国际贸易是指各个国家地区进行商品交换的活动,是在各个国家和地区相互联系的基础上,实现各个国家或地区在经济上的流通活动,由各个国家或地区对外贸易构成了国际贸易。下文是我为大家搜集整理的关于国际贸易专业的论文3000字的内容,欢迎大家阅读参考!
浅析国际贸易理论与实务课程建设
一、国际贸易理论与实务课程当前存在的问题
(一)教学内容陈旧
国际经济环境一直处于不断的变化之中,在这样的环境下,国际贸易理论与实务操作也需要不断的前行和创新,但由于现阶段的教材出版时间比较老旧,因此,在教学过程中教师只是按照教材上的内容来进行讲解的话,所起到的教学效果必然无法与时代接轨。此外,在课程设置上,很多学校并没有将国际贸易理论与实务操作放在重要的位置上,与社会的经济发展和对人才的需要有着一定的差距。课程上的设置与国际贸易大环境之间的差距使得学生的知识结构与社会需求之间难以适应,对学生的未来发展起到了阻碍性的作用。
(二)重理论轻实践
受到传统 教育 的影响,很多教师在进行教学的过程中比较重视理论教学,并比较愿意采取灌输式教学。这种教学方式对对学生的动手能力培养来说毫无意义,使得学生在日后的操作能力上表现的比较差。再加上学校在实践操作上投入的比较少,最终导致出现了理论与实践脱节的情况,理论得不到根本性的实践,教学效果不佳。由于学校所安排的动手操作课程比较少,使得学生的动手实践能力比较差,与现代化社会的实践能力要求呈现出了较大的差距。很多院校都为学生安排了 毕业 实习阶段,但由于经费问题或是基地建设等问题,导致最终的效果并没有真正的起到作用,在毕业后学生很难适应岗位上的要求。
二、国际贸易理论与实务课程建设的 措施
(一)整合教学内容
针对当前教材内容落后的情况,应积极的做出改革。教学的重点应随着国际经济贸易形势的变化而做出改变,以此来适应社会发展。教师在教学中起到的是主导者作用,作为教师应积极的进行进修或者培训,参加一些专业性较强的学术会议,丰富自身的知识,使自己的专业知识能及时的得到更新,这样在教学中才能带给学生最新的内容。而对学校来说,应鼓励教师对国际贸易的新规定和技术等进行积极的药酒,将能力和知识有机的联系在一起[1]。只有教师本身有了较高的素质和专业技能,才能把握好最新的知识结构,将最新知识带给学生,使学生在面对问题时能运用全新的知识来进行解释,提升学生学习的积极性,最终达到全面发展的目的。
(二)结合科技发展
国际贸易是随着国际经济变化而不断发展的,随着时代的发展和变化,国际贸易在方式上也呈现出了不同,每个区域之间都有着不同的特点。加上网络信息技术的逐渐发展,传统的国际贸易方式也在不断的 网络技术 所代替,在国际贸易教学上应体现出这样的特点。当前只有结合科学发展才能帮助学生更好的适应社会,方便学生在日后的工作中能体现出更多的优势。
(三)善用讨论式教学
讨论式教学指的是在教师的引导下,学生对某一问题采取小组模式来进行讨论,使课堂气氛变得更加活跃,同时通过大家的意见来讲问题进行彻底的解决。首先,讨论式教学具有一定的启发性功能。对学生的创造性思维发展有着重要的作用,在讨论的过程中学生主动的进行分析,最终得到答案,使得学生对问题的答案留下深刻的印象。讨论式教学能充分的带动学生之间互动。在讨论中,学生不同的 思维方式 将带动班级形成一个大的网络结构,不仅教师可以提供建议给学生,学生的想法也将激发教师产生新的想法,使师生共同获得发展。
(四)加强实践操作锻炼
国际贸易理论与实务课程在教学安排上应当将理论知识与实践操作相结合。实践操作部分首先应在校内进行实施,通过课堂网络模拟实验教学来提升学生对教学内容的认识,通过生动形象的案例来对学生进行讲解,为学生提供一个比较真实的环境,帮助他们对操作技能有初步的了解。其次,可以在学校内设置场地,来进行模拟操作,引导学生扮演不同的角色,组合成一个完整的模拟国际贸易环境,并完成国际贸易的流程。实践教学中学生的视野能够得到拓展,专业技能也将得到提升。此外,校外的实践环节也是十分重要的,当前由于很多因素的限制,导致部分学校根本无法实现与校外实践的结合。在环境允许的情况下,学校可以安排学生到一些企业中来进行实习,让学生在真实的环境中得到最直接的锻炼。同时也可以安排相关的专家到校进行讲座,提高学生对岗位要求的认识,激发学生对专业学习的兴趣,推动专业的发展。
(五)现代化教学手段
教学中教师应结合现代信息技术手段,将信息技术与教学内容相结合,提高学生的兴趣和学习的积极性。对此可以利用多媒体来制作相关的国际贸易理论与实务的课件。课件中应突出教学大纲的重点内容,在理论中适当的穿插一些案例,使学生听起课来不会感到枯燥。利用多媒体进行教学,扩大了教学的信息来那个,使课堂气氛变得更加活跃,对学生的学习兴趣提升有着重要的作用。此外,在教学中教师应引导学生记录学习中的重点和难点,在课件讲完之后为学生解疑,从而起到良好的教学效果。
结语
随着社会经济的快速发展,对国际贸易的相关人才也提出了更高的要求,在国际贸易专业人才的培养中应以培养学生的创新能力和综合素养作为主要目标,结合现代科技对学生进行教学。本文对国际贸易理论与实务教学中存在的问题进行了论述,并对此提出了建设的建议,希望为我国经济发展做出相应的贡献,努力提升教学效果,实现教学的长远目标。
试谈中国国际贸易与产业结构关系
中国改革开放30多年,面对不同的机遇与挑战,不断调整国际贸易发展政策,进而促进国际贸易的快速发展。继我国加入WTO后,经济对外开放程度加强,国际贸易与产业部门之间的联系日益密切和复杂,相互之间的影响日益明显。因此,分析和研究我国国际贸易与国内产业结构之间的联系有其重要的现实意义。
一、中国国际贸易现状分析
在世界贸易迅猛发展的国际大环境中,中国国际贸易发展迅速,增长速度快于世界贸易增长的平均水平,在世界贸易中占据的份额逐渐提高。2005年,中国货物贸易进口额占全球总额的6.1%,货物贸易出口额占全球总额的7.3%,均大幅超越位居第四的日本,跃居世界第三。2009年至2011年,中国始终是世界最大出口国和第二大进口国。2012年中国货物贸易进出口额在世界货物进口和出口的比重分别达到了9.7%和11.13%;2013年中国货物贸易进出口额的比重进一步上升到了10.32%和11.74%。
随着中国对外开放程度的加强,中国的对外贸易依存度也在不断提高。1990年中国的对外贸易依存度为30%,在1995年上升到40%,2011年则达到了50.1%,2013年外贸依存度虽然出现回落,但仍高达46%。
综上所述,改革开放以来中国国际贸易发展迅猛,外需拉动已成为国民经济增长的重要动力。近十年来,中国外贸出口对GDP增长的贡献率年均超过2个百分点。可以预计的是,随着全球经济一体化的推进,中国经济不断发展,未来二三十年中国国民经济的发展会更离不开国际市场,离不开国际贸易的带动。
二、中国产业结构现状分析
产业结构,即国民经济的部门结构,主要是指国民经济各产业的构成以及产业间的联系和构成比例。中国的产业结构分配不太合理,第二产业所占比重较大,第三产业所占比重较小。农工商发展不均衡,基础产业实力较为薄弱,重工业发展不协调,服务业水平较低,产业结构存在较大的优化空间。
