下面是我为大家整理的一些关于“英文文献综述的 范文 ”的资料，供大家参阅。
英文文献综述范文
How to Write a Literature Review ?
I. The definition of Literature Review
文献综述(Literautre Review)是科研 论文 中重要的文体之一。它以作者对各种文献资料的整理、归纳、分析和比较为基础，就某个专题的 历史 背景、前人的工作、研究现状、争论的焦点及发展前景等方面进行综合、总结和评论。通过阅读文献综述，科研工作者可花费较少的时间获得较多的关于某一专题系统而具体的信息，了解其研究现状、存在的问题和未来的发展方向。
II. The purposes of literature review And Its Components
A. The Purposes
On the one hand, it helps you broaden the view and perspective of the topic for your graduation thesis.
On the other hand, it helps you narrow down the topic and arrive at a focused
research question.
B. Its Components
There are six parts in a complete Literature Review.
标题与作者(title and author)
摘要与关键词(abstract and key words)
引言(introduction)
述评(review)
结论(conclusion)
参考文献(references)
III. Classification of Source Materials
How can we locate the materials relevant to our topics better and faster? Basically, all these source materials may be classified into four majors of sources.
A: Background sources:
Basic information which can usually be found in dictionaries and
encyclopedia complied by major scholars or founders of the field. Three very good and commonly recommenced encyclopedias are encyclopedias ABC, namely, Encyclopedia Americana, Encyclopedia Britannica, and Collier’s Encyclopedia. There are also reference works more specialized, such as The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics for linguistics and TEFL studies. Moreover, you may also find Encyclopedia on the web.
B: Primary sources
Those providing direct evidence, such as works of scholars of the field,
biographies or autobiographies, memoirs, speeches, lectures, diaries, collection of letters, interviews, case studies, approaches, etc. Primary sources come in various shapes and sizes, and often you have to do a little bit of research about the source to make sure you have correctly identified it. When a first search yields too few results, try searching by broader topic; when a search yields too
many results, refine your search by narrowing down your search.
C: Secondary sources
Those providing indirect evidence, such as research articles or papers, book
reviews, assays, journal articles by experts in a given field, studies on authors or
writers and their works, etc. Secondary sources will inform most of your writing
in college. You will often be asked to research your topic using primary sources,
but secondary sources will tell you which primary sources you should use and
will help you interpret those primary sources. To use theme well, however, you
need to think critically them. There are two parts of a source that you need to
analyze: the text itself and the argument within the text.
D: Web sources
The sources or information from websites. Web serves as an excellent
resource for your materials. However, you need to select and evaluate Web
sources with special care for very often Web sources lack quality control. You
may start with search engines, such as Google, Yahoo, Ask, Excite, etc. It’s a
good idea to try more than one search engine, since each locates sources in its
own way. When using websites for information, be sure to take care for the
authorship and sponsorship. If they are both unclear, be critical when you use
information. The currency of website information should also be taken into
account. Don’t use too out information dated for your purpose.
IV. Major strategies of Selecting Materials for literature review
A. Choosing primary sources rather than secondary sources
If you have two sources, one of them summarizing or explaining a work and
the other the work itself, choose the work itself. Never attempt to write a paper
on a topic without reading the original source.
B. Choosing sources that give a variety of viewpoints on your thesis
Remember that good argument essays take into account counter arguments.
Do not reject a source because it makes an argument against you thesis.
C. Choosing sources that cover the topic in depth
Probably most books on Communicative Language Teaching mention William
Littlewood, but if this your topic, you will find that few sources cover the topic
in depth. Choose those.
D. Choosing sources written by acknowledged experts
If you have a choice between an article written by a freelance journalist on
Task-based Teaching and one written by a recognized expert like David Nunan,
Choose the article by the expert.
E. Choosing the most current sources
If your topic involves a current issue or social problem or development in a
scientific field, it is essential to find the latest possible information. If all the
books on these topics are rather old, you probably need to look for information in
periodicals.
V. Writing a literature Review
A. When you review related literature, the major review focuses should be:
1. The prevailing and current theories which underlie the research problem.
2. The main controversies about the issue, and about the problem.
3. The major findings in the area, by whom and when.
4. The studies which can be considered the better ones, and why.
5. Description of the types of research studies which can provide the basis for the current theories and controversies.
6. Criticism of the work in the area.
B. When you write literature review, the two principles to follow are:
1. Review the sources that are most relevant to your to your thesis.
2. Describe or write your review as clear and objective as you can.
C. Some tips for writing the review:
1. Define key terms or concepts clearly and relevant to your topic.
2. Discuss the least-related references to your question first and the most
related references last.
