Macroeconomics is a sub-field of economics that examines the behavior of the economy as a whole, once all of the individual economic decisions of companies and industries have been summed. Economy-wide phenomena considered by macroeconomics include Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and how it is affected by changes in unemployment, national income, rate of growth, and price levels.
In contrast, microeconomics is the study of the economic behaviour and decision-making of individual consumers, firms, and industries.
Macroeconomics can be used to analyze how to influence government policy goals such as economic growth, price stability, full employment and the attainment of a sustainable balance of payments.
Macroeconomics is sometimes used to refer to a general approach to economic reasoning, which includes long term strategies and rational expectations in aggregate behavior.
Until the 1930s most economic analysis did not separate out individual economics behavior from aggregate behavior. With the Great Depression of the 1930s, suffered throughout the developed world at the time, and the development of the concept of national income and product statistics, the field of macroeconomics began to expand. Particularly influential were the ideas of John Maynard Keynes, who formulated theories to try to explain the Great Depression. Before that time, comprehensive national accounts, as we know them today, did not exist .
One of the challenges of economics has been a struggle to reconcile macroeconomic and microeconomic models. Starting in the 1950s, macroeconomists developed micro-based models of macroeconomic behavior (such as the consumption function). Dutch economist Jan Tinbergen developed the first comprehensive national macroeconomic model, which he first built for the Netherlands and later applied to the United States and the United Kingdom after World War II. The first global macroeconomic model, Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates LINK project, was initiated by Lawrence Klein and was mentioned in his citation for the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1980.
Theorists such as Robert Lucas Jr suggested (in the 1970s) that at least some traditional Keynesian (after British economist John Maynard Keynes) macroeconomic models were questionable as they were not derived from assumptions about individual behavior, although it was not clear whether the failures were in microeconomic assumptions or in macroeconomic models. However, New Keynesian macroeconomics has generally presented microeconomic models to shore up their macroeconomic theorizing, and some Keynesians have contested the idea that microeconomic foundations are essential, if the model is analytically useful. An analogy might be that the fact that quantum phisics is not fully consistent with relativity theory doesn´t mean that realtivity is false. Many important microeconomic assumptions have never been proved, and some have proved wrong.
The various schools of thought are not always in direct competition with one another - even though they sometimes reach differing conclusions. Macroeconomics is an ever evolving area of research. The goal of economic research is not to be "right," but rather to be accurate. It is likely that none of the current schools of economic thought perfectly capture the workings of the economy. They do, however, each contribute a small piece of the overall puzzle. As one learns more about each school of thought, it is possible to combine aspects of each in order to reach an informed synthesis.
The traditional distinction is between two different approaches to economics: Keynesian economics, focusing on demand; and supply-side (or neo-classical) economics, focusing on supply. Neither view is typically endorsed to the complete exclusion of the other, but most schools do tend clearly to emphasize one or the other as a theoretical foundation.
• Keynesian economics focuses on aggregate demand to explain levels of unemployment and the business cycle. That is, business cycle fluctuations should be reduced through fiscal policy (the government spends more or less depending on the situation) and monetary policy. Early Keynesian macroeconomics was "activist," calling for regular use of policy to stabilize the capitalist economy, while some Keynesians called for the use of incomes policies.
• Supply-side economics delineates quite clearly the roles of monetary policy and fiscal policy. The focus for monetary policy should be purely on the price of money as determined by the supply of money and the demand for money. It advocates a monetary policy that directly targets the value of money and does not target interest rates at all. Typically the value of money is measured by reference to gold or some other reference. The focus of fiscal policy is to raise revenue for worthy government investments with a clear recognition of the impact that taxation has on domestic trade. It places heavy emphasis on Say's law, which states that recessions do not occur because of failure in demand or lack of money.
• Monetarism, led by Milton Friedman, which holds that inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon. It rejects fiscal policy because it leads to "crowding out" of the private sector. Further, it does not wish to combat inflation or deflation by means of active demand management as in Keynesian economics, but by means of monetary policy rules, such as keeping the rate of growth of the money supply constant over time.
• New Keynesian economics, which developed partly in response to new classical economics, strives to provide microeconomic foundations to Keynesian economics by showing how imperfect markets can justify demand management.