为了顺应经济发展,中国不断调整优化产业结构,加快转变经济发展方式,重视第三产业发展。目前,第一产业生产总值在国内生产总值所占比重明显下降,第二产业所占比重有小范围的波动,第三产业生产总值所占比重有大幅度提升。第二第三产业现在已经代替第一第二产业成为国民经济的主导产业,整个产业结构呈现由低级向高级演变的趋势。
虽然中国的产业结构的优化升级保持良好的态势,但是在产业机构调整中还是存在着很多问题与不足制约着整个产业的发展与经济实力的增强。第一产业在产业结构中所占比例过大,内部结构不合理。基础设施不够完善,生产效益低下,优质产品率较低,具有较强竞争力行业较少且对第一产业贡献较小。第二产业技术水平较低,缺乏自主创新的企业精神,生产效率不高。高新技术产业落后于发达国家,基础设施不完善制约了经济的发展。第三产业发展迟缓,落后于发达国家,缺乏核心竞争力。发展较快的传统服务业生产率低下、经济效益差,现代服务业则没有充分发展,这对第三产业未来发展极为不利。
三、国际贸易与产业结构关系分析
产业结构是国际贸易的基础,产业结构的水平决定了国际贸易的水平。国际贸易是建立在本国比较优势基础上进行的,进行贸易的产品要受国内供给结构、要素禀赋、技术水平等产业结构相关因素的制约。
国际贸易反映了一国产业结构的变化,通过国际利益比较机制促进产业结构的升级和合理化。中国在进行国际贸易时,会通过贸易中利益比较机制,自发性地调节产业结构,使其向着有利于国际贸易的产业结构模式演变,例如资本或技术密集型产业经济效益高于劳动密集型产业,国内产业结构就会自发地将劳动密集型向资本货技术密集型转变;在国际贸易中相对成本较低的专业化生产会具有竞争力,较低的成本会利于国内的生产资源集中到具有比较优势的产业,这会促使国内产业结构调整。
国际贸易通过国际利益比较机制促进产业结构调整,但在调整过程中,国际贸易中的进口与出口对产业结构的影响是不同的。出口变动会带来产业结构的变动、促使产业的研发新技术和与世界贸易市场适应的能力;进口则给国内产品带来冲击,行业内会对生产资源重新分配,刺激有竞争力的企业不断前进,同时淘汰生产效率低下的企业。在产品进入国内时,相应 经验 也会随之而来,这将为相关企业的成长提供良好的环境,进而影响产业结构升级的进程。
试探新时期国际贸易对商务 英语学习 者的新要求及对策
一、引言
伴随着经济全球化不断地扩展和延伸以及国际贸易更深层次拓展,中国已经广泛且深入地融入国际商务活动中,并且在国际贸易活动中占据越来越重要的地位。同时,为了顺应经济全球化这一发展趋势,各国的经济对外政策也在不断调整和改革,因此,新时期国际经济与贸易已成为国家之间新的竞争与发展的领域,与国际贸易活动应运而生的 商务英语 专业人才也面临着新的挑战和要求。
二、新时期国际贸易发展的状况
(一)国际经济规模不断扩大
根据数据表明,近年来国际间经济交往数量总额在不断增加,设计得范围在不断扩大。随着各国经济综合能力的竞争不断加剧,国家经济竞争早已从国内发展到国外,最具代表性的就是跨国企业,在全球经济发展的浪潮中,企业想始终处于不败之地,就不要不断壮大自身的企业规模与强化企业竞争实力。
(二)国际贸易交往模式的多元化
国际贸易是一种跨国交易,地域,时间及空间都是影响国际贸易活动的因素,然而,现代技术的完善和进步,改善了国际贸易活动的交往方式。现阶段,我们早已经进入了信息时代,网络通信与交流技术在各国的日新月异。在国际经济与贸易的发展中,网络技术也占据了重要的地位。企业可以利用邮箱,e-mail,企业也改变了以往的开会模式,运用网上多人视频工作会议等形式来进行沟通和交流,方便企业间的经济合作。总之,新时期内,国际经济与发展模式不仅仅局限于传统的交往模式,会逐步与网络通信技术相联系,最终形成经济贸易模式多样化的形式。X
三、新时期国际贸易对商务英语学习者的新要求
新的经济时代,势必赋予国际贸易新的特点,尤其是外企在我国迅速的增多,中外合资企业与日俱增,单一的学术型的,研究型的外语人才远远不能满足外企对外语人才,尤其是应用型外语人才的需求。
(一)基础知识是磐石
基础性是指强化基础,拓宽知识面。坚实的基础理论,基础知识以及宽广的只是 面试 创新的基石。国际贸易人才的基础性知识有外贸知识,基本的谈判技能,国际 市场营销 知识,国内经济法和国际商法等。外贸人才的基础性能力主要有:良好的英语交际能力,出色的谈判能力等。这些基础知识就与以往的英语基础知识有所区别。可是,相对于商务英语专业的学习者来说,仅仅掌握英语词汇,语法,句型等得基础英语知识是不够的,还需要熟悉了解基本的国际贸易的知识,谈判口语等等。
(二)系统的专业知识
国际贸易英语学习者的专业知识,涵盖面试非常广泛的,主要包括国际贸易,招商引资和外贸管理,文体教育的商业交往。商务英语学习者还需要掌握金融业务和国际贸易服务以及较强的综合能,如掌握熟悉产品,计算机,外贸等知识。国际贸易涉及的行业多种多样,每个行业的产品销售有所不同。商务英语学习者只有在巩固自身的英语专业知识的基础之上,不断地熟悉各行各业的英语表达。除此之外,商务英语学习者还需具备灵活的谈判能力,热情亲和的交际能力,矛盾处理能力及办事意志。国际贸易发展的新趋势要求商务英语学习者成为综合的应用型人才,这就需要在学习中加强技能的锻炼,将理论付诸实践。
(三)较高的实践创新能力
国际贸易的实践性标明商务英语学习者只是掌握外贸的理论的知识,根本无法完成外贸工作。综合的应用型外贸人才需要商务英语学习者在钻研专业知识的基础上,通过实践操作,全面,深入累计额国际经济活动的各项事务与管理工作,熟悉掌握进出口贸易的各个逛街及相关业务的实务操作技能,能够综合运用所学理论知识在实践中观察问题,分析问题和解决问题。
四、摆脱困境,迎接新挑战
国际经济形势的发展,推动着国际贸易的变化。新时期国际贸易对商务英语学习者提出了上述的种种新要求。如何摆脱目前的困境,使自己成为能够满足外企要求的应用型人才,迎接新形势下的挑战,才是商务英语学习者应有的态度和出路。
(一)跟上时代的步伐,更新学习内容
要成为合格的应用型外语人才,商务英语学习者必须与时俱进,在学习内容和语言特色上都要能反映时代的特点和语言的更新发展。英语作为一门语言和交流的工具,也是随着社会和时代的变迁而演变和发展。随着全球经济和民族间的交流合作不断加强,各民族间不同的 文化 碰撞和融合,英语词汇也不断的出现。学校为商务英语学习者配备的教材可能未必能跟得上时代的步伐,商务英语学习者只能依靠网络或者参考其他最新的教材来获得最新的英语学习内容。除此之外,商务英语学习者应当多了解相关的西方文化和文明史,多读些英语方面的报纸,提高对西方各个民族和世界各地政治,经济,文化发展的了解,为以后在企业中工作时能够更加得体,更加顺利的处理各种涉外业务增加筹码。
(二)参与实践,全面发展
高校商务英语的课程,很多都会有实训的要求。学校也会组织商务英语学习者在一定的时期内通过参加实训来锻炼商务英语技能。商务英语学习者应当抓住一切可以实践的机会,心理不要抗拒,毕竟,这些实习实训都是和以后所从事的国际贸易工作相关。不管是那种语言,没有在实践中使用检验,是无法熟练掌握的。也只有通过一定时期的实践锻炼,商务英语学习者真实地处理外贸业务,才能形成自身的英语综合应用能力。
五、结语
时代的进步是一把双刃剑,它的发展给国际贸易创造了生机,但是却给商务英语学习者提出了新的要求。商务英语学习者为了顺应时代的变化,适应国际贸易的发展新趋势,必须通过各种 方法 来发展充实,武装自己,使自己成为符合国际贸易发展要求的综合应用型人才,相反,固步自封,不思进取终究将会被这个经济时代淘汰,无法在国际贸易行业当中立足。