3. Conclude your review with a brief summary.
4. Start writing your review early.
VI. 文献综述主要部分的细节性提示和 注意事项
英文文献主要部分细节提示：
引言(Introduction)
引言是文献综述正文的开始部分，主要包括两个内容：一是提出问题;二是介绍综述的范围
和内容。提出问题时，作者要给出定义性解释、交代研究背景、简单介绍不同文献的看法和
分歧所在并介绍该文献的写作目的;介绍该综述的范围和主要内容时，作者应使用简明扼要
的语句加以概括。
引言的内容和结构具有以下特点：
(1)综述的引言通常包括定义性解释、研究背景、现存问题或分歧、综述的目的、内容和
范围;
(2)使用一般现在时介绍背景知识，使用现在完成时叙述他人成果，使用一般将来时或一
般现在时简介本文内容;
(3) 句子 结构力求简洁明了，多用简单句，并列成份较为常见;
(4)以第三人称主语为主，间或使用第一人称复数充当主语。
述评(Review)
述评是文献综述的核心所在，是对引言的展开和深入。根据引言所提出的问题和限定的范围，
作者要对大量有关文献进行系统的整理、归纳、对比和分析，在此基础上列出与主题有关的
所有重要学术观点，然后分别加以论述，以便读者获得全面的了解。回顾前人研究，以时间
为序，由远及近。以有叙有议的方式体现述评的功能，叙前人研究，议其结果、探其原因、
究其不足。
分析评论，特别是表达作者自己的观点时，要客观、谨慎，因此多使用模糊性语言和表推测
的语言形式。
综述的结论(Conclusion)
结论不仅是作者对全文的总结，也是作者发表个人 意见 的部分，一般有标题Conclusion 或
Summary，较短的综述如果没有小标题，则往往有As mentioned above，To sum up，To
conclude，Inshort，In all 等 短语 引出结论。结论的内容包括：对述评的归纳、对各种问
题的评论性意见、对未来研究的建议或展望。
二.注意事项
⒈搜集文献应尽量全面。掌握全面、大量的文献资料是写好综述的前提，否则，随便搜集一 点资料就动手撰写是不可能写出好的文献综述，甚至写出的文章根本不成为综述。
⒉注意引用文献的代表性、可靠性和科学性。在搜集到的文献中可能出现观点雷同，有的 文献在可靠性及科学性方面存在着差异，因此在引用文献时应注意选用代表性、可靠性和 科学性较好的文献。
⒊引用文献要忠实文献内容。由于文献综述有作者自己的评论分析，因此在撰写时应分清 作者的观点和文献的内容，不能篡改文献的内容。
⒋参考文献不能省略。有的科研论文可以将参考文献省略，但文献综述绝对不能省略，而 且应是文中引用过的，能反映主题全貌的并且是作者直接阅读过的文献资料。
5.文献综述不应是对已有文献的重复、罗列和一般性介绍，而应是对以往研究的优点、不足和贡献的批判性分析与评论。因此，文献综述应包括综合提炼和分析评论双重含义。
6.文献综述要文字简洁，尽量避免大量引用原文，要用自己的语言把作者的观点说清楚，从原始文献中得出一般性结论。
7. 文献综述不是资料库，要紧紧围绕课题研究的“问题”，确保所述的已有研究成果与本课题研究直接相关，其内容是围绕课题紧密组织在一起，既能系统全面地反映研究对象的历史、现状和趋势，又能反映研究内容的各个方面。
8. 文献综述的综述要全面、准确、客观，用于评论的观点、论据最好来自一次文献，尽量避免使用别人对原始文献的解释或综述。
VII. A Sample of Literature Review
A Study of Chinese Vogue Expressions and Translations
Although we can see the obtained achievements in researching on Chinese vogue expressions, papers on the translation of contemporary Chinese vogue expressions are scarce and rare, not to mention the discussion of translation methods and untranslatability of Chinese vogue expressions, which is a great regret in the field of vogue expressions. Few representative papers on Chinese vogue expressions translation are listed as follows: A Study of Shooting Star Language Translation(Wang Jian, Zhou Yongping, 2005:92～94); Cultural Reflection on Vogue Word s Translation (Su Yu, Wang Ting, 2011:50 ～ 51); The optimization of “Zero Translation” in Translating Vogue Words (Shi Rui, 2010:102～105).
Hence, the numbers of researches on contemporary Chinese vogue expressions translation are expected to be increased and the comprehensive and detailed researches on this field are also expected to appear. Since 1990s, scholars have already paid attention to Chinese vogue expressions, but the research at that time is still in the stage of tentative exploration. Some representative papers are: City Buzzwords and Social-Cultural Analysis (Sun Manjun,1996:101～107) discusses the development and changes of buzzwords in the current society facing transformation as well as the relation between buzzwords and background of social culture and psychological changes of urban people; Metaphorically Semantic Generalization of Vogue Expressions (Liu Dawei,1997:35 ～ 38) talks about the semantic generalization of metaphors of vogue expressions; Study on Creativity and Homoplasy of Language from Vogue Expressions (Xia Lihong, 1999:16～18) treats the development process of vogue expressions from the characteristics of creativity