• Austrian economics is a laissez-faire school of macroeconomics. It focuses on the business cycle that arises from government or central-bank interference that leads to deviations from the natural rate of interest.
• Post-Keynesian economics represents a dissent from mainstream Keynesian economics, emphasizing the role of uncertainty and the historical process in macroeconomics.
• New classical economics. The original theoretical impetus was the charge that Keynesian economics lacks microeconomic foundations -- i.e. its assertions are not founded in basic economic theory. This school emerged during the 1970s. This school asserts that it does not make sense to claim that the economy at any time might be "out-of-equilibrium". Fluctuations in aggregate variables follow from the individuals in the society continuously re-optimizing as new information on the state of the world is revealed. Later yielded an explicit school which argued that macro-economics does not have micro-economic foundations, but is instead the tool of studying economic systems at equilibrium.
宏观经济学是一种分场经济学的行为,研究是在整个经济中,一旦所有的个人的经济决策,为公司和产业被。宏观经济学认为经济现象包括国内生产总值(GDP)以及它是如何变化影响失业的国民收入的)经济成长率、价格水平。
相反,微观经济学研究的就是经济行为和决策的个体消费者,公司和行业。
宏观经济学可以用来分析如何影响政府的政策的目标,比如经济增长,价格稳定,充分就业和获取可持续国际收支差额。
宏观经济学有时用来指一个经济理论的主要途径,包括长期战略的期望和理性综合行为。
直到30年代为止,大部分的经济分析没有独立的个人经济综合行为举止。与1930年代的经济大萧条,遭受了在所有发达国家,发展国民收入的概念和产品的统计数据,但是研究领域的宏观经济学开始扩展。具有特殊影响力的想法是,约翰•梅纳德凯恩斯理论,努力向他们解释制定了经济大萧条。在那时候,综合国民经济核算,如同我们知道他们今天,是不存在的。
经济学的一个挑战是一场斗争调和宏观经济政策和微观经济政策,模型。开始于20世纪50年代,macroeconomists发达micro-based模型的宏观经济行为(如消费函数)。1月Tinbergen荷兰经济学家第一个全面发展国家宏观经济模型,该模型他第一次建成为荷兰和后应用于美国和英国二战之后。第一个全球宏观经济模型,沃顿计量预测伙伴联系工程项目,发生在劳伦斯发起克莱恩和被提及他的嘉奖经济学诺贝尔经济学奖1980年。
理论家如罗伯特·卢卡斯认为(是在上世纪70年代),认为至少有一些传统的凯恩斯(英国经济学家约翰梅纳德凯恩斯)宏观经济模型都是可疑的,因为他们不是来源于假设的个人行为,虽然现在还不清楚这些失败在微观经济的假定,或是对宏观经济模型。然而,最新凯恩斯主义的宏观微观模型提出了大致以支持他们的宏观经济理论有争议,一些凯恩斯主义者的想法,微观经济基础是必要的,如果模型是分析有用的。打个比方可能是,这样的事实,即量子phisics并不完全符合相对论´,并不代表没有realtivity是假的。许多重要的微观经济假设从来没有被证明,而有些人的证明是错误的。
各种各样的思想学派并不总是在彼此的直接竞争,尽管他们有时会达到不同的结论。宏观经济学是一种前所未有的领域的研究。研究经济学的目标不是"正确",而是是精确的。很有可能是学校目前尚无一个经济思想完全捕捉运作方式的经济。不过,他们的贡献每一小块整体难题。当你学会更多关于每个思想学派,它能把方面的每一个为了达到一个通知的合成。
传统的区别是留给经济学两种不同的方法,重点凯恩斯经济学和供方需求;(或古典)经济学、关注供应。也都是典型的观点完全排除其他,但大多数学校都往往清晰地强调一个或另一个是的理论基础。
•凯恩斯经济学交融在总需求,以解释失业率和商业周期。商业周期波动,应减少通过财政政策(政府花费或多或少根据实际情况)和货币政策。早期凯恩斯主义的宏观经济学是“活动家,定期使用《召唤的政策稳定资本主义经济,虽然有些凯恩斯主义要求使用收入政策。
•供给的经济学的作用很明显地在当前货币政策与财政政策。关注于货币政策应该是完全对价格的钱所确定的货币供应的需求的特点,为了金钱。它提倡货币政策,直接目标钱的价值,不目标利率。典型的钱的价值在于用参考金或其他参考。财政政策的重点是提高政府农业投资价值的收入为一个明确的认识税收的影响在国内贸易。它设置了过度强调了说的法律,它表明不会发生经济衰退需求下降、因为没有缺钱。
•货币主义的带领下,由弗里德曼,认为始终通货膨胀是一种货币现象。财政政策拒绝,因为会导致“挤退”的私人生活。此外,它不希望对抗通货膨胀或通货紧缩采用主动需求管理在凯恩斯经济学,通过货币政策规则,即坚持的增长速度恒定的钱。
凯恩斯•新经济发达的部分原因是为了适应新古典经济学、致力于提供凯恩斯现代经济学的微观经济基础显示出了市场的不完善就能名正言顺的需求管理等。
•奥地利经济学是个自由放任主义的学校的宏观经济。它侧重于商业周期,而政府或中央银行的干扰导致偏离自然失业率的兴趣。
