恩，完全中英文对照的比较不好找……
台湾研究生的论文大都会有英文摘要……但也不见得做全文翻译…>_<…
我找到几个这样子的论文……还有对应reference里面的一些英文版论文……
不晓得对你会不会有帮助……
给我个邮箱吧，我都可以发给你~
先到百度文库，找一篇此类文档中文的，然后用有道翻译，或是谷歌在线翻译翻成英
文，然后把英文放上面，中文放下面。希望可以帮到你。如果要找标准的PDF格式外文文
献，可以在谷歌，用英文文献名+空格+PDF 这样比较容易找到。
第一是Google搜索，主要是英文，尤其是其学术搜索，意义大。
第二，通过各大学图书馆系统，进入几个主流的出版发行集团。
第三，利用网络免费储存、电子书系统。尤其是国外多。
1、论文题目：要求准确、简练、醒目、新颖。
2、目录：目录是论文中主要段落的简表。（短篇论文不必列目录）
3、提要：是文章主要内容的摘录，要求短、精、完整。字数少可几十字，多不超过三百字为宜。
4、关键词或主题词：关键词是从论文的题名、提要和正文中选取出来的，是对表述论文的中心内容有实质意义的词汇。关键词是用作机系统标引论文内容特征的词语，便于信息系统汇集，以供读者检索。 每篇论文一般选取3-8个词汇作为关键词，另起一行，排在“提要”的左下方。 主题词是经过规范化的词，在确定主题词时，要对论文进行主题，依照标引和组配规则转换成主题词表中的规范词语。
5、论文正文： （1）引言：引言又称前言、序言和导言，用在论文的开头。 引言一般要概括地写出作者意图，说明选题的目的和意义, 并指出论文写作的范围。引言要短小精悍、紧扣主题。 〈2）论文正文：正文是论文的主体，正文应包括论点、论据、 论证过程和结论。主体部分包括以下内容： a.提出-论点； b.分析问题-论据和论证； c.解决问题-论证与步骤； d.结论。
6、一篇论文的参考文献是将论文在和写作中可参考或引证的主要文献资料，列于论文的末尾。参考文献应另起一页，标注方式按《GB7714-87文后参考文献著录规则》进行。 中文：标题--作者--出版物信息（版地、版者、版期）：作者--标题--出版物信息 所列参考文献的要求是： （1）所列参考文献应是正式出版物，以便读者考证。 （2）所列举的参考文献要标明序号、著作或文章的标题、作者、出版物信息。
一，选题要新颖。
这次我的论文的成功，和高分，得到导师的赞许，都是因为我论文的选题新颖所给我带来的好处。最好涉及护理新领域，以及新进展，这样会给人耳目一新的感觉。
二，大量文献做基础
仔细查阅和你论文题目和研究范围相关的文献，大量的文献查阅会你的论文写作铺垫，借鉴别人的思路，和好的语言。而且在写作过程不会觉得语言平乏，当然也要自己一定的语言功底做基矗
三，一气呵成
做好充分的准备，不要每天写一些，每天改一些，这样会打断自己的思路，影响文章的连贯。
四，尽量采用多的专业术语
可能口语化的表达会给人带来亲切感，但论文是比较专业的形式，是有可能做为文献来查阅和检索的，所以论文语言的专业化，术语化会提升自己论文的水平。
五，用正规格式书写
参考正规的论文文献，论文格式。不要因为格式问题，而影响到你论文的质量。
六，最好在计算机上完成写作过程
如果有条件最好利用电脑来完成写作过程，好处以下几点：1，节省时间，无论打字的速度慢到什么程度，肯定要比手写的快。2，方便，大量的文献放在手边，一个一个查阅是很不方便的，文献都是用数据库编辑，所以都是在电脑上完成。提前先在电脑上摘要出重点，写出提纲，随时翻阅，方便写作。3，修改编辑，在电脑随时对文章进行修改编辑都是非常的方便。4，随时存档，写一段，存一段，防止突然停电，或者电脑当机。本人就是吃了这个大亏，一个晚上的劳动，差点就全没了，幸亏男友是电脑高手，帮我找回。否则就恨着电脑，哭死算了。
七，成稿打印好交给导师
无论你的字写的多么优美，还是按照惯例来，打印出的文字显的正规，而且交流不存在任何的问题，不会让导师因为看不懂你的龙飞凤舞，而低估你的论文。而且干净整洁，女孩子不仅注意自己的形象问题，书面的东西也反映你的修养和气质。
