发展,对其结构进行了多方面的技术改进。目前连杆式压缩机又成为电 冰箱压缩机的主导产品。总需求是有较大的提升【1_。近年来世界各电冰箱生产大国,尤其是日本、意大利、美国等国对往复式压缩机的制造技术进行了多方面的改造,从而使连杆式压缩机的各项性能都有了很大的提高。因此,有重新成为电冰箱压缩机主导产品的趋势。 2_2 旋转式压缩机 旋转式压缩机的电机无需将转子的旋转运动转换为活塞的往复运动,而是直接带动旋转活塞作旋转运动来完成对制冷剂蒸气的压缩。这种压缩机更适合于小型空调器,特别是在家用空调器上的应用更为广泛。如美国通用电器公司和沃普公司生产的旋转式压缩机都设计了较好的防过热和润滑装置。它采用把冷凝器处的部分制冷液用配管引至压缩室,使之在气缸内喷射的冷却方式,提高了冷却效果。为了防止把大量的制冷液直接吸人气缸内,产生液击,在吸气回路的压缩机前部设有气液分离器,润滑油和制冷液一旦进入器内 则制冷液在气液分离器内蒸发,压缩机吸人的是气体;润滑油从气液分离器下方的小孔中缓缓地连续 少量进入压缩机,用这种方法防止液击[21。油泵给油的方法是在转轴下端装设两个齿轮状的叶轮,它与转轴一同转动。对油施加离心力,从转轴中心孑L把油导向上方。另外,在轴的外表面上开有螺旋状的油槽,实现对轴承部位的给油。作为安全措施。在压缩机顶部装有过 负荷继电器,这种继电器是用感温板感受压缩机内部高压气体的温度,当达到一定的温度后,继电器动作,压缩机停止运转,用这种方法防止电动机烧毁,因此说旋转式压缩机是一种很有发展前景的压缩机。其主要优点是:由于活塞作旋转运动,压缩工作圆滑平稳,平衡性能好,另外旋转式压缩机没有余隙容积,无再膨胀气体的干扰,因此具有压缩效率高、零部件少、体积小、重量轻、平衡性能好、噪音低、防护措施完备和耗电量小等优点。缺点是压缩机对材质、加工精度、热处理、装配工艺及润滑系统要求较高,由于要靠运动间隙中的润滑油进行密封,为从排气中分离出油,机壳内须做成高压,因此,电动机、压缩机容易过热,如果不采取特殊的措施。在大型压缩机和低温用压缩机中是不能使用的。由于它比其它类型的压缩机有较明显的优势,所以它得到广泛了推广应用。如国产上菱BCD一180 W、阿里斯顿BCD-220 W 等电冰箱都采用了旋转式压缩机。尤其在家用空调器上的应用就更为普遍,从发展的趋势看旋转式压缩机今后有可能成为市场的主导产品。 2.3 涡旋式压缩机 涡旋式压缩机是20世纪8O年代发展起来的新型产品。它效率高,噪声低,体积小,重量轻,不需要排气阀组,工作的可靠性及容积效率都较高,允许气体制冷剂中带少量液体,输气效率高,气体泄漏少,可较好地运用于小型热泵系统、小型空调等。综上所述,几种压缩机的性能特点,我们不难看出经多年的技术改造,连杆式压缩机在一定的时期内仍有明显的优势,而旋转式压缩机则是一种新型的产品,特别是在空调器上的应用更为广泛,必将成为制冷产业的主导产品。通过对往复式和旋转式压缩机的性能试验比较可知,往复式和旋转式压缩机,启动后排气、吸气压力的时间变化特性不同,电动机上的负荷转矩由吸、排气压力的大小确定,在往复式的情况下,投入运转几分钟内至十几分钟后,排气压力出现峰值,对于电动机,为了承受这个尖峰负荷,需要比稳定运转时所需转矩大得多f2~4倍)[31。而旋转 式压缩机,由于不存在刚刚启动后的峰值,所以,只要有一般稳定运转时所需的转矩即可,因此可以实现电动机的小型化,这也是它今后发展优势所在。 参考文献 [1]胡鹏程,赵清.电冰箱、空调器的原理和维修【M】.北京:电子工业出版社.1995:1 14—148. [2]吴业正.制冷原理及设备【M】(第2版).西安:西安交通大学出版社.2006. [3]赵春怡,王志强.活塞式单机双级制冷压缩JJL[M].北京:机械工业出版社.2003.