and homoplasy, believing that vogue expressions are originally the “creativity” used in a certain range, and finally surpass the original range of use because of the interaction among people and the homoplasy of aesthetic interests. Due to the characteristics of timeliness, periodicity and randomness, some vogue expressions can not be included in common dictionaries, therefore, language scholars carried out the work of compiling vogue expressions dictionaries, such as Dictionary of Contemporary Chinese Vogue Expressions (Xiong Zhongwu, 1992), andBeijing Modern Buzzwords (Zhou Yimin, 1992).
After entering 21st century, increasingly great number of Chinese vogue expressions emerges and penetrates into different aspects of social life; accordingly, related researches on Chinese vogue expressions become comparatively richer. Researching on Chinese vogue expressions has already become the hot topic of linguistic and cultural circles. The Linguistic will contribute to the filed of Chinese vogue expressions and make references forothers who are interested in contemporary Chinese vogue expressions and their Translations.
References
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Merriam-Webster, 2009. 223
[6] New York Times, Jul. 4, 2010
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[9] Romaine, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994
[10]陈原. 社会语言学. 北京：商务印书馆，2000
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References
李丽君. 英语 学术论文 及 留学 文书写作[M]. 北京： 清华大学出版社， 2002. 田贵森, 段晓英.英语专业 毕业 论文写作 教程[M]. 北京： 北京理工大学出版社.
2006.
刘振聪. 英语学术论文写作[M]. 北京： 中国人民大学出版社. 2009
论文框架由以下几部分组成：
1、介绍
简要地总结论文主题，说明为什么这个主题有价值，也许还可以概述一下你的主要结果。
2、背景信息(可选)
简短地介绍背景信息是必要的，特别是当你的论文涉及两个或多个传统领域时。
3、新技术回顾
这部分回顾了与论文相关的研究现状。
4、研究问题或问题陈述
工程论文倾向于提到一个需要解决的“问题”，而其他学科则是用一个需要回答的“问题”来表述。在这两种情况下，有三个主要部分：
5、描述你如何解决问题或回答问题
论文的这一部分形式更加自由，可以有一个或几个部分和子部分。
6、结论
结论部分通常涵盖三件事，并且每一件事都应该有一个单独的小节：
7、参考文献
参考文献的列表与第3部分中给出的技术现状综述紧密相关。所有的参考文献都必须在论文正文中提及。参考书目可能包括论文中没有直接引用的作品。
8、附录
一般来说，太过具体的材料不适合在论文主体中出现，但可供考官仔细阅读，以充分说服他们。
国外语言学方向硕士论文引言语类分析
无论在学习或是工作中，大家都接触过论文吧，论文是探讨问题进行学术研究的一种手段。你知道论文怎样写才规范吗？以下是我整理的国外语言学方向硕士论文引言语类分析，欢迎阅读，希望大家能够喜欢。
摘要： 本文依据Swales的CARS 模式， 对50 篇国外语言学方向硕士论文引言进行了语类分析。结果表明，国外硕士论文引言的语类结构基本符合Swales 的三语步模式， 并且大部分语篇都出现语步循环现象，但是，三语步在各语篇中的分布差异很大, 并出现新的步骤。基于此，本研究概括出了外国硕士论文引言写作的基本模式， 希望能对中国英语语言学方向硕士论文的写作有所启示和帮助。
关键词： 硕士论文引言；语类分析；CARS 模式
1. 研究背景
硕士论文是评价硕士研究生学术水平的一个重要标准，而论文引言是论文中不可缺少又非常关键的一部分。通过访谈发现， 引言是论文写作中非常难写的一部分， 特别是对英语作为外语的中国学生似乎更难，这不仅表现在词汇、语法、思想表达上， 更是表现在有些同学根本就不知道引言部分应该写什么内容以及如何组织这些内容。徐有志等学者在2007 年的一项调查研究也发现，有些学生会学术论文体裁的结构、社会功能和认知模式不甚了了， 难以有效实现学术论文的交际目的。但是在英语语言学专业学术论文引言写作中，究竟什么样的模式能够有效实现学术论文的交际目的？
此问题引发了作者研究国外英语本族语者硕士论文引言的动机。
2.理论框架及文献综述
从语类角度对学术论文引言进行分析， 美国密执安大学学者Swales 可谓是先驱。继1981 年， 他提出的引言结构四语步之后，Swales 于1990 年分析了110 篇科研论文引言，对其前期成果进行了修订， 并提出了著名的建立学术研究空间 （Create A Research Space）的分析思想， 并建立了以语步（move）和步骤（step）为出发点的语类结构分析模式。CARS 模式包括三个语步：语步一：确立研究领域， 即通过对前人研究成果的回顾来阐述所研究问题的重要性及必要性， 其中包括三个步骤，建立议题中心、概括议题内容和回顾前人研究结果；语步二：确立研究地位，是通过指出前人研究空白再次强调某一研究的必要性， 包括反驳已有观点、指出研究空白、提出问题和继承前人研究成果四个步骤； 语步三： 占据研究地位， 是告诉读者如何解决论文中提出的问题， 包括概述研究目的、通报本课题当前研究情况、通报主要发现和介绍论文结构四个步骤。Swales 认为尽管引言的主要形式是三语步顺序排列， 但是也会出现非顺序组合的情况， 并且有的语步循环出现。
CARS 语篇模式已被学术界公认， 成为国内外引言研究的通用分析模式。如Ahmad（1997） 对20 篇马来西亚学术会议论文引言进行了分析Aravy 和Tank?(2004)对比研究了英语和西班牙语的理论科研论文引言；Samraj （2008） 在美国对三个学科的硕士论文引言做了分析。这些研究都是建立在Swales 的语步步骤的分析模式上， 结合各领域的学术特点对CARS 模式做出了适合各领域的修订。但是目前，还没有人对国外应用语言学领域的硕士学位论文引言进行研究。
3.语料收集及研究方法
本研究从ProQuest 数据库选取了50 篇应用语言学领域硕士论文作为语料， 为确保研究的准确性， 这些论文均由英语本族语者写于2000 年到2008 年。为保证分析的信度，本研究的语料分析由两名通晓语类理论及CARS 模式的分析者分三个阶段完成。第一阶段两人各分析五篇相同的文本，找出两人所分析的语步和步骤偏差， 进一步统一对模式和文本的理解；第二阶段，两名分析者对所有文本进行分析； 第三阶段，再次找出两人的分析偏差，共同研究后达成协议。分析发现， 这些偏差主要是由于某些步骤在文本中具有多种功能。