Protectionism Doesn't Pay The global financial crisis is no doubt a catalyst for trade protectionism. As the world economy deteriorates, some countries try to boost growth prospects by erecting trade barriers. China calls on these governments not to replay history and revert to protectionism and economic isolationism.
Previous global economic crises were usually accompanied by frequent trade disputes. The United States' erection of large-scale tariffs in 1930, for example, triggered a retaliatory global trade war. During the two oil shocks in the 1970s and 1980s, trade frictions emerged when major economies attempted to increase exports by depreciating their currencies. And in the wake of the 1997 Asian financial crisis, there was a notable uptick in antidumping actions, countervailing duties and other protectionist measures.
The financial crisis is now spilling over into the real economy, hitting sectors like manufacturing and services. In almost all countries, factories are closing and unemployment is rising, creating political pressure and social problems. More and more governments are strengthening intervention in their economies under the excuse of 'economic security' and protecting vulnerable domestic industries to curb imports from other countries, especially those in emerging markets.
Trade protectionism differs from legally acceptable measures to protect trade. It is an abuse of remedies provided by multilateral trade rules. This kind of protectionism is morphing into more complex and disguised forms, ranging from conventional tariff and nontariff barriers to technical barriers to trade, industry standards and industry protectionism.
With the economic crisis worsening, caution must be taken even in employing trade protection measures consistent with World Trade Organization rules. At the Group of 20 Financial Summit in November 2008, world leaders called for countries to resist trade protectionism and committed themselves to refraining from erecting new barriers to trade and investment, a message strongly echoed by the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation summit at the end of last year, and the World Economic Forum held in Davos last month.
History tells us that trade protection measures hurt not only other countries, but eventually the country that erected that trade barrier in the first place.
To counter the Great Depression, the U.S. adopted the Smoot-Hawley Act in 1930, which raised import duties of over 20,000 foreign products significantly and provoked protectionist retaliation from other countries. Faced with that crisis, other countries pursued beggar-thy-neighbor policies that slashed global trade volumes from $36 billion in 1929 to $12 billion in 1932. Among the victims, not the least was the U.S. itself, where exports shrank from $5.2 billion in 1929 to $1.2 billion in 1932. Even in the U.S., the Smoot-Hawley Act was widely believed to be a catalyst that aggravated the effects of Great Depression.