轮机工程技术论文范文篇二
燃气轮机在热电联产工程中的应用状况分析
摘要:
燃气轮机是21世纪乃至更长时间内能源高效转换与洁净利用系统的核心动力装备.介绍了燃气轮机的发展现状及其在热电联产工程中的应用,简述了联合循环和简单循环燃气轮机电厂的基本组合方式,并列举了目前应用在热电联产工程中的几种主要的燃气轮机.阐述了燃气轮机相对于常规火电机组的优点,分析了影响燃气轮机在热电联产工程中推广的因素,并对我国燃气轮机的发展前景进行了展望.
关键词:
燃气轮机; 联合循环电厂; 热电联产
中图分类号: TK 479文献标志码: A
Analysis of the application of gas turbines in heat and
power cogeneration projects
SUN Peifeng, JIANG Zhiqiang
(1. China United Engineering Corporation, Hangzhou 310022, China;
2. China Huadian Corporation, Beijing 100031, China)
Abstract:
The gas turbine is the core equipment of highefficiency clean energy systems in the 21st century and even longer period of time. The current situation of gas turbine development and its application in heat and power cogeneration projects were showed in this paper. Two types of application of gas turbines in heat and power cogeneration projects were briefly introduced, namely, the simple cycle gas turbine power plant and the combined cycle power plant, and gas turbines widely used at present in heat and power cogeneration plants were enumerated. The advantages of the gas turbine plant compared with conventional coalfired power units were described and factors which could influence the application of the gas turbine were analyzed. In addition, the prospects for the development of gas turbines in China were evaluated.
Key words:
gas turbine; combined cycle power plant; heat and power cogeneration
燃气轮机由压气机、燃烧室、透平、控制系统和辅助设备组成.燃气轮机的设计是基于布莱顿循环.压气机(即压缩机)连续地从大气中吸入空气并将其压缩;压缩后的空气送入燃烧室,与喷入的天然气混合,并点火燃烧;燃烧后产生的高温烟气随即流入燃气透平中膨胀做功,推动透平带动压气机叶轮一起旋转.加热后的高温燃气的做功能力显著提高,因此,透平在带动压气机的同时,还有余功作为燃气轮机的输出功输出.
由于燃气轮机的工质是高温烟气而不是水蒸气,故可省去锅炉、冷凝器、给水处理等大型设备.因此,燃气轮机电厂附属设备较少,系统简单,占地面积较少.
燃气轮机可分为重型燃气轮机、工业型燃气轮机和航改型燃气轮机三类.重型燃气轮机的零件较为厚重,大修周期长,寿命可在10万h以上,主要用于满足城市公用电网需求,例如日立的H25和H80系列燃气轮机、通用电气的F级燃气轮机、西门子的SGT-8000系列燃气轮机、三菱的M701系列燃气轮机和阿尔斯通的GT系列重型燃气轮机等.工业型燃气轮机的结构紧凑,所用材料一般较好,燃气轮机的效率较高,例如索拉的T130燃气轮机和西门子SGT-800燃气轮机,常用于热电联产工程.航改型燃气轮机是由航空发动机改装而成的燃气轮机,在航空领域运用较多,但也有应用于发电及相关工业领域,例如通用电气的 LM 系列航改型燃气轮机等.航改型燃气轮机的结构最紧凑,最轻巧,效率最高,但寿命较短[1-2].