最后统计数据，分析结果。
4.结果与讨论
研究发现，50 篇引言中实现语篇的语步（M）共有418 个，其中语步一155， 语步二106，语步三157， 平均每个文本有8.36 个语步。齐性方差检验表明各语步分布均匀， 出现频率之间没有显着性差异（P >0.05）。并且我们发现，有规律的语步组合模式占58%， 其中语步按照（1-2-3）n 顺序组织的语篇占24%， 大部分语篇都以其他形式组织语篇，如（1-2）n-3 占8%，（1-3）n 占14%，（3-2-1）-X（X 是不定语步）占12%。
没有规律的语步组织模式占42%，其中不规律的含有（1-2-3）模式的占32%，如3-1-2-3-1，1 -2 -3 -2 -3，1 -2 -3 -1 -3 -1等， 另外只有第三语步的语篇占10%。
语步由一个一个步骤（S）组成。Swales 在CARS 模式中提到的11 个步骤在本研究中都有所发现。并且有些步骤出现频繁， 如92%的语篇都出现M1S1，60%的语篇都出现M1－S2,76%的语篇都出现M1S3。在实现语步二的过程中，指出研究空白和提出问题这两个步骤出现频率比较高， 分别占72%和54%， 另外两个步骤频率较低， 分别占8%和28%。语步三中，除了步骤二通报主要发现出现率比较低（14%）外，其他三个步骤出现频率也比较高， 分别占80%，70%和66%。
齐性方差检验结果P=0.157 表明国外应用语言学硕士论文引言的写作符合Swales 的CARS语篇组织模式。
研究还发现除了CARS 模式中的11 个步骤，语篇中还存在其他新的步骤， 并且有的语步出现频率很高。在实现语步一的过程中，92%的语篇都描述研究背景、现实存在的问题或讲述个人经历，58%的语篇都对相关的术语进行了解释、分类或评价； 还有一些语篇中体现了研究动机； 一些语篇在综述完前人研究成果以后，对其做出总结或评价； 一些语篇还介绍了学者之间的分歧。语步二中只发现一个新步骤，及陈述研究的必要性与紧迫性（22%）。语步三种共发现9 个新语步，其中（58%）、陈述问题或提出假设（68%）、陈述研究意义（52%）出现频率较高。
根据Nwugo （2002） 的研究， 出现频率在50%以上的语步才是稳定语步， 基于CARS模式， 作者总结出国外应用语言学硕士论文的引言模式为：
语步一：确立研究领域步骤1： 描述研究背景、现实存在的问题或讲述个人经历步骤2：建立议题中心步骤3：解释、界定、评价相关术语步骤4：概括议题内容步骤5：回顾前人研究结果语步二：确立研究地位步骤1：指出研究空白步骤2：提出问题语步三：占据研究地位步骤1：概述研究目的步骤2：陈述问题或提出假设步骤3：概述研究方法步骤4：通报本课题当前研究情况步骤5：陈述研究意义步骤6：介绍论文结构根据此次研究统计结果，我们认为国外硕士论文的写作非常注重对研究背景或现实存在的问题或个人经历介绍，大多作者不惜用几段甚至几页的篇幅实现次步骤的交际目的。
进入建立研究议题以后，作者把所有与议题有关的定义或术语都呈现给读者， 以便读者更容易理解其研究议题。而在中国学生的论文引言写作中对此涉及偏少， 有些学生想当然觉得议题的研究背景是众所周知的， 没必要写（ 徐有志，2007），而这很容易对实现交际目的产生障碍。另外，英语本族语者通常会在介绍自己的研究时，把研究方法介绍给读者，让读者更清楚地了解研究过程，这都是值得我们借鉴的。没有实践意义的.研究是空洞的，国外作者没有忽略掉这一点，他们一般会在论文开头或介绍完自己的研究以后阐述研究意义。
5.结语
综合以上分析， 国外学生的语篇在总体上遵从学术写作的规范， 但也呈现出自己鲜明的特点。这是因为语篇结构除了受到学术规范的制约外，还受到作者自身在学术领域的地位、专业领域、写作任务以及作者所处的文化和教育背景的影响。希望本研究的研究结果有利于更好的指导中国应用语言学领域硕士生的论文写作，使之更快地与国际学术论文写作接轨。
扩展：论文格式要求
论文最好能建立在平日比较注意探索的问题的基础上，写论文主要是反映学生对问题的思考， 详细内容请看下文本科司法论文格式。
毕业论文包括以下内容：
封面、内容提要与关键词、目录、正文、注释、附录、参考文献。其中附录视具体情况安排，其余为必备项目。如果需要，可以在正文前加引言，在参考文献后加后记。
各项目含义
(1)封面
封面由文头、论文标题、作者、学校名称、专业、年级、指导教师、日期等项内容组成。
(2)内容提要与关键词
内容提要是论文内容的概括性描述，应忠实于原文，字数控制在300字以内。关键词是从论文标题、内容提要或正文中提取的、能表现论文主题的、具有实质意义的词语，通常不超过7个。
(3)目录
列出论文正文的一二级标题名称及对应页码，附录、参考文献、后记等对应的页码。
(4)正文
正文是论文的主体部分，通常由绪论(引论)、本论、结论三个部分组成。这三部分在行文上可以不明确标示。
(5).注释
对所创造的名词术语的解释或对引文出处的说明，注释采用脚注形式。
(6)附录
附属于正文，对正文起补充说明作用的信息材料，可以是文字、表格、图形等形式。
(7)参考文献
作者在写作过程中使用过的文章、著作名录。
4、毕业论文格式编排
第一、纸型、页边距及装订线
毕业论文一律用国家标准A4型纸(297mmX210mm)打印。页边距为：天头(上)30mm，地脚(下)25mm，订口(左)30mm，翻口(右)25mm。装订线在左边，距页边10mm。
第二、版式与用字
文字、图形一律从左至右横写横排，1.5倍行距。文字一律通栏编辑，使用规范的简化汉字。忌用繁体字、异体字等其他不规范字。
浅析透过交往行为理论看隐喻的英汉翻译
论文关键词:交往行为理论;隐喻理解;翻译
论文摘要:本文利用哈贝马斯的交往行为理论重释翻译学的理解观，并借此说明在翻译实践这一特殊形式的跨文化交际中如何有效地解读隐喻。
1.引言
隐喻翻译是一项以语言为载体的跨文化交际活动，也是将一种语言所承载的信息传递到另一种语言中去的主体间性交往行为。对于主体间性交往行为的研究，德国后现代哲学家哈贝马斯的“交往行为理论”( Theory of Communication Action)为人们开启了一扇新的窗户。该理论是在取舍抑扬不同哲学思想观点的基础上创立的一个复杂的、多层面的“理性联盟系统”，它以“理解”为核心，语言为基础，融社会批判理论、普通语用学、社会进化理论为统一构架。
2.交往行为理论视域下的翻译学理解观
2.1翻译学研究的新出路—交拄行为理论。翻译学研究从传统的语义学阶段到结构主义语言学阶段，发展到20世纪90年代传人我国的解构主义阶段，经历了漫长的历程。
传统的语义学范式的翻译，受到古典主义知识论的影响，认为“人是万物之灵”，对客体的理解完全依赖于译者的主观感受，强调译者的悟性与灵感，讲求“神似”和“化境”，推祟所谓的神来之笔。由于它过分地强调译者的主观能动性，使得翻译这一跨文化交际活动变成了一种神秘的实践。
20世纪80年代，我国结构主义语言学掀起了翻译学研究的新高潮。人们开始关注文本，尝试运用语言学的分析方法代替直觉感受，认为在纷繁复杂的言语现象背后隐藏着一种普遍性和规律性的东西，只要掌握了它就可以表达一切，使得翻译变成简单化的机械性操作，即用目标语言的语义一句法规则把存储在源语言的语义一句法规则中的思维内容编写进去。
显然这种工具性又走到了另一个极端—过分强调作为客体的语言的规律作用，随之便受到了解构主义思潮的猛烈抨击。解构主义给人们提供了一种新的思维方式。它打破了结构，解构了系统，使一元规定走向多元化局面，把翻译从语言逻名斯主义的束缚中解放出来。但它毕竟又一次将翻译推向非理性，过分张扬主体意识，使释义变成了一种无限延宕的活动，人与人之间的理解和交往似乎变得不可能。
如何克服这种思想观念的偏狭，进行有效的以语言为媒介的跨文化交际活动呢?笔者认为，借助哈贝马斯的交往行为理论，可为翻译学研究找到一条理性的新路。