八，听取导师意见，仔细修改
导师会给你一些关于你论文建设性的意见，仔细参考，认真修改。毕竟导师是发表过多篇论文，有颇多的经验。
QQ114652380，今天上午用QQ传给你的。
汉语言文化差异的对比
一、 英汉语句差异
(一 )英汉词汇现象对比
1 .意义差异“ 英语是综合型语言 ,词化程度相当高 ,即在英语词汇中存在大量分析型语言 (如汉语要用一个短语甚至一个句子才能表达单个词 )。 ” [ 2 ]译者熟练掌握英语的这种特点 ,就可以使译文简洁。英语中有不少单个动词隐含着“make +宾语 +补语 ” 的意思 ,“v . + adv” ,“v . + like” “v .+with” 这些复杂的意思。英语一个动词 ,汉语要用一个短语词组来表达。如果在汉译英中正确运用这种动词 ,就简洁多了。由于名词尤其是抽象名词大都是从动词或形容词派生来的 ,而很多动词或形容词都有自己习惯的主语或并与之搭配 , 因此单个抽象名词隐含一个主谓或动宾结构的内容。
2 .词类差异
“ 英汉语言的最大差异之一便是体现在动词的运用上 ” [ 3 ]。汉语动词灵活多变 ,表现力极强。沈家煊认为 ,汉语在句法上遵循时间顺序的相似原则 ,这是因为汉语缺乏形态变化而采用直接映照的方法。 [ 4 ]汉语句序体现认知次序 ,多述谓成分线性排列。因此“ 汉语中动词使用频率远比英语为高。 ” [ 5 ] 在表达一些复杂的思想时 ,汉语往往借助动词 ,按时间顺序逐步交待、 层层铺开 ,给人以舒缓明快的感觉。从使用方法上来看 ,汉语动词的连用和叠用非常普遍 ,而在英语中习惯用非谓语动词形式。例如:他出去迎接妈妈。He went out t o meet hismother . (汉语后一个动词在英语中变成不定式 )英语句子中 ,主要采用主谓结构。由于句中的谓语动词受动词形态变化的约束 ,句子中一般只能有一个谓语 ,它是句子的轴心。然后借用名词来表达 ,而名词之间则使用介词加以串通。所以英语中名词与介词等词类占优势。下例中英语中的名词、 介词等只能译成相应的汉语动词:He cried at the news . 听到这个消息他哭了。此外还有搭配方面的差异等。
(二 ) 英汉句法现象对比
1 .句型差异 英语表达常呈“ 浓缩性现象 ” ,汉语表达常呈“ 展开性现象 ” 。 “ 由于英民族常取‘浓缩型 ’ 的思维方式 ,喜欢将众多的信息靠多种手段集中于一个单位加以思考 ,因而表达时往往倾向于取较低的句法单位。 ” “ 而汉民族往往更趋向于把问题层层铺开 ,用节节短句逐点交代。 ” [ 6 ]因此 ,英语多用长句 ,而汉语中短句占优势。例如:We have achieved an extraordinary technol ogical capabil2ity which enables us t o seek out uni maginably distant civiliza2ti on even if they are no more advanced than me . (我们已经具备了一种非凡的技术能力 ,这种技术能力使我们搜索到无比遥远的文明世界 ,即使他们和我们一样不先进。 )英语表达复杂的意思时 ,偏爱借助连接词 (如上句中的 which、 even if )用长句连贯地加以表达。而汉语言则相反 ,侧重于用短句。如上例中 ,把一个长句分解成三个短句 ,使整个句子节奏分明 ,脉络清楚 ,正所谓“ 大珠小珠落玉盘 ” 。因此长句和短句的习惯差异在我们平时的翻译中要加以注意。