燃气轮机自上世纪30年代诞生以来发展迅速.当今国际上最新型的G型燃气轮机和H型燃气轮机,单机功率已达到292~334 MW,发电热效率已达到39.5%.其中,由G型燃气轮机组成的联合循环单机功率可达489 MW,发电热效率可达58.7%;由H型燃气轮机组成的联合循环机组的发电热效率可达60%[3-5].H型燃气轮机组成的联合循环机组是目前已掌握的热-功循环效率最高的大规模商业化发电方式.不仅如此,燃气轮机与以煤为燃料的蒸汽轮机相比,它具有重量轻、体积小、效率高、污染少、启停灵活等优点.燃气轮机发电机组能在无外界电源的情况下迅速启动,机动性好.在电网中用它带动尖峰负荷和作为紧急备用电源,还能携带中间负荷,能较好地保障电网的安全运行,所以得到广泛应用[6].
国内外科技界与产业界已经认识到燃气轮机将是21世纪乃至更长时期内能源高效转换与洁净利用系统的核心动力装备. 1燃气轮机在热电联产工程中的应用方式
燃气轮机在热电联产工程中的应用形式主要有两种:一种是燃气轮机联合循环热电厂;另一种是燃气轮机简单循环热电厂.
燃气轮机联合循环热电厂由燃气轮机、余热锅炉、蒸汽轮机(背压式、抽背式或者抽凝式)和发电机共同组成.燃气轮机排出的做功后的高温烟气通过余热锅炉回收烟气中的热量而得到高温水蒸气,水蒸气注入蒸汽轮机发电.蒸汽轮机的排汽或者部分在蒸汽轮机中做功后的抽汽用于供热,形式有:燃气轮机、蒸汽轮机同轴推动一台发电机的单轴联合循环;燃气轮机、蒸汽轮机推动各自的发电机的多轴联合循环.单轴的燃气轮机联合循环电厂规模较大,例如通用电气的9F系列机组.而多轴的联合循环机组常见于中小型的燃气轮机联合循环电厂.因此,对于电厂规模相对较小的热电联产工程来说,常选择多轴的燃气轮机联合循环机组.
燃气轮机简单循环热电厂由燃气轮机和余热锅炉组成.该类型燃气轮机热电厂不配置蒸汽轮机,通过余热锅炉直接对外供热.因此该类型燃气轮机热电厂发电热效率相对联合循环燃气轮机热电厂较低,约为30%~35%之间;热电比和供热成本的指标方面,简单循环燃气轮机热电厂也低于联合循环燃气轮机热电厂[7].
由此可见,燃气轮机联合循环可大大提高发电厂整体发电热效率.即使只有燃气轮机和余热锅炉组成的不配置蒸汽轮机的简单循环燃气轮机发电厂,其发电效率也高于常规的小型燃煤热电厂.
2热电联产工程中燃气轮机机型选择
热电联产工程遵循“以热定电”原则,首先满足外界对蒸汽负荷的需求,一般对发电量的需求相对较少.因此,对于热电联产工程来说,大功率的重型燃气轮机使用相对较少,常配置一些中小型的燃气轮机.
世界主要的中小型燃气轮机有:索拉的T130燃气轮机;日立的H25和H80燃气轮机;通用电气的6F和LM系列的航改型燃气轮机;西门子的SGT-800燃气轮机.各机型的主要技术参数如表1(见下页)所示(表中数据来自各个燃气轮机厂家产品宣传手册,且会因计算的天然气热值等参数变化而发生微小的变化).
表1各中小型燃气轮机相关性能参数
Tab.1
Performance parameters of some gas turbines
表1中,H25,H80 和6F为重型燃气轮机;SGT-800和T130为工业型燃气轮机;LM6000为航改型燃气轮机.从表1可知,工业型和航改型燃气轮机单机发电热效率相对重型燃气轮机的单机发电效率明显更高,但燃气轮机的排烟温度相对较低.由于排到余热锅炉的高温烟气所包含的热量相对较少,因此对于整个联合循环热电厂,工业型和航改型燃气轮机联合循环热电厂的整体发电热效率反而低些[8-9].简单循环的燃气轮机热电厂若选择工业型燃气轮机及航改型燃气轮机,其热电厂发电热效率会较高.