Global trade is now in dire straits. Thanks to shrinking external demand caused by the economic crisis, major trading countries have seen their export growth tumble or have suffered huge contractions. Germany's exports dropped 10.6% in November 2008, compared to the same period the prior year -- the highest one-month drop since 1990. China also experienced negative export growth in November, and a 17.5% decline last month, when compared to the prior year. Protectionist policies would make things even worse and the consequences would be hard to predict.
In the heat of the crisis, it's critical that all countries refrain from pointing fingers at each other or pursuing their own interests at the expense of others. The financial crisis reflects a chronic illness resulting from global economic structural imbalance and financial risk accumulation, and there is no quick fix to this malady. The fundamental interest of every country is to step up consultation and cooperation and keep international trade smoothly flowing. Healthy international trade can help revive the world economy. During the Great Depression, the U.S. recovered from its economic woes because the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration implemented the New Deal and shunned protectionism.
Today's unprecedented financial crisis has inflicted a severe impact on China and other countries as well. China's economic growth has slowed, exports have plunged and unemployment pressure has mounted. Yet even so, China still firmly believes that trade protectionism isn't a solution to the world's problems. In 2008, amid a contraction in global trade, China imported $1.133 trillion worth of goods from countries around the world -- an 18.5% increase over the prior year. These imports are boosting the economic development of China's trading partners. Since the crisis broke out, the Chinese government has decisively put forward a series of measures aiming at stimulating domestic demand. Given the size and openness of our country, the growth in China's domestic markets can be translated into greater market potential and investment opportunities for other countries. This year China will continue to increase imports and send buying missions abroad for large-scale purchase of equipment, products and technology.
China has always championed our mutually beneficial opening-up policy and advocated international economic cooperation. We maintain that the Doha Round of global trade negotiations should be taken forward in a way that meets the interests of members and complies with the multilateral trading system already established. China is ready to stand together with all nations in the world to face up to the challenges of today, tackle the financial crisis through cooperation and guide the world economy into a new period of prosperity.
贸易保护主义无法拯救世界经济
对贸易保护主义来说,全球金融危机无疑是一针催化剂。近一时期,随着全球经济形势恶化,一些国家自危、自利、自保倾向抬头。有识之士为此感到忧虑,呼吁各国在出台经济刺激计划时,一定要防止贸易保护主义和经济孤立主义的历史重演。
历次全球经济危机往往都伴随着贸易争端的高发。1930年美国政府大范围提高关税,引发了全球范围报复性贸易战。上世纪七八十年代两次石油危机时,主要国家放任货币贬值以扩大出口的作法引发了贸易摩擦。1997年亚洲金融危机之后,全球反倾销、反补贴和保障措施案件明显增多。
当前,金融危机已蔓延到制造业、服务业等实体经济领域,各国工厂倒闭剧增,失业率上升,政治压力和社会问题接踵而至。越来越多国家以“经济安全”和保护本国虚弱产业为由加强政府对经济的干预,阻挠其他国家特别是新兴国家企业出口。
贸易保护主义不同于正当的贸易保护措施,它是对多边贸易规则中救济措施的滥用。从传统的关税和非关税壁垒,到技术性贸易壁垒、行业标准等,以及产业保护主义,当前贸易保护主义的形式更加复杂多样,隐蔽性更强。在危机加剧的背景下,即使符合WTO规则的保护措施也应慎用,这已成为各国共识。在2008年11月举行的G20金融峰会上,各国领导人同声呼吁抵制贸易保护主义,承诺在未来一年内,避免设置新的贸易和投资壁垒。年底的APEC领导人会议和今年初的世界经济论坛达沃斯年会,再次发出了反对保护主义强音。
历史是一面镜子。任何针对他国的贸易保护举措,不仅会损害对方,最终也会伤及自身。经验告诉我们,大规模的贸易保护措施将使金融危机下本已严峻的经济形势更加困难。
1930年美国为了应对经济危机,颁发了《斯姆特-霍利关税法》,大幅提高超过2万种外国商品的进口关税,结果引起了其他国家的贸易保护主义报复。面对危机,各国以邻为壑,全球贸易总额大幅缩减,从1929年的360亿美元缩小到1932年的120亿美元,美国自身也深受其害,出口总额从1929年的52亿美元左右缩减到1932年的12亿美元。这一法案即使在美国国内也被普遍认为是大萧条加剧的催化剂。
如今全球贸易形势已相当严峻:经济危机导致外需衰退,各主要贸易国的出口增速已急剧下滑,甚至出现大幅萎缩。德国08年11月份出口额较前月大幅下滑10.6%,为1990年以来的最大单月降幅。中国08年11月以来出口连续出现负增长,其中09年1月出口下降了17.5%。如果未来贸易保护主义泛滥,使严峻的形势雪上加霜,造成的后果很难预料。我们应该认真思索,这样的后果世界能否承受,又是否值得承受?
危机当头,重要的是各国携手共克时艰,而非互相指责,以邻为壑。金融危机是全球经济结构失衡、金融风险积聚长期积累的结果,解决问题也不可能一蹴而就。当前加强磋商、增强合作,保持国际贸易渠道畅通,才符合各国的根本利益。国际贸易的健康发展,是推动世界经济复苏的重要力量。当年罗斯福政府实行新政,与贸易保护主义决裂,带领美国经济走出低谷,推动了全球经济的增长。
在这场前所未有的世界金融危机中,中国与其他国家一样都受到严重冲击。去年第三季度以来,经济增速放缓,出口大幅下滑,就业压力加大。即便如此,中国仍坚定认为,贸易保护主义是条死胡同。在全球贸易萎缩的情况下,2008年中国从各国进口11331亿美元的商品,增长18.5%,促进了贸易伙伴的经济发展。危机爆发以来,中国政府果断出台了一系列扩大内需的措施。作为一个开放的大国,中国内需的提升可为其他国家提供更大的市场空间和更多的投资机会。今年,中国将继续扩大进口,积极组织企业采购团,赴海外大规模采购,进口设备、商品和技术。
中国始终奉行互利共赢的开放战略,倡导国际经济合作。我们主张积极推进符合各国利益与多边贸易体制的多哈回合谈判。中国愿与世界各国一道,以开放迎接挑战,以合作应对危机,共克时艰,推动世界经济走向新的繁荣。
What Is International Trade?