•Post-Keynesian经济学所代表了凯恩斯经济学主流的作用,强调历史过程中不确定性和宏观经济。
•新古典经济学。原理论动力的费用是凯恩斯经济学缺乏有效的微观经济基础——亦即其断言不成立于基本经济理论。这所学校出现在20世纪70年代。这所学校断言它是没有道理的主张经济会随时out-of-equilibrium”。波动的总变量遵从的在这个社会的个人不断re-optimizing新信息的状态的世界就会显现出来。后来取得了一个显式学校一样,认为宏观经济学没有微观经济基础,反而学习经济系统的工具在平衡。
我国经济经历了三十多年的快速发展，在取得了发展奇迹的同时也存在着很多问题。下面是我为大家精心推荐的经济类学术论文（英文），希望能够对您有所帮助。
经济类学术论文（英文）篇一
The Likonomics
“Likonomics”, the term to describe Chinese Premier Li Keqiang`s economic policy. Was coined on June 27 by three economists at Barclays Capital. Like "Thatcherism", "Reaganomics", and more recently “Abenomics”, "Likonomics" has become the buzzword to describe the implications of China's new economic program. And what is “Likonomics”? The Barclays Capital`s economists also give our a explain, “Likonomics” was a series of measures adopted by the State Council. The measures were passed to ensure the sustainability of China`s economy. “which could be summarized as "Likonomics", consists of three key pillars: no stimulus, Deleveraging and structural reform." It is mean the China need to free the market, and stop the government control the market. And this new police is a long-term objectives, so the next three years the grew rate of Chinese quarter of Economic will be reduced at least 4%.
“Since assuming office in mid-March, Premier Li Keqiang has taken a different policy path. Its key economic policy framework, which could be summarized as "Likonomics", consists of three key pillars: no stimulus, deleveraging and structural reform.”(China Daily 07/05/2013 page9 by Huang Yiping). In the news, we know the three solutions, “no stimulus”, “Deleveraging” and “structural reform”. The “stimulus” mean the government in the short time,following the liabilities or expand the money supply to stimulate the economy, but at the same time the inflation also coming, So the first way is to decrease the Chinese inflation. And the second solution is “Deleveraging”, this solution`s meaning is “repay”, repay the money that borrow before the economic crisis, at the same time the most assets, such as stocks, bonds, real estate the prices of those assets will be decrease, and the country`s economy also will be reduced. The last solution is the “structural reform”, everyone know the government has no able to control the market, because the government cannot get all information for the government, but it just is the half reason for this solution, the other part is the “corruption” in the Chinese government system, the power official have able to control the economy. So the Premier Li Keqiang build the “free trade zone” in Shanghai, in this area no one can control the economy, that mean every thing happen in this area are all form the market`s self adjusting.