2. 2翻译学理解观的重释。一位法国译者说过:“翻译就是理解和使人理解”。理解是翻译大厦的基石，是翻译过程的第一步，没有一个好的理解，翻译寸步难行。当我们认为交往行为理论为翻译研究打开了一扇新的窗户时，就有必要对理解观进行重释。
哈贝马斯认为社会交往以语言为媒介，语言交流必须互相理解，否则谈不上有效交往。交往行为中的语言，即言语，是可以进行规范分析的。每个言语行为都具有施行和陈述的双重结构。施行性部分作为主语句，处于主体间的交际层;而陈述性部分作为副语句，处于主体间的表内容层。施行性部分在一个言语行为中起决定作用，因为它限制了言语者和听者的关系，同时也规约了陈述内容的意义。这两个结构在言语行为中是相互依存的。有时言说者也许会强调其中的一部分，但并不意味着否定另外一部分，只是让它暂时退居次要的位置而已。比如，“我手机没电了”一语，看上去似乎仅仅陈述了手机电池已耗尽这一事实，但实际上它隐含着多种行为意义;①因为手机没电，所以我刚才没接你的电话;②我必须马上充电;③我不会带手机而带小灵通，所以有事请打我的小灵通。这就是隐性的施行性部分，而根据具体的情境，它将起到这样或者那样的施行效果。
塞尔认为“说话人的思想的原初的，或内在的意向性被转换为语词、语句、记号、符号等等，这些语词、语句、记号、符号如果被有意义地说出来，它们就有了从说话人的思想中所派生出来的意向性。它们不仅具有传统的语言学意义，而且也具有有意图的说话人的意义。”这无疑与哈贝马斯的言语双重结构理论异曲同工。据此，对意义的理解也有必要进行相应的双重划分。理解某一言语应一分为二地看，在表述层上则是know-what的问题，而在交际层上是know-how的问题。know-what是指言说者何以会达到这种理解的明晰知识，即其能够获得关于理解的知识;从理解者的角度来看，就要求他能理解被语义、句法、规则排列起来的“语词、语句、记号符号”构成了怎样的意义。know how是指有能力言说者如何构造或施行这种言语行为的能力，是一种隐含的规则意识;从理解者的角度来看，就要求他能理解言说者的这种隐含性规则意识。在这一双重理解中，对言语表述内容的理解是一级理解(know-what )，而要真正把握言语者内在的意向性必须进人二级理解(know-how)，即对施行性部分的理解。因此，理解不能停滞在先验判断的形式上，必须在交往过程中达成。理解的目标是导向某种认同，即“共享知识，彼此信任，两相符合的主观际相互依存”。它不仅包含传统的对语言表达式的理解，还包括“在与彼此认为的规范性背景相关的话语的正确性上，两个主体之间存在着某种协调”，及“两个交往过程的参与者对世界上某种东西达成理解，并且能使自己的意向为对方所理解”。
3.隐喻的解读
哈贝马斯的交往行为理论对翻译学的建构具有宏观的方法论指导意义，对翻译实践是否同样具有指导意义呢?鉴于纽马克曾说“隐喻翻译是一切语言翻译的缩影，因为隐喻翻译给译者呈现出多种选择方式:要么传递其意义，要么重塑其形象，要么对其一进行修改，要么对其意义和形象进行完美的结合。”以下将利用交往行为理论说明隐喻在跨文化交际中的解读。
隐喻是一种语言使用现象，在“词典中找不到隐喻”。从现代隐喻学观点来看，隐喻现象应在形式上搭配异常，在语义上类属不同，逻辑错位，从而产生了语义冲突，而当听者对冲突产生回应时，便生成了隐喻的意义，即理解了某一隐喻式言语。对于隐喻的运作机制，有人曾作过这样描述:“隐喻涉及两个不同领域(范畴)的概念，隐喻意义的产生是两个概念之间相互作用的结果。这一相互作用通过映射的方式进行。在映射过程中，属于某一领域的相关概念和结构被转移到另一领域，最终形成一种经过合成的新的概念结构，即隐喻意义。而这一映射和整合过程的基础是两个领域在某些方面的相似性。”这无疑表明对隐喻的理解需要双重划分。
隐喻的理解过程应由两部分组成:隐喻的辨认和隐喻意义的推断。事实上这就是一个由一级理解进人二级理解的过程。举一个人们常提到的例子“The tongue is a fire”来说，从表述层理解(一级理解)，"tongue”被美国传统词典这样定义:"the fleshy，movable, muscular organ,attached in most vertebrates to the floor of the mouth, that is principal organ of taste, an aid in chewing, and swallo-wing, and, in human beings,，important organ of speech"。我们可以认为舌头作为人体的一个重要器官，首先具有与绝大多数脊椎动物一样的味觉和辅助咀嚼及吞食的功能，除此之外，还是具有言说能力的人的重要语言器官。以这个基本意义为中心，tongue一词背后形成了一个庞大的意义集合:它可以指形状像舌头的东西，例如tongue of flame(火舌)，guiding tongue(铁路导向尖轨)，switch tong(开关铜片)，也可以指人的言说行为和言说能力，例如hold one’s tongue (keep silent), lose one’s tongue (lose the capacity to speak, as from shock)。这一言语行为中的另一个关键词fire，在美国传统词典里可以找到如下定义;" a rapid, persistent chemical change that releases heat and light and is accompanied勿flame”。同样，在它背后的意义集合中可以找到诸如，cooking fire(炊火)，forest fire(森林火灾)，wild fire(野火),the fire ofcannon炮火)等火的具体形态。也可以发现其他意义，如The boy is full of fire(这男孩非常热情决奋)，He was on-der fire for mismanagement(因管理不善而受到责难)。
当tongue和fire这两个背负着各自庞大意义集合的词语被嵌人A is B的基本语言框架(句型)中去时，两者的逻辑关系就通过“is’，发生相互作用。" is”用来表示一种等值。所以从字面上看，或者换一个角度说，从听者对表述层的理解来看就应该推理为:“舌头是火”。“是”表明两个意义集合在某方面来说是等值的。然而，从上面我们对这两个词的意义的理解来看，它们显然隶属于两个不同的范畴，将它们之间用‘` is"连接后，进行常规的等值逻辑推理的是行不通的，于是从表述层上我们能够辨别出这是一个隐喻，从而完成隐喻理解的第一部分。当听者明确说者使用的是隐喻式的言语行为之后，就要对隐喻所表达的真正意义进行推断，那理解当然就要进人二级阶段，理解该言语行为的施行性部分，即理解“说话人的思想的原始的，或内在的意向性”。
可以这样假设，如果"The tongue is a fire”是说给一位正受媒体指责的艺人听的，那么说话人可能含有一种同情或瞥告的意向。艺人总是倍受媒体关注的，由于种种原因，媒体可能片面地、夸大地报道了某些事实，而这样的报道传播开来便演变成了某种绊闻和谣言，它们将或多或少地给艺人本人或其事业带来一些麻烦。这种语境为舌头与火的等值逻辑推理提供了一种可能:舌头—人类的语言器官—人的言语行为—媒体的报道—人们对报道的负面反应(纬闻和谣言)—给艺人本人或其事业带来麻烦(毁坏名誉或阻碍事业发展)，火—会发光发热的化学物质—光和热过度会引发火灾，毁坏东西，甚至造成人员死亡，这样二者在毁坏这一功能上找到了相似性，逻辑推理就站得住脚了。"The tongue is a fire”的意思是大众对艺人的多种看法和言论中不乏啡闻或谣言，它们也许会攻击其人格，甚至会因为它们的存在，公司解除雇佣关系，或者没人敢请这位艺人演出。因此我们有理由推断，说话者是在发出人言可畏的感叹，或是在告诫演艺者要注意自己的言行，以免被媒体捕捉到后进行炒作，从而自毁前程。至此，听者才完成了对原言语行为的有效理解，导向了听者与说者的某种认同。