If you walk into a supermarket and are able to buy South American bananas, Brazilian coffee and a bottle of South African wine, you are experiencing the effects of international trade.
International trade allows us to expand our markets for both goods and services that otherwise may not have been available to us. It is the reason why you can pick between a Japanese, German and American car. As a result of international trade, the market contains greater competition and therefore more competitive prices, which bring a cheaper product home to the consumer.
What Is International Trade?
International trade is the exchange of goods and services between countries. This type of trade gives rise to a world economy, in which prices, or supply and demand, affect and are affected by global events. Political change in Asia, for example, could result in an increase in the cost of labor, thereby increasing the manufacturing costs for an American sneaker company based in Malaysia, which would then result in an increase in the price that you have to pay to buy the tennis shoes at your local mall. A decrease in the cost of labor, on the other hand, would result in you having to pay less for your new shoes.
Trading globally gives consumers and countries the opportunity to be exposed to goods and services not available in their own countries. Almost every kind of product can be found on the international market: food, clothes, spare parts, oil, jewelry, wine, stocks, currencies and water. Services are also traded: tourism, banking, consulting and transportation. A product that is sold to the global market is an export, and a product that is bought from the global market is an import. Imports and exports are accounted for in a country's current account in the balance of payments. (For more on this, see the articles What Is The Balance Of Payments? and Understanding The Current Account In The Balance Of Payments.)
Increased Efficiency of Trading Globally
Global trade allows wealthy countries to use their resources - whether labor, technology or capital - more efficiently. Because countries are endowed with different assets and natural resources (land, labor, capital and technology), some countries may produce the same good more efficiently and therefore sell it more cheaply than other countries. If a country cannot efficiently produce an item, it can obtain the item by trading with another country that can. This is known as specialization in international trade.
Let's take a simple example. Country A and Country B both produce cotton sweaters and wine. Country A produces 10 sweaters and six bottles of wine a year while Country B produces six sweaters and 10 bottles of wine a year. Both can produce a total of 16 units. Country A, however, takes three hours to produce the 10 sweaters and two hours to produce the six bottles of wine (total of five hours). Country B, on the other hand, takes one hour to produce 10 sweaters and three hours to produce six bottles of wine (total of four hours).
But these two countries realize that they could produce more by focusing on those products with which they have a comparative advantage. Country A then begins to produce only wine and Country B produces only cotton sweaters. Each country can now create a specialized output of 20 units per year and trade equal proportions of both products. As such, each country now has access to 20 units of both products.
We can see then that for both countries, the opportunity cost of producing both products is greater than the cost of specializing. More specifically, for each country, the opportunity cost of producing 16 units of both sweaters and wine is 20 units of both products (after trading). Specialization reduces their opportunity cost and therefore maximizes their efficiency in acquiring the goods they need. With the greater supply, the price of each product would decrease, thus giving an advantage to the end consumer as well.
Note that, in the example above, Country B could produce both wine and cotton more efficiently than Country A (less time). This is called an absolute advantage, and Country B may have it because of a higher level of technology. However, according to international trade theory, even if a country has an absolute advantage over another, it can still benefit from specialization. (For a review of some of these economic concepts, see the Economics Basics tutorial.)
Other Possible Benefits of Trading Globally
International trade not only results in increased efficiency but also allows countries to participate in a global economy, encouraging the opportunity of foreign direct investment (FDI), which is the amount of money that individuals invest into foreign companies and other assets. In theory, economies can therefore grow more efficiently and can more easily become competitive economic participants.
For the receiving government, FDI is a means by which foreign currency and expertise can enter the country. These raise employment levels and, theoretically, lead to a growth in the gross domestic product. For the investor, FDI offers company expansion and growth, which means higher revenues.
Free Trade vs. Protectionism
As with other theories, there are opposing views. International trade has two contrasting views regarding the level of control placed on trade: free trade and protectionism. Free trade is the simpler of the two theories: a laissez-faire approach, with no restrictions on trade. The main idea is that supply and demand factors, operating on a global scale, will ensure that production happens efficiently. Therefore, nothing needs to be done to protect or promote trade and growth because market forces will do so automatically.
In contrast, protectionism holds that regulation of international trade is important to ensure that markets function properly. Advocates of this theory believe that market inefficiencies may hamper the benefits of international trade and they aim to guide the market accordingly. Protectionism exists in many different forms, but the most common are tariffs, subsidies and quotas. These strategies attempt to correct any inefficiency in the international market.
Conclusion
As it opens up the opportunity for specialization and therefore more efficient use of resources, international trade has potential to maximize a country's capacity to produce and acquire goods. Opponents of global free trade have argued, however, that international trade still allows for inefficiencies that leave developing nations compromised. What is certain is that the global economy is in a state of continual change and, as it develops, so too must all of its participants.
如果你走进超市,并能买到南美香蕉,巴西咖啡和一瓶南非葡萄酒,您所遇到的影响国际贸易。
国际贸易使我们能够扩大我们的市场,商品和服务,否则可能没有提供给我们。这就是为什么您可以挑选之间日语,德语和美国车。由于国际贸易,市场包含更大的竞争,因此更具有竞争力的价格,由此带来更便宜的产品提供给消费者。
什么是国际贸易?