对于配置蒸汽轮机的燃气轮机联合循环,重型燃气轮机因其排烟温度较工业型燃气轮机和航改型燃气轮机高,排到余热锅炉的高温烟气所包含的热量相对较多,余热锅炉产出的供蒸汽轮机发电用的高温高压的蒸汽也更多.因此,重型燃气轮机联合循环整体发电热效率比工业型燃气轮机和航改型燃气轮机联合循环的发电热效率高.燃气轮机联合循环热电厂中大多选择重型燃气轮机.
从能量的充分利用和逐级利用角度讲,相比于燃气轮机简单循环热电厂,燃气轮机联合循环热电厂更具有优势.目前我国燃气轮机热电联产工程中,大多选择重型燃气轮机组成的联合循环燃气轮机热电厂,如浙江省的某热电厂,采用6F级燃气轮机匹配余热锅炉和蒸汽轮机组成燃气轮机联合循环机组对外供热供电,燃气轮机联合循环热电厂整体发电热效率约60%.
但是对于某些对占地面积有严格要求的场合,如海上油气平台井等,一般可选择结构紧凑、效率高的工业型燃气轮机或者航改型燃气轮机机.
具体燃气轮机机型的选择可根据各工程的实际情况进行分析、计算、确定,如热电厂的对外供热参数和供热量、装机容量、机组数量、占地面积、整体热效率等.
3燃气轮机联合循环热电联产工程相对于常规火力发电热电联产的优势[10]
相对于常规燃煤的小型火力发电的热电联产电厂,燃气轮机联合循环热电厂的优势主要有:
(1) 高效:燃气轮机联合循环的发电热效率已经达到甚至突破60%,这是一般常规火电机组无法比拟的,甚至高于目前最先进的超超临界机组而稳居各类火电机组之首.
(2) 单位造价低:燃气轮机联合循环机组单位容量造价约400美元·kW-1,而常规火电机组造价为600~1 000美元·kW-1;若我国国产燃气轮机的制造加工水平进一步提升,燃气轮机联合循环机组单位容量造价还有非常大的下降空间.
(3) 低排放:燃气轮机联合循环不排放SO2以及飞灰和灰渣;NOx的排放量也非常低,一般都可以达到49.20 mg·m-3以下,甚至可以根据需要达到小于30.75 mg·m-3的水平,CO2的排放量可以做到11.25 mg·m-3;环保性能居于现有各种火电机组之上.
(4) 节水:燃气轮机联合循环机组以燃气轮机发电为主,燃气轮机发电机功率占总容量的70%,联合循环机组所需用水量约为常规燃煤机组的1/3.这在某些缺水的地区显得尤为重要.若选择燃气轮机和余热锅炉配置的简单循环,整个电厂对机组冷却水量的需求相对于常规火电厂的冷却水量更是大幅度减少.
(5) 省地:燃气轮机联合循环机组因附属设备较少,无需储煤场、输煤设施,占地面积仅为加脱硫装置的常规火电厂的1/3.这在城市边缘及城区的供热电厂显得尤为重要. (6) 建设工期短:燃气轮机联合循环机组最适合模块化设计,燃气轮机各部件模块可工厂化生产,运至现场吊装,因而大大缩短了燃气轮机电厂的建设工期.
(7) 调峰性能好:通过余热锅炉的旁路烟囱,不运行蒸汽轮机及发电机组的情况下,一般在20 min 内就能达到燃气轮机及发电机组的100%负荷,而燃气轮机及其发电机组负荷占整个燃气轮机联合循环电厂额定负荷的70%左右,这保证了燃气轮机联合循环的良好调控性能,实现机组的日启夜停和调峰功能.
(8) 操作运行和维护人员少:因为燃气轮机联合循环电厂自动化程度高,采用先进的控制系统,电厂对员工数量的需求大幅下降.一般情况下占同容量常规燃煤电厂人员的20%~25%就足够了.
4影响燃气轮机在热电联产工程中推广的主要因素
燃气轮机联合循环电厂在国外已经得到了普遍发展,近几年已占据美国电力市场的重要地位,欧洲的燃气轮机联合循环电厂也获得了长足的发展.目前我国燃气轮机联合循环电厂能否获得大力推广和发展,主要受制于如下三个因素:
(1) 我国能提供多少天然气资源供燃气轮机发电工业使用;当前国内已有部分燃气轮机联合循环电厂因受制于燃料供应,每年运行的时间远远少于常规燃煤机组.