完成对隐喻的理解，必须经由一级理解(对言语表述内容的理解)到达二级理解(对言语者内在意向性的理解)。在同一语言体系中是这样，在不同的语言体系间也应该如此，因为唯有如此才能进行有效的跨文化交往。我们应该怎样操作隐喻翻译就不言而喻了，或保全源语隐喻，或进行译语隐喻替换，或使译语语言显性化都具有可行性，只要它能够帮助听读者完成意向性理解。
3. 1保全源语隐喻。当隐喻的喻体和喻意在源语与译语中完全或大体相同时，对于源语的喻体，译语听读者能产生与源语听读者相似的心理联想，并完成相似的意向性理解，译语中则宜保全源语隐喻。如: (1)Heisafox.他是只孤狸。
英语fox和汉语狐狸指的是同一种动物，当它被用作说人时都含有“狡猾”之意，即使听读者与说写者处于不同的语言体系和文化背景中，也能有效地理解该言语行为的施行性部分:要当心这个人，他很狡猾。再如:
(2) think tank思想库
“思想库”一词本不存在于汉语文化里，然而“库”在汉语文化中指储藏东西的地方，因此尽管处在汉语文化中的人们还未认识到用“库”的特性来描述“思想”的集合，但这种“库”的认识能导向对英语文化中的“think tank’，的认同，因此“库”这个喻体可以保全下来。毕竟在这种跨文化交际中，我们不能低估听读者的理解能力，更不能剥夺他们的理解权利。
在翻译过程中，为了达到跨文化交际的目的，有时需要变通地保全源语隐喻，即在保全源语隐喻的同时做出适当的解释。如:
(3)What will it be when the increase of yearly proddc-tion is brought to a complete stop? Here is the vulnerable place, the heel of Achilles, for capitalistic production.(Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 )
要是每年的生产完全停止增长，情形又将怎样呢?像阿基里斯的脚踵一样，这将是资本主义生产的致命弱点。(《马克思恩格斯选集》第四卷)"the heel of Achilles”这个短语来源于古希腊神话。A-chilies是古希腊传说中的一位杰出英雄，他在特洛伊战争中身经百战，屡建功勋。据说，Achilles出生时也只是一个极其普通的孩子。他的母亲为了锻炼他坚强的意志，造就他一副刀枪不人的钢铁之躯，便倒提着他的身体放到环绕地狱的冥河中去浸泡。果然，他的身体经过浸泡变成了一副钢筋铁骨，任何凶恶的敌人也不是他的对手。但是，他的一双脚后跟却因握在母亲的手里，便与普通人的一样，成了这位英雄的致命弱点。后来，在一次战斗中，仇敌射中了他的脚后跟。这位战功赫赫、所向无敌的英雄最终死于自身的这一致命弱点。由于汉语文化中没有Achilles其人其事，若仅仅保全英语源语隐喻，而不做任何解释，则会阻碍汉语文化中的听读者完成意向性理解。因为他们对“阿基里斯的脚踵”只能作出符合汉语常识的判断:一个名为阿基里斯的人的脚后跟，而无法导出“致命的弱点”这一认同，即无法进人二级理解。所以在保全英语源语隐喻的基础上，增加必要的解释，这样不仅使听读者顺利地完成理解，导向某种认同，还使听读者见到其原有形象和风格，促进了两国文化的交流。
3. 2译语隐喻替换。当源语的喻体所承载的喻义完全无法在译语中再现时，可根据具体的语境而采用译语文化中听读者所熟知的喻体形象进行替换。如:
(4)差人道:“马老先生，··…老实一句，‘打开板壁讲亮话’，这事一些半些几十两银子的话，横竖做不起来……”(《儒林外史》)
"Now Mr. Ma,”said the rtmner，“…Let’s put all。cards on the table > a few dozen tales are not going to settle anything....
生活经历和认识方式的不同，导致汉语和英语中使用了两种不同的喻体，这时，我们不得不使用英语文化中的认识方式“put all our cards on the table”来替代汉语文化中的“打开板壁讲亮话”，因为隐喻不仅作为一种修辞手段存在，更是一种思维方式。既是思维方式就一定会受到认知结构和认知方式的制约，当这种制约条件本身不一致时，我们就不能抓着喻体形象不放。试想把“打开板壁讲亮话”直接搬到英语文化中去，英语语言的使用者没有这种思维方式，根本不能解读出“老实地说、坦诚地说”这一层意义，而只会停留在它的字面意义解读的困惑中。这种滞留于一级状态的理解是不完整的，并没有导向某种认同。为了导向“坦白地说、老实地说”这一认同，英语中就必须更换喻体“put all our cards on the table"。
3. 3译语语言显性化。显性化是指在译语中把源语的隐喻变为一种直说或阐释。在翻译过程中，有时在译语中无法再现隐喻的喻体和喻意，也无法在译语文化中找到听读者所熟知的喻体形象进行替换。这时，为了到达二级理解阶段，导向某种认同，就只能舍弃源语隐喻的喻体，而保留其喻意。如:
(5)填鸭式教学法forced-feeding method of teaching“填鸭”是一个具有丰富中国文化特色的词。中国有五大名宴:满汉席，孔府宴，全鸭席，文会宴，烧尾席。其中全鸭席的菜肴全部以北京填鸭为主料烹制而成，共有一百多种冷热鸭菜可供选择。据考，北京填鸭的祖籍是南方，后来迁至京西玉泉山，用人工填喂法逐渐育成今日的品种。它的生长期较短，只需60一65天就能长成5一7斤重，45天之前的雏鸭自由取食，最后15~20天则由人工填喂，每6小时一次，一天填喂4次，故得名北京填鸭。把填鸭的饲养方法应用到教学上，是指一种强制灌输的教学方法。处在汉语文化中的听读者很容易由填鸭的饲养方法联想到以教师为中心的满堂灌教学方法，从而完成了对“填鸭式”的一级理解和二级理解。此时，若保留喻体，将“填鸭式”生硬地搬到英语语言文化中去(如duck-feeding)，势必会阻碍该文化中的听读者理解这种教学法。由于在他们文化中没有这种饲养鸭子的方法，他们对duck-feeding的理解只能停留在字面意思即一级理解阶段上，无法进人到二级阶段。为了使他们“导向某种认同”—一种强制灌输的教学活动，就只能舍弃隐喻的喻体，而保留其喻意，故翻译为“forced-feeding method of teaching"。
4.结语
虽然中西方文化差异很大，人们的隐喻概念也时有不同，但并不意味着在跨文化交际中存在着不可逾越的鸿沟。随着社会的进步和各个学科领域的深人发展，翻译学以及在其抬导下的翻译实践活动被不断地注人新的血液。从哈贝马斯的交往行为理论这扇新打开的窗户看隐喻翻译时，我们获得了一种全新的思维方式:隐喻作为一种言语行为具有所有言语行为所共有的双重结构，基于此我们对它应有相应的双重理解，唯有如此才能达到“导向某种认同”的理解。相信这种思维方式能帮助我们在不同的文化交流中更好地解读隐喻。
英语毕业的论文答辩稿（精选6篇）
毕业论文答辩是一种有组织、有准备、有计划、有鉴定的比较正规的审查论文的重要形式。为了搞好毕业论文答辩，在举行答辩会前，校方、答辩委员会、答辩者（撰写毕业论文的作者）三方都要作好充分的准备。下面是我整理的英语毕业的论文答辩稿（精选6篇），欢迎大家分享。
Good evening, all the appraiser committee members. I come from HUST, majoring in foreign linguistics and applied linguistics. I am xxx and my supervisor is prof.xxx. With her sincere and intellectual guidance, for nearly one whole year's hard work, I have finished my paper. Finally, it is the show time. This evening I will present my efforts to you all and I gratefully welcome any correction.