国际贸易是交流之间的货物和服务的国家。这种类型的贸易引起了世界经济,在这种价格或供应和需求,影响和影响的全球性活动。政治变化,例如,亚洲可能会导致成本增加的劳动力,从而增加了生产成本为美国的耐克公司总部设在马来西亚,然后导致价格上升,你不得不花钱购买在网球鞋在您当地的商场。在减少的劳动力成本,另一方面,将导致您不需要支付较少为您的新鞋。
贸易在全球范围和国家为消费者提供的机会接触到商品和服务不提供在自己的国家。几乎每一种产品可以在国际市场:食品,衣服,零件,石油,珠宝,葡萄酒,股票,货币和水。服务也是交易:旅游,金融,咨询和运输。产品销往全球市场的出口,和一种产品,是购买的全球市场是一个进口。进口和出口都是以一国的经常账户的国际收支。 (欲了解更多关于这个,请参阅文章什么是国际收支平衡?和了解目前帐户收支平衡。 )
提高效率,在全球范围内的交易
全球贸易允许富裕国家利用它们的资源-无论是劳动,技术或资本-更有效率。由于国家赋予了不同的资产和自然资源(土地,劳动力,资本和技术),一些国家可能产生同样的好,因此更有效地销售更便宜比其他国家。如果一个国家不能有效地产生一个项目,它可以取得该项目的贸易与其他国家可以。这就是所谓的专业化的国际贸易。
让我们来一个简单的例子。 A国和乙国毛衣都生产棉花和葡萄酒。 A国生产10毛衣和六瓶葡萄酒,而乙国生产6毛衣和10瓶葡萄酒一年。既可以产生,共有16个单位。 A国,但是,需要3个小时生产10毛衣和两小时内产生的6瓶葡萄酒(共5个小时) 。 B国,另一方面,需要一小时生产10毛衣和三个小时的生产六瓶葡萄酒(共4个小时) 。
但是这两个国家认识到,他们可以生产更多的是侧重于这些产品,他们具有相对优势。 A国然后开始只生产葡萄酒和乙国只生产棉花毛衣。每个国家现在可以创建一个专门的产出20个单位,每年的贸易同等比例的两种产品。因此,每个国家现在已进入20个单位的这两种产品。
我们可以看到那两个国家的机会成本,生产这两种产品是大于成本的专业。更具体而言,每个国家的机会成本,生产16单位都毛衣和葡萄酒为20单位的两种产品(交易)。专业化降低其机会成本,因此,最大限度地提高其效率获取他们所需要的货物。随着更多的供应,每个产品的价格将下降,从而有利于最终消费者以及。
请注意,在上面的例子中,国家B可以同时生产葡萄酒和棉花比国家更有效的(更少的时间)。这就是所谓的绝对优势,乙国可能是因为较高的技术水平。然而,根据国际贸易理论,即使一个国家拥有绝对优势,另外,它仍然可以受益于专业化。(审查其中的一些经济概念,请参阅经济学基础知识教程。 )
其他可能的好处的交易在全球范围内
国际贸易的结果,不仅提高了效率,而且也使国家参与全球经济,鼓励的机会,外国直接投资( FDI ) ,这是的金额,个人投资于外国公司和其他资产。从理论上讲,经济增长因此可以更有效,也更容易成为有竞争力的经济参与者。
为接受政府,外国直接投资是一种手段,外汇和专门知识可以进入该国。这些提高就业水平,从理论上讲,导致经济增长在国内生产总值。为投资者,外国直接投资提供了公司扩张和增长,这意味着更高的收入。
自由贸易与保护主义
至于其他的理论,有反对意见。国际贸易有两种截然不同的看法程度的控制放在贸易:自由贸易和保护主义。自由贸易是简单的两种理论:一种放任自流的方式,没有任何的贸易限制。主要的想法是,供应和需求的因素,在全球范围经营,将确保发生生产效率。因此,没有什么需要做,以保护或促进贸易和市场力量的增长,因为这样做将自动。
与此相反,保护主义认为调节国际贸易重要的是要确保市场的正常运作。主张这一理论认为,市场的低效率可能妨碍国际贸易的利益,他们的目的是引导市场相应。保护主义存在于许多不同的形式,但最常见的是关税,补贴和配额。这些战略企图,以纠正任何效率不高在国际市场上。
结论
因为它开辟了专门的机会,因此更有效地利用资源,国际贸易的潜力最大限度地发挥一个国家的能力,以生产和收购货物。反对者的全球自由贸易的主张,但是,国际贸易仍然允许效率低下离开发展中国家的损害。可以肯定的是,全球经济正处于不断的变化,因为它的发展,也必须在其所有与会者。
International trade is the exchange of capital, goods and services across international boundaries or territories.[1] In most countries, it represents a significant share of GDP. While international trade has been present throughout much of history (see Silk Road, Amber Road), its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. Industrialization, advanced transportation, globalization, multinational corporations, and outsourcing are all having a major impact on the international trade system. Increasing international trade is crucial to the continuance of globalization. International trade is a major source of economic revenue for any nation that is considered a world power. Without international trade, nations would be limited to the goods and services produced within their own borders.
International trade is in principle not different from domestic trade as the motivation and the behavior of parties involved in a trade does not change fundamentally depending on whether trade is across a border or not. The main difference is that international trade is typically more costly than domestic trade. The reason is that a border typically imposes additional costs such as tariffs, time costs due to border delays and costs associated with country differences such as language, the legal system or a different culture.
Another difference between domestic and international trade is that factors of production such as capital and labor are typically more mobile within a country than across countries. Thus international trade is mostly restricted to trade in goods and services, and only to a lesser extent to trade in capital, labor or other factors of production. Then trade in good and services can serve as a substitute for trade in factors of production. Instead of importing the factor of production a country can import goods that make intensive use of the factor of production and are thus embodying the respective factor. An example is the import of labor-intensive goods by the United States from China. Instead of importing Chinese labor the United States is importing goods from China that were produced with Chinese labor.
International trade is also a branch of economics, which, together with international finance, forms the larger branch of international economics.
Models
Several different models have been proposed to predict patterns of trade and to analyze the effects of trade policies such as tariffs.
[edit] Ricardian model
Main article: Ricardian model
The Ricardian model focuses on comparative advantage and is perhaps the most important concept in international trade theory. In a Ricardian model, countries specialize in producing what they produce best. Unlike other models, the Ricardian framework predicts that countries will fully specialize instead of producing a broad array of goods. Also, the Ricardian model does not directly consider factor endowments, such as the relative amounts of labor and capital within a country.