2012年,随着“西气东输”二线最后几条干线的建成投产,整个输气管道实现每年输气300亿m3.未来中国甚至有可能规划修建“四线”或者“五线”,进一步便于西部地区的天然气输送到东部地区开发利用.
另外,海上(东海、南海)天然气的开发、沿海港口城市液化天然气(LNG)的进口,也为联合循环发电扩充了气源供应条件.国内已经探明了华北、东北、西北三大煤层气资源储量,并将逐步开采.
随着天然气来源渠道的扩大,燃气轮机联合循环电厂的应用范围将大大突破西气东输管网和海上天然气所能影响的地区.
(2) 如何合理确定天然气价格,使燃气轮机联合循环发电成本能够与严重污染的以煤为燃料的常规火电相竞争.
必须指出,天然气的价格对燃气轮机及联合循环的运行成本有着决定性的影响.在燃气轮机三项发电成本的组成中(设备折旧成本、机组运行维护成本、燃料成本),燃料成本的比例高达60%~65%,即使在天然气的产地,运输过程费用大为降低,天然气价格相对东南沿海地区更加便宜,其成本占燃气轮机发电成本的比例仍然是非常高的[4].在天然气价格居高不下的今天,燃料成本高已经成为制约燃气轮机发电大力推广的一个关键性因素.
当前,作为工业企业及城市基础设施的重要组成部分的许多中小型燃煤热电厂,通常地处城市之中或者城市郊区,因此不可避免地会对当地大气环境质量产生很大影响.中小型燃煤热电厂改造为燃气轮机联合循环热电厂,对当地环境质量的改善效果非常明显,也最容易得到人民群众的接受和支持.
热电厂的燃料从煤炭改造为天然气,虽然合理调整了能源结构,提高了能源利用效率,减少了煤炭运输环节的损失和浪费,但是对燃气轮机联合循环热电厂来说,燃料成本必然要增加,能源代价必然会提高,因此争取群众和企业的理解和参与,合理分担部分天然气成本因素,是解决天然气市场和成本关系的一条合理途径.
政府在制定燃气轮机联合循环热电厂上网电价和外供蒸汽价格时,应考虑到燃气轮机的环境效益,适当提高上网电价和外供蒸汽价格,这也是对天然气成本过高的一种消化.
(3) 从长远的角度看,我国燃气轮机整体行业水平的提高是决定我国燃气轮机及联合循环电厂能否大力推广的一个重要因素.
燃气轮机的发展水平代表着一个国家的重大装备制造业的总体水平.当前我国的燃气轮机技术水平与世界先进水平之间的差距还很大,燃气轮机的核心部件依赖于进口,燃气轮机的每次大修花费很大.若某些燃气轮机的大修只能运回美国等发达国家进行,则其费用更大.
近年来,为了推动燃气轮机工业的发展,按照“市场换技术”的原则,我国对规划批量建设的燃气轮机发电站工程项目采取“打捆”式招标采购模式,由国外先进燃气轮机制造企业与国内制造企业相互结合组成联合体,进行燃气轮机联合循环电站工程项目的竞争投标,以吸收和引进国外先进技术.在这一过程中,我国同时引进了世界三大动力集团(通用电气、西门子、三菱)的F级重型燃气轮机.在实现燃气轮机设备制造本土化和国产燃气轮机技术开发方面都取得了良好的成果.在吸收和引进国外先进燃气轮机技术的基础上,逐步实现了燃气轮机联合循环电站设备研发和制造的国产化、本地化和知识产权自主化[11-12].
2008年,我国具有完全自主知识产权的110 MW级R0110燃气轮机进行了点火及实验验证,其性能已经接近于目前国际上先进的F级燃气轮机,对我国的燃气轮机设计、制造和加工的整体水平是一个巨大的提升[13-14].
目前,我国燃气轮机技术水平与国际先进水平之间的差距正在不断缩小,我国的燃气轮机自主研发、生产制造等方面取得了重大进展.2012年9月12日,上海市科委重大专项课题“高温合金叶片制造技术研究”通过专家验收,这标志着我国在燃气轮机核心部件国产化、自主化生产的道路上迈出了坚实的一步.