The title of my paper is A Study of the Causes of the Gothic Style.
I hope by studying this short story we can know more about American southern women in certain history and culture and more importantly help women in modern society get a deeper understanding about ourselves ,help us raise our independence and confidence and show more concern for our mental health.
Next , I will present it to you. Here is an outline of my presentation. They are literature review, gothic tradition , the gothic style in the story and the causes of the gothic style .
This paper consists of six parts. Part one presents an introduction to the author William Faulkner and A Rose for Emily by pointing out the purpose and significance of this study. Part two is literature review which introduces the relevant research about this novel at home and abroad and then points out the theoretical basis and methods. Part three gives a timeline of the gothic tradition in literature and explains the main characteristics of gothic works. Part four explains the three aspects of the gothic style in the novel，that is, the death theme, grotesque characters and mystic atmosphere. Part five then explains in detail the causes of the gothic style in this novel: patriarchal oppression, the myth of southern ladyhood and Emily’s attitude towards love. Finally, in the conclusion, the author summarizes the previous parts and emphasizes the significance of the argument of the thesis again.
Ok, that's all. Now you may raise your questions ! I am ready! Thank you !
晚上好，所有的评估委员会成员。我来自HUST，主修外国语言学和应用语言学。我是xxx，我的主管是教授。 xxx。凭着她的真诚和智慧的指导，近一年的辛苦工作，我已经完成了我的论文。最后，这是展示时间。今天晚上，我将向大家致以衷心的感谢，我衷心地欢迎您的加入。
我的论文的标题是哥特式风格的研究
我希望通过研究这个短小的故事，我们可以在某些历史和文化中更多地描述美国南方妇女，更多地要求帮助现代社会的妇女对自己有一个广泛的了解，帮助我们提高我的独立性和信心，并更多地关注我们的心理健康该
接下来，我将向您介绍。这是我演讲的大纲。他们是文学评论，哥特式传统，哥特式风格的故事和哥特风格的原因。
本文由六部分组成。第一部分提出了作者威廉·福克纳(William Faulkner)和艾米莉·艾丝丽(A Rose)的作者，指出了这项研究的目的.和意义。第二部分是文献综述，对国内外这本小说进行了相关研究，并指出了理论依据和方法。第三部分给出了小说中哥特式传统的时间表，即死亡主题，独特的人物和神秘的气氛。部分原因，详细介绍了这本小说中哥特式风格的原因：父权制的压迫，南方女士的神话和艾米莉对爱情的态度。最后，在结论中，笔者对以前的部分进行了梳理，再次强调了论文论证的意义。
好的，就是这样。现在你可以提出你的问题!我准备好了!谢谢 ！
Good morning,
Distinguished professors and teachers, ladies and gentlemen, thank you for attending the oral defense. (或Welcome to attend the oral defense.) ：
I am Wu Lin. First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, professor Hu Anjiang, for his intellectual guidance, invaluable instructions and comments on my thesis. It is with his valuable assistance that I have finally accomplished this thesis.
My topic is On the tragedy figures at historical turning points(Comparison of KongYiji and Rip Van Winkle).
The whole thesis consists of 6 parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of the negative, evasive and conservative attitudes of Kong and Rip as well as the topic’s significance in the real society. And the second part is going to analyze the figures’ background to show the historical necessity of the tragedies. In the third part, the tragic heroes’ failing in the character according to their living environment will be further discussed and the fourth part is to talk about their different tendency of dispositions and behaviors in the society. Then the author will dig into the root causes of the tragedies in the fifth part, and sum up the whole paper to reveal the ideological weak points of the two countries separately in the last part.
Thank you!
good afternoon, all appraiser committee members. i am xxxx and my supervisor is xxx. with her constant encouragement and guidance, i have finished my paper. now, it is the show time. i will present my efforts to you and welcome any correction.the title of my paper is on transformation of parts of speech in translation. i choose this as my topic due to the following reasons. different languages have different standards to distinguish parts of speech. each language has its own special structure. and there are no equivalent parts of speech between different languages. in order to make the target version more idiomatic and standard, the transformation of parts of speech is always used by translators. so the transformation of parts of speech is playing a more important role in english to chinese based on different characteristics of english and chinese. for the above facts, i select the subject of“on transformation of parts of speech”as the title of my paper.i hope by studying this topic we can know the importance of the transformation of parts of speech in english to chinese translation. through transformation, we can get the better version and improve the translation skills.the way of thinking and expressing is quite different between chinese and english. english is a kind of static languages which tends to use more nouns. while chinese is a dynamic one in which verbs are often used.so when we make translation in english to chinese, we should know this point and shift the parts of speech.next, it is an outline of my paper. in the main part of this paper, i divide it into five parts.part one presents an introduction to the basic concepts of parts of speech and transformation.part two discusses the definition of translation and emphasizes the importance of transformation of parts of speech in the course of translation.part three gives four basic ways of transformation of parts of speech through illustrative examples. there are transformed english words into chinese verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs.part four presents some problems about transformation and gives some advise to solve the problems.part five draws some conclusions that transformation between parts of speech is necessary for us to achieve good translation. it is demonstrated that we can have a good master of transformation and improve the translation. in addition, we must continuously study and explore in all kinds of translation practices.ok! that is all. thank you!