[edit] Heckscher-Ohlin model
Main article: Heckscher-Ohlin model
The Heckscher-Ohlin model was produced as an alternative to the Ricardian model of basic comparative advantage. Despite its greater complexity it did not prove much more accurate in its predictions. However from a theoretical point of view it did provide an elegant solution by incorporating the neoclassical price mechanism into international trade theory.
The theory argues that the pattern of international trade is determined by differences in factor endowments. It predicts that countries will export those goods that make intensive use of locally abundant factors and will import goods that make intensive use of factors that are locally scarce. Empirical problems with the H-O model, known as the Leontief paradox, were exposed in empirical tests by Wassily Leontief who found that the United States tended to export labor intensive goods despite having a capital abundance.
[edit] Specific factors model
In this model, labour mobility between industries is possible while capital is immobile between industries in the short-run. Thus, this model can be interpreted as a 'short run' version of the Heckscher-Ohlin model. The specific factors name refers to the given that in the short-run specific factors of production, such as physical capital, are not easily transferable between industries. The theory suggests that if there is an increase in the price of a good, the owners of the factor of production specific to that good will profit in real terms. Additionally, owners of opposing specific factors of production (i.e. labour and capital) are likely to have opposing agendas when lobbying for controls over immigration of labour. Conversely, both owners of capital and labour profit in real terms from an increase in the capital endowment. This model is ideal for particular industries. This model is ideal for understanding income distribution but awkward for discussing the pattern of trade!
[edit] New Trade Theory
Main article: New Trade Theory
New Trade theory tries to explain several facts about trade, which the two main models above have difficulty with. These include the fact that most trade is between countries with similar factor endowment and productivity levels, and the large amount of multinational production (ie foreign direct investment) which exists. In one example of this framework, the economy exhibits monopolistic competition, and increasing returns to scale.
[edit] Gravity model
Main article: Gravity model of trade
The Gravity model of trade presents a more empirical analysis of trading patterns rather than the more theoretical models discussed above. The gravity model, in its basic form, predicts trade based on the distance between countries and the interaction of the countries' economic sizes. The model mimics the Newtonian law of gravity which also considers distance and physical size between two objects. The model has been proven to be empirically strong through econometric analysis. Other factors such as income level, diplomatic relationships between countries, and trade policies are also included in expanded versions of the model.
[edit] Regulation of international trade
Traditionally trade was regulated through bilateral treaties between two nations. For centuries under the belief in Mercantilism most nations had high tariffs and many restrictions on international trade. In the 19th century, especially in Britain, a belief in free trade became paramount. This belief became the dominant thinking among western nations since then despite the acknowledgement that adoption of the policy coincided with the general decline of Great Britain. In the years since the Second World War, controversial multilateral treaties like the GATT and World Trade Organization have attempted to create a globally regulated trade structure. These trade agreements have often resulted in protest and discontent with claims of unfair trade that is not mutually beneficial.
Free trade is usually most strongly supported by the most economically powerful nations, though they often engage in selective protectionism for those industries which are strategically important such as the protective tariffs applied to agriculture by the United States and Europe. The Netherlands and the United Kingdom were both strong advocates of free trade when they were economically dominant, today the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Japan are its greatest proponents. However, many other countries (such as India, China and Russia) are increasingly becoming advocates of free trade as they become more economically powerful themselves. As tariff levels fall there is also an increasing willingness to negotiate non tariff measures, including foreign direct investment, procurement and trade facilitation. The latter looks at the transaction cost associated with meeting trade and customs procedures.
Traditionally agricultural interests are usually in favour of free trade while manufacturing sectors often support protectionism. This has changed somewhat in recent years, however. In fact, agricultural lobbies, particularly in the United States, Europe and Japan, are chiefly responsible for particular rules in the major international trade treaties which allow for more protectionist measures in agriculture than for most other goods and services.
During recessions there is often strong domestic pressure to increase tariffs to protect domestic industries. This occurred around the world during the Great Depression. Many economists have attempted to portray tariffs as the underlining reason behind the collapse in world trade that many believe seriously deepened the depression.
The regulation of international trade is done through the World Trade Organization at the global level, and through several other regional arrangements such as MERCOSUR in South America, NAFTA between the United States, Canada and Mexico, and the European Union between 27 independent states. The 2005 Buenos Aires talks on the planned establishment of the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) failed largely due to opposition from the populations of Latin American nations. Similar agreements such as the MAI (Multilateral Agreement on Investment) have also failed in recent years.