从制约燃气轮机联合循环电厂发展的三个因素及我国目前的相应情况可知,我国大力发展燃气轮机联合循环的条件已经具备,燃气轮机联合循环电厂的快速发展在近期将成为可能.
5总结
实现节能减排,提高能源利用率是我国能源结构调整的目标.随着我国天然气资源的开发、利用及液化天然气资源的引进,我国燃气轮机联合循环机组将不断增加.燃气轮机联合循环以其高效、清洁和灵活的特点,必将成为我国未来大力发展的电厂类型.
目前可用于热电联产的中小型燃气轮机容量和整个热电厂供热能力与我国广泛使用的蒸汽轮机热电机组的规格十分接近,因而可在不改变外部系统,不增加发电容量和不间断供热、发电的前提下,以较短的时间、较低的投资和较合理的电、热成本实现对热电厂以气代煤的改造.这也是燃气轮机联合循环热电厂可获得大力推广的现实条件.
总之,燃气轮机联合循环机组在我国电力工业中的作用将逐渐增强,发展燃气轮机联合循环热电厂任重而道远,但是前景是非常光明的.
参考文献:
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[2]马悦,纪锦锋.燃气-蒸汽联合循环电站机组配置及选型分析[J].能源工程,2011(6):52-57.
[3]蒋洪德.重型燃气轮机的现状和发展趋势[J].热力透平,2012,41(2):83-88.
[4]清华大学热能工程系动力机械与工程研究所,深圳南山热电股份有限公司.燃气轮机与燃气-蒸汽联合循环装置[M].北京:中国电力出版社,2007.
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[6]张荣刚,李文强.浅析燃气轮机在电力行业中的应用[J].企业技术开发,2011,30(10):122-123.
[7]徐迎超,阎波,樊泳,等.燃气-蒸汽联合循环(CCPP)发电在首钢迁钢公司中的应用[J].冶金动力,2012(1):27-29.
[8]刘祖仁,李达,张阳.海上燃气轮机余热资源计算[J].中外能源,2012,17(5):99-103.
[9]李达,张阳,孙毅.海上冷、热、电、惰气四联供护技术探讨[J].石油和化工节能,2012(5):11-14.
[10]黄勇.我国发展联合循环机组的背景和条件[J].中国科技博览,2011(29):372.
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[12]杨连海,沈邱农.大型燃气轮机的自主化制造[J].燃气轮机技术,2006,19(1):11-14.
[13]崔荣繁,陈克杰,郭宝亭.R0110重型燃气轮机的研制[J].航空发动机,2011,37(3):8-11.
[14]包大陆.R0110重型燃气轮机气缸结构研究[J].中国新技术新产品,2012(9):109.
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42、气动增压阀动态特性的仿真研究
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水精灵”之现形记(水精灵是一种想果冻一样的东西,不知道你们那边有没有)
引言:
最近一段时间,一种被称为“水精灵”的玩具,出现在大街小巷尤其是学校周围的玩具摊上。因其色彩艳丽着实吸引了不少同学的眼球,不少人抵挡不住小贩的吹嘘,常买几只带回家。开学初,我们班许多同学也加入了买了水精灵的行列。水精灵是个什么东西,它是用什么做成的,对人体有无害处,怀着这些问题,我展开了对水精灵的调查。
一、 分析水精灵
九月底,我先对学校周围的商家进行采访,想了解这些水精灵是从什么地方批发来的,有无生产家,是否符合国家卫生标准,但学校周围的商家对此避而不答,有些甚至威胁我们。我只好改变策略,进行暗中调查,我先买了一袋,当即用小刀对水精灵进行解剖。立即遭到小贩的制止:“这都是有生命的东西,老动它,会弄死它的。”据其称,这是一种类似于蘑菇一样的人工培育的海底真菌,它质地柔软,无毒、无污染。用手触摸的感觉像果冻。当用小刀从中间切开后,一股透明的液体随之流出。凭感觉我觉得这是明胶之类的物质,明胶是做果冻的主要材料。这些水精灵有红的,黄的,绿的,蓝的,透明的,五颜六色非常漂亮。圆圆的,跟黄豆差不多大小,直径约为0.5厘米,捏起来软软的,富有弹性,很粘手。一股刺鼻的香味,熏得人头发晕。
经过初步的观察,我们觉得这是一种很少见到的儿童玩具。但它为什么有这么多颜色,为什么气味那么刺鼻,它的成份是什么,我又开始了第二步行动:并且开始记录:
第1天:开始膨胀。我把一滴墨水滴入水中,一会儿水就又变成清的了。我很纳闷,难道水精灵是污水清道夫?