stant encouragement and guidance, I have finished my paper. Now, it's show time. You and I will work hard to welcome any correction.The topic of my thesis is 《Angela carter to mythology research - the female archetype in “new eve passion”, for example》。 I choose this as my topic due to the following reasons.Angela Carter （1940-1992） is an outstanding feminist writer whose influence on Britishwomen's writing was “pivotal in this opening and transformation” [“23]. The year 2014 represents the 22”^ anniversary of Angela Carter's death. In those twenty-two years, her works have been widely taught internationally and brought about much critical debate. In a survey conducted by Cristina Bacchilega and Danielle M. Roemer [2],Carter is one of the most commonly taught women writers on North American programs. She has endowed us with an amazingly large number of legacies in her comparatively limited life, setting foot in various fields such as novels,short stories,children stories, dramas, non-fictions and so on. The acute observations with great insights,as well as the devastating wit and poignant mockery in Carter's works have made her stand out as an iconic figure in English literature. Many scholars and critics have devoted themselves to the research on Angela Carter from many perspectives,including gothic, magic realism, feminism,post-modernism and so on. As a prolific writer who is always ready to blur the boundaries between different genres, Carter has left us a wonderful world to delve into.With the emergence of western women's movement as well as the development of feminist criticism in the 1960s,the feminist approach has become a potent weapon for those who are concerned with the emancipation and legal rights of women. Though women's social status has considerably improved due to the contribution made by countless predecessors,the fundamental problem still lingers on. Carter, with her versatile and avant-garde reputation, is best known as a feminist writer. Concerning the dilemmas and predicaments faced by women nowadays,it is very necessary for us to probe into her insightful and penetrating reflections on femininity as well as the relationship between two genders. The Passion of New Eve, as one of Carter's most representative works, is of great value in the research of her feminist thoughts and propositions.Next, is my paper outline. In the main part of this article, I put it into five parts.Chapter one is an introduction to the thesis, covering the research background, theobjective and significance as well as the organization of the thesis.Chapter two presents a broad picture of Angela Carter's life and her works, as well as the background information about The Passion of New Eve. It also reviews previous studies on Angela Carter and her works at home and abroad, summarizing achievements in the past and pointing out new directions in the future.Chapter three conducts a retrospective study on feminism and archetypal criticism. The author attempts to work out the origin and development of feminism, demonstrating the important role feminism plays in Carter's life. Then is the history of archetypal criticism,as well as those classic female archetypes in mythology. Regarding those fossilized and monotonous images as impediments to women's freedom and liberation,Carter endeavors to shatter them in her demythologizing strategy and appeals for a rational attitude toward heterosexual relationship.Chapter four is the main body of the thesis. Through an in-depth analysis on The Passion of New Eve,it demonstrates Carter's demythologizing of “The Temptress,,,”Mother Goddess“and ”Eve“ respectively in the text. Leilah,the embodiment of Delilah,the famous temptress in the Bible,cannot escape the fate of being objectified by men and herself. By exposing”temptresses“ as mere victims rather than symbols of viciousness. Carter condemns the oppression and exploitation of women in a patriarchal society. ”Mother“ in Beulah serves as a severe satire on those mother goddesses in mythology. Carter smashes the legend by revealing the surgically-made essence of mother and the patriarchal values lurking behind her alleged matriarchal kingdom, warning against the peril and impracticality of extremist matriarchy.And her most convincing example goes to Eve, the most important female character in the Bible, Her transformative journey from a chauvinist to a real woman in the story illustrates that gender, rather than a hereditary feature, is the result of social influence and unremitting imitations. Carter concludes the story with proposing ”androgyny“ as a solution to the current problems,implying that mutual respect and understanding is the only way to achieve the harmony between the two genders.Chapter five comes to a general conclusion, summarizing the limitations of the theses as well as some suggestions for further study.OK! That is all. Thank you!
Good morning, distinguished professors and teachers, thank you for attending the oral defense. I’m xxx and come from class x. My supervisor is professor Li. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Prof. Li.With his consistent guidance and valuable suggestions, I have finished my paper. Now I will present my efforts to you and gratefully welcome any suggestion.
The title of my paper is xxxxxxxxxxxxx. I choose this as my topic due to the following reasons.
Firstly, I am very interested in the study of ambiguity. Ambiguity is a common phenomenon in all natural languages. As is known to all, in our daily conversations, ambiguity is often employed to achieve the effect of humor, thus creating a relaxing atmosphere and letting people feel at ease. Some jokes caused by ambiguity is very interesting.
Secondly, I have read several articles about ambiguity written by linguistics and scholars. I found my knowledge of ambiguity is very limited, superficial and nonsystematic. What I knew is just the tip of the iceberg. So I plan to learn more about ambiguity by this research.
Thirdly, I found many scholars have carried out numerous studies of ambiguity, but a majority of these studies are focused on single language separately. Articles about comparison between English ambiguity and Chinese ambiguity are not sufficient. So it is necessary to make further study.
For the above facts, I select this title.
Next, I will present the outline of my thesis. It consists of 7 parts.
The first part gives a brief introduction to the ambiguity and structure of the thesis.
The second part is literature review, briefly introducing the development of study of ambiguity and some scholars’s main views.
The third to fifth parts focus on three types of ambiguity in English and Chinese: phonological ambiguity, lexical ambiguity, syntactic ambiguity. In every broad type, I respectively list some detailed branches and cite some vivid English and Chinese examples to explain these ambiguity phenomena. But I put more focus on the third part and point out two differences of ambiguity between English ambiguity and Chinese ambiguity.
The part six will point out positive results by using ambiguity deliberately in daily conversations, advertisements and literary works.
The last part is the conclusion.
I hope by this contrastive research, we will have a better understanding of ambiguity in English and Chinese and apply it to our life and study.
When reading the final draft, I still find my argument is not so comprehensive and improvements are needed. So welcome your precious suggestion.
That’s all. Thank you.
Good morning,Distinguished professors and teachers, ladies and gentlemen, thank you for attending the oral defense. （或Welcome to attend the oral defense.） :I am XX. First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, professorXX, for his intellectual guidance, invaluable instructions and comments on my thesis. It is with his valuable assistance that I have finally accomplished this thesis.My topic is On the tragedy figures at historical turning points（Comparison of KongYiji and Rip Van ）The whole thesis consists of 6 parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of the negative, evasive and conservative attitudes of Kong and Rip as well as the topic s significance in the real society. And the second part is going to analyze the figures background to show the historical necessity of the tragedies. In the third part, the tragic heroes failing in the character according to their living environment will be further discussed and the fourth part is to talk about their different tendency of dispositions and behaviors in the society. Then the author will dig into the root causes of the tragedies in the fifth part, and sum up the whole paper to reveal the ideological weak points of the two countries separately in the last part.