[edit] Risks in international trade
The risks that exist in international trade can be divided into two major groups
这里有个范文你看看吧
3月26日 20:09 国际商务谈判的定义:
是指在国际商务活动中,处于不同国家或不同地区的商务活动当事人为了达成某笔交易,彼此通过信息交流、就交易的各项要件进行协商的行为过程。
商务谈判是商务活动的重要组成部分,不仅是谈判双方基于经济利益的交流与合作,也是双方所具有的不同文化之间的碰撞与沟通。因为参与谈判的人员来自不同的国家、不同的民族,因此国际商务谈判受到各自国家、民族的政治、经济、文化等多种因素的影响。其中文化因素的影响是不可忽视的。
在不同的社会里有着不同的文化影响着谈判者的风格。因此在商务谈判中,了解谈判者的文化因素是很重要的。中国入世之后,涉及国际商务的谈判与日俱增,如何进行商务谈判的命题被提上可意识日程,文化差异对商务谈判过程而言,是极其重要而繁琐的变量。从贸易费用角度来看,有效的文化沟通可以节约商务谈判费用,在利益上也能达到预期的目的。因此作为谈判人员必须要了解谈判的文化背景,以便取得谈判的成功。
二, 影响商务谈判的文化因素:
英语哲学家弗朗西斯•培根曾在《谈判论》中指出:与人相处,俗话说:“百里不同风,十里不同俗”,由于世界各国历史传统、政治制度、经济状况、文化背景、风俗习惯以及价值观念存在明显差异,因此在进行跨文化的商务谈判时,作为谈判人员,就应该先了解各国文化差异,认真研究对方谈判人员的文化背景极其特点。因此为了取得谈判的成功、争取利益,就要求了解谈判人员不同的谈判风格,也就要从影响谈判风格的文化因素来研究,其因素包括以下几点:
(1) 语言及非语言行为
在商务活动中,语言上的差异是明显的,解决这一问题也就相对简单不同的语言
中,作为信息交流的技巧的种种语言行为方式的使用是有一定差异的,如果不了解这
些差异,谈判者将很容易误解谈判对手所传递的信息,从而影响商务谈判目标的实现。
然而,非语言行为方面的文化差异往往是较为隐蔽、难以被意识到的。不同文化
客观存在着交流技巧的差异。如沉默时段,插话次数和疑视时间差异等,在商务谈判
中,染盘人员一非语言的更含蓄的方式发出或接收大量的比语言信息更重要的信息,
谈判对方极易误解这些信号,而且没有意识到已经发生了错误,这将会影响商业关系
的正常展开。
(2) 风俗习惯
在国际商务谈判中,常会有许多正式或非正式的社交活动,而这些活动常受文化
因素的的影响,并制约着谈判的进行。
如阿拉伯人在社会活动中常请对方喝咖啡,如果客人不喝是很失礼的行为,并且
将会造成很大麻烦。一位美国商人拒绝了邀请,这位美国人也因此丧失了一次合作
的机会。
(3) 思维差异
在商务谈判过程中,来自不同文化的谈判者往往会遭受思维方式的冲突,以中东
方文化与英美为例:
东方文化偏好形象思维、综合、注重统一;而英美国家则偏好抽象、分析思维并
注重对立。
因此不同文化的谈判者呈现出决策上的差异,会形成顺序决策方法和通盘决策方
法间的冲突。
(4) 价值观
在商务谈判中价值观方面的差异远比其他方面的文化隐蔽得深,因此更难克服。
其主要表现在客观性,时时、竞争和平等观念的差异也会引起误解,美国人较客观,
不讲人情只注重经济和业绩,并且时间观念也很强,对他们来说时间就是金钱。然而
竞争的平等性差异也是不好把握的,美国人对利益较为公平,而日本人则有所区分,
因此价值观的差异也会影响谈判的进行。
(5) 人际关系
成功的谈判要求始终保持畅通无阻的信息交流,然而不同的文化背景又会使国际
商务谈判者之间的信息交流面临许多障碍和冲突。因此商务谈判人员必须保持和谈判
对手有良好的人际关系、保持良好的沟通以便谈判顺利进行。比如法国人天性比较开
朗,注重人情味的传统,因而很珍惜交往过程中的人际关系,在与法国人谈判时不能
只想做生意,否则会被认为太枯燥无味而影响谈判的成功。
当我们了解在商务谈判中的文化因素以后,就要注重其影响下的谈判者的谈判风
格及应采取怎样的对策才能取得成功。
三、不同的谈判风格及采取的技巧
谈判风格是指谈判者在谈判中一向表现的态度,行为极其内含的人品等。由于世
界各民族之间政治、经济、文化、科技发展具有不平衡的特性,因此在国际贸易谈判
中形成了各具特色的生活方式、消费习惯、价值观念和文化背景等,因而谈判风格也
各具特点,带给谈判对手思维的影响也大。因此作为谈判者应该了解不同谈判者的谈
判风格,这样才能有的放矢,采取相应的谈判策略,取得谈判成功。
不同的谈判风格:
不同国家的商人,在文化差异的影响下,有着不同的谈判风格,下面来举几个国
家的人的谈判风格作代表。
1美国人
美国是世界上经济、技术最发达的国家之一,英语几乎是国际谈判的常用语言,
并且世界贸易中有一半以上是用美元计算。这使美国人对自己的国家深感自豪,对
自己的民族有强烈的自豪感和荣誉感。因此美国人的性格外向、随意,表现为直率、
开朗、豪爽、热情、自信、果断、善于交际、不拘礼节、追求物质生活、富有冒险
精神和竞争意识。
然而,在谈判中他们表现出的谈判风格也有其特点:自信心强,自我感觉良好;三、不同的谈判风格及采取的技巧
2德国人
德国是世界著名的工业大国,尽管东德与西德统一以后,仍有许多差别,但从整
个民族特点来看,德国人刚强、自信、谨慎、保守、刻板、严谨,办事情有计划性、
雷厉风行,工作重效率、追求完美,纪律观念强,有军旅作风。诚实和正直是德国
人最欣赏的品质。
因此德国人在谈判过程中所表现出来的谈判风格有:准备工作充分完善,仔细
研究对方;非常讲究效率,不喜欢东拉西扯;重合同,讲信用;德国人也非常自负。
他们重视并强调自己提出的方案的可行性,不轻易向对手做出较大让步。
3日本人
在众多的谈判人员的风格里,日本人是谈判者中最具个性和魅力的,各国的谈判
专家也都默认;日本人是最成功的谈判者。这来源于本国文化历史,日本资源匮乏,
人口密集,并且日本人的文化又受中国文化的影响很深,儒家思想中等级观念、忠
孝思想、宗法观念深深植根于日本人的内心深处,但日本人也有其自身独特的特点:
讲礼仪,注重人际关系,等级观念强,性格内向,不轻信人,有责任感,群体意识
强,工作认真慎重有耐心,精明能干,进取心强,勇于开拓,讲究实际,吃苦耐劳,
富于实干精神。
而他们在谈判中表现出的风格就有以礼求让;讲究面子;具有强烈的具体意识、
慎重决策;重视人际关系和信誉;不易退让;不喜欢依法解决纠纷。
因此在了解不同国家的谈判者的不同谈判风格之后,就其他们的特点:要采取相
应的对策,以至能在谈判中取得成功。
三, 技巧
因为在商务谈判过程中,受文化背景影响,各国的谈判者都表现出不同的谈判风格。
要想在商务谈判中取胜,就应采取相应的技巧。
就美国而言,鉴于他们表现出来的谈判风格,我们可以利用并采取相应的措施:a、
利用性格优点,创造良好的谈判气氛,并以相应的态度鼓励他们。B、利用心理特征,
他们比较喜欢表现自己,可以适当激将他们的自信,但不能激怒他们;c、以实对实,
对于他们追求实利;应进行实际论,但一定要体现公正。
希望对你有帮助 U箱发太麻烦了 呵呵