第2-3天中,水精灵长出了尾巴。同时开始脱色,尾巴短小,像蝌蚪尾巴。
第4-5天:长翅膀。(还未长出)。
第6天:产卵。(就是从一个里面出来另一个)水精灵的蛋蛋特圆,可以捏碎,表面光滑。好像不会动。捏碎后里面像碎玻璃,里外都是透明的。我们怀疑是不是活的,可又会下蛋。还十分有弹性,真怪异。
二、水精灵的成分
水精灵整个生长过程就像是一个细胞分裂过程。后来我上网查才知道水精灵是一种吸水性树脂(化学材料),一般是用淀粉混合丙烯腈或丙烯酸酯制成的。它们是胶丸大小的透明小球,有红的、黄的、蓝的……五颜六色,非常抢眼,用小塑料袋或小玻璃瓶装着,每瓶里面大概有60个小球,售价为0.5元,因为放入水中会有“神奇”的变化,所以它们也有个比较玄的名字———“水精灵”。这些珠子很软、滑、湿,在水里膨胀以后,有的会鼓出一个包,慢慢地分离出来,所以珠子也会越来越多。
三、水精灵对人体的危害.
丙烯腈和丙烯酸酯都有一定的毒性,而且商家在制作中也不可能用昂贵的食用色素,可能会添加一些工业色素,所以建议小学生最好不要玩这种东西,如果皮肤接触了就要赶紧清洗,当然家长也要十分留心,切忌让年龄小的孩子玩耍,以免误食。
四、水精灵带来的伤害
1、对人体造成的伤害。丙烯腈和丙烯酸酯都有一定的毒性,而且商家在制作中也不可能用昂贵的食用色素,可能会添加一些工业色素。所以建议小学生最好不要玩这种东西,如果皮肤接触了就要赶紧清洗,当然家长也要十分留心,切忌让年龄小的孩子玩耍,以免误食。
2、让同学们养成乱用零用钱的坏习惯,有些甚至偷拿家长的钱,盲目地追随潮流。
3、如果把水精灵带到学校,有些同学就会在课桌下玩水精灵,不认真听讲,分散注意力,从而影响我们的学习。
节约用电小窍门
摘要:随着能源的减少,人们逐渐变得重视节能了。在我还上小学时就教育我们节能的观念,只为了我们人类能在地球永远的生活下去。在现实生活中,人们仍不清楚怎样节能,让节能只是一个说的到,却不能全做的到的事情,往往还因缺乏科学的节约常识和“小窍门”,造成不必要的浪费现象。现在我来就介绍家庭的节电。
关键词:1、电饭煲的节能 2、电视机节电小窍门 3、 空调节电小窍门4、冰箱节电小窍门
引言:随着能源的减少,人们逐渐变得重视节能了。在我还上小学时就教育我们节能的观念,只为了我们人类能在地球永远的生活下去。在现实生活中,人们仍不清楚怎样节能,让节能只是一个说的到,却不能全做的到的事情,往往还因缺乏科学的节约常识和“小窍门”,造成不必要的浪费现象。现在我来就介绍家庭的节电。
电饭煲节电小窍门
一、电饭煲的节能
现在市面上的电饭煲分为两种:一种是机械电饭煲,另外一种是电脑电饭煲。使用机械电饭煲时,电饭煲上盖一条毛巾,注意不要遮住出气孔,这样可以减少热量损失。当米汤沸腾后,将按键抬起利用电热盘的余热将米汤蒸干,再摁下按键,焖15分钟即可食用。电饭煲用完后,一定要拔下电源插头,不然电饭煲内温度下降到 70度以下时,会自动通电,这样既费电又会缩短使用寿命。尽量选择功率大的电饭煲,因为煮同量的米饭,700瓦的电饭煲比500瓦的电饭煲要省时间。电脑电饭煲一般功率较大,在800瓦左右,从而节能,但价格稍贵,一般都在500元至800元之间。