In fact the words “no stimulus”, “Deleveraging” and “structural reform” are professional, so I use my own word to explain the “Likonomics”. I have four steps. First step, only “fight” the inflation and do not care the Chinese Economy grow rate, right now in China the RIBOR between banks is from 2% increase to 30%, it is effective to stop the banks`s venture investment, because when the RIBOR increase the bank have to keep the “working capital” in their own hand, they have no enough able to pay the extremely high interest rate, so that the total money in the market going to decrease. But at the same time the China “Total Social Financing ” it reduced 43%. Secondly step, is decrease the TAX, as same as the picture show as, right now the Chinese tas price is stand on the point A, and if the government reduced the tax price the total tax revenue will be increase. Thirdly step, is free the coal`s price, because in China the coal is the most important resource, people use the coal to generate electricity, warm and others, but on the coal have 88 kinds of tax, and the government disagree to trade the coal with other countries, so that if the government stop to control the coal`s price, the price will be decrease, then the burden of enterprises will accordingly drop. Fourth step, and also the last step is talk about
the government control. We all know, that if the government control the market the efficiency of market will goes down, because the government cannot get all the information in the market. So the “Free trade zone” was born in Shanghai, in this zone the government cannot control, and the other large enterprise also cannot intervene, it is a 100% free market. The Premier Li is use this way to break the bureaucracy in China.
Right now, the China is the fastest develop country in the world, and at the same time the stagflation also is coming. So the Premier Li use the extremely hard cost to stop the Chinese inflation increase. We don`t know what will be happen in the after ten years, even twenty years, the China, stand on the top of world, every action of China can have able to effect the international economic.
All the informations are from those website:The Likonomics
经济类学术论文（英文）篇二
I live in the area which has five communities. They are a large community Taizi vally, two medium communities Shanshuiqing and Nuode internation, and two small communities, Shanhaicuilu and Ray. 0755. Residents Quantity:2500 families.
The supermarket quantity: before 2009, there's a Huarun for us to buy something we need, but it moved after property right had transfered . Before 2010,there are no formal large supermarket. Supermarkets in geographical position from this area is far place but they has some small buses to transport customers, but I live in the area which just has some stores and a large farmer's market. By the end of 2010, Easy life opened and Baijia opened in early 2011. They are opened for residents’ everyday necessities demand. In March 2011,Easy life went out of business but Baiji’s business is booming.This article will mainly discuss the reason of Easy life closed and consumers choice problem.
一.What decided they fate?
1. From market supply and demand we can see that when Easy life and Baijia existing at the same time, there are supply greater than demand .
2. When market supply greater than demand, which decide their fate is consumer preferences.
First, shopping environment from view, consumer preferences in purchasing Baijia because it has a comfortable environment for comsumer to buy something. And at this point, Baijia do better than Easy life, such as: the ground very clean, there was nothing in the cart like residual vegetables or other things, shelves are very neat and clean, air indoor is very good.moreover from display of goods to see, though two of the supermarket goods no matter from varieties or to brand are familiar, but Baijia do better than Easy life and obviously the main problem is that Easy life’s commodity classification isn’t science, shelves has many unused space, etc. In addition to attract consumers from some of the factors, such as the lights, warm lamplight can make the fruit and vegetable appear very fresh, and can still make consumer feel very comfortable and it can also stimulate consumer to buy someting, so consumers are willing to spend more time to purchase goods.But choose the cool color light will make the fruit and vegetable seems not fresh and color looks wrong, the most important is the cool color light may make consumers feel unwell, consumers don’t want to stay in the supermarket any more, that is certainly will reduce consumer’s more consumption. At this point Baijia will do better than Easy life.
The above is from thing’s logical thinking , however, but when we use economic theory to treat Easy life closed and there is something we cann’t understand. Because of Easy life is at the side of the road where there is a large community, a medium-sized community and a small community. From the factor of buy something convenient to see, people actually are more willing to go to Easy life, because it does not need to cross the road. And the cashier of Easy life work more efficiently than Baijia, the bill. And this reduce customer unnecessary waiting time. The most important advantages of Easy life that the price of same goods is cheaper than relative to the best goods cheaper than Baijia. So why are these relationships to the immediate interests of consumers advantage did not let Easy life’s business thriving? Instead of "advantage" that is blatant and why let Baijia’s business thriving? Personally, I think, this is the result of irrational consumer behavior! Economics of three assumptions, the most controversial is rational man hypothesis.
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