二、电视机节电小窍门
电视机节能可以通过如下几条途径:首先控制好对比度和亮度。一般彩色电视机最亮与最暗时的功耗能相差3o瓦至50瓦,建议室内开一盏低瓦数的日光灯,把电视对比度和亮度调到中间为最佳。其次控制音量,音量大,功耗高。第三个省电的办法是观看影碟时,最好在av状态下。因为在av状态下,信号是直接接入的,减少了电视高频头工作,耗电自然就减少了。第四是看完电视后,不能用遥控器关机,要关掉电视机上的电源。因为遥控关机后,电视机仍处在整机待用状态,还在用电。一般情况下,待机10小时,相当于消耗半度电。最后是给电视机加防尘罩。这样可防止电视机吸进灰尘,灰尘多了增加电耗。
三、空调节电小窍门
1、空调使用过程中温度不能调得过低。因为空调所控制的温度调得越低,所耗的电量就越多,故一般把室内温度降低6至7度就行了。
2、制冷时室温定高1度,制热时室温定低2度,均可省电10%以上,而人体几乎觉察不到这微小的差别。
3、设定开机时,设置高冷/高热,以最快达到控制目的;当温度适宜时,改中、低风、减少能耗,降低噪音。
4、“通风”开关不能处于常开状态,否则将增加耗电量。
5、少开门窗可以减少房外热量进入,利于省电。
6、使用空调器的房间,最好使用厚质地的窗帘,以减少凉空气散失。
7、室内、外机连接管不超过推荐长度,可增强制冷效果。
8、安装空调器要尽量选择房间的阴面,避免阳光直射机身。如不具备这种条件,应给空调器加盖遮阳罩。
9、定期清除室外散热片上的灰尘,保持清洁。散热片上的灰尘过多,可大幅度增加耗电量。
四、冰箱节电小窍门
目前市场上出现的a++级节能冰箱比普通的冰箱要省电。家庭用的节能冰箱一般消耗0.5~0.8度电/天,而普通冰箱一般耗电1~1.5度电/天,大约可以省一半电。另外,使用冰箱的过程中,应注意以下问题:
1、冷藏物品不要放得太密,留下空隙利于冷空气循环,这样食物降温的速度比较快,减少压缩机的运转次数,节约电能。
2、在冰箱里放进新鲜果菜时,一定要把它们摊开。如果果菜堆在一起,会造成外冷内热,就会消耗更多的电量。
3、对于那些块头较大的食物,可根据家庭每次食用的份量分开包装,一次只取出一次食用的量,而不必把一大块食物都从冰箱里取出来,用不完再放回去。反复冷冻既浪费电力,又容易对食物产生破坏。
4、解冻的方法有水冲、自然解冻等几种。在食用前几小时,可以先把食物从冷藏室(4度左右)里拿到微冻室(1度左右)里,因为冷冻食品的冷气可以帮助保持温度,减少压缩机的运转,从而达到省电目的。
冰箱的摆放也有讲究,一般应该注意以下两个问题:
1、在摆放冰箱时,一般应在两侧预留5~10厘米、上方10厘米、后侧10厘米的空间,可以帮助冰箱散热。
2、不要与音响、电视、微波炉等电器放在一起,这些电器产生的热量会增加冰箱的耗电量。
节能是很重要的,人都应该用这些小窍门,不应该因嫌麻烦就不去做这些事。这些事对谁都有极大的好处的,仅仅需要举手之劳而已。有关部门也应该加大节能力度,多多宣传。让人类都节约这并不是永远都有的能源!为造福我们的后代而努力吧!
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