2 . 英汉句序差异 英语和汉语复合句中主句和从句之间的时间顺序和逻辑顺序不完全相同。彭宣维统计表明 ,在主从关系上 ,英语中的因果、 条件、 假设以及时间状语从句的位置比较灵活 ,“ 在这一点上比汉语的表达手段多出近一倍。 ” [ 7 ]但是 ,“ 复合结构中从句在前 ,主句在后仍是汉语复合句的典型顺序。 ” [ 8 ]为此 ,彭宣维对汉语的主从复合句 (包括时间、 方式、 条件、 原因等 )的分布进行了统计 ,结果表明 , 汉语基本上是按“ 从句 -主句 ” 的方式组织。如:Please tellme when you have a p r oblem. 如有问题 ,请给我打电话。
二、 英汉语言思维差异
归根到底 ,上述词句间的差异源于语言主体间的思维差异。 “ 思维方式的差异 ,正是造成语言差异的一个重要原因。 ” [ 9 ]翻译的过程 ,不仅是语言形式的转换 ,更是思维方式的变换。
(一 ) 形合思维与意合思维 “ 英语句子结构比较紧凑 ,句子内部连接之处 , 一般都要用具体的词语来体现 ,也就是王力先生所说的‘形和 ’ 。 ” “ 汉语句子结构比较松散 , 连词用得不多 ,但意思是连贯的 ,这就是王力先生所说的‘意和 ’ 。 ” [ 10 ]形合和意合是分析思维和综合思维的各自具体表现。“ 形合 ” 就是主要靠语言本身的结构手段来表达意思;“意合 ” 主要靠句子内部逻辑关系来表情达意。英汉两种语言形合、 意合思维的差异对翻译有着深远的影响。
(二 ) 抽象思维与形象思维的差异 中运用抽象词的频率大大高于汉语。汉语用具体词表达的事情 , 英语中往往用抽象词:戴安娜代表了热情 ,责任 ,风度和美丽。Diana was theessence of compassi on, of duty, of style, of beauty .现代汉语中抽象词的使用也大增 ,如以“ 性 ” 、 “观 ” 、“ 化 ” 等结尾的词 ,例如:科学性、 荣辱观、 园林化等。 (三 )被动思维与主体思维的差异英语中凡是不必说出主动者 ,或者为了使方便、 叙述客观、 语气委婉等往往都是用被动语态 ,所以被动语态极其常见。相比之下 ,汉语的被动语态使用范围窄得多 ,而主动语态用得多。
三、 英汉文化差异
沃尔夫的语言相对论认为语言类型的不同影响人们认识世界的方式。 [ 11 ]反过来说 ,一种语言的词语数量的多寡和语义所指往往因文化不同而异。在语言的形成发展过程中 ,由于语言客体的区别和语言主体心理思维的不同 ,表现在语言中必然出现某种差异甚至冲突对立 ,这种语言体现在心理上的差异即是文化差异。文化差异渗透在两个语言形式的各个方面 ,在语音、 词汇、 语句、 篇章等方面都各有表现。 (一 )英汉文化有部分重叠 “ 语言的不同层次和相当层次的语言单位具有不同的文化蕴含内容 ,其中词是文化蕴含内容的核心。 ” [ 12 ]这种情况首先体现在概念词语上。英语在概念上加以明确区分的实体 ,在汉语文化可能不加区分 ,反之亦然。英汉两种语言概念划分很少有完全一致的 , 这就给翻译带来了很大困难。亲属称谓是一个典型的例子。英语的 uncle就可以指汉语的伯、 叔、 舅、 姑父、 姨父任何人。汉语的区分较英语细致得多。 (二 )英汉文化空缺“ 以别的语言为参照 , 任何一种自然语言的词汇场中都可能有‘ 词汇空缺 ’ 。 ” [ 13 ]所谓空缺 (文化上的 ) ,是指有些表达方式是一国所独有而别国没有。这种空缺在词语的使用上显得尤为突出。英语和汉语的俗语、 谚语、 成语、 禁忌语、 委婉语所呈现出来的文化差异就更大了。 (三 ) 中英文化冲突 所谓文化冲突 ,有两种情况: (1)有些表达方式 ,一种语言有另一语言也有 ,但涵义刚好相反。 (2)含义相同的内容在两种语言表达方式上截然相反。正如柯平所说:“ 翻译理解中最大的危险在于原语和译语里有一些貌合神离的假朋友 ,它们的指称意义相同 ,但语用意义 (主要是喻义 )完全不同 ,甚至正好相反。 ” 众所周知的一个例子就是 pull one’ s leg (开玩笑 ) ,它的含义并不是“ 拉某人的腿 ”或“ 拖后腿 ” 。“ 观察事物的视点不同是造成英汉文化冲突的另一个原因 ” 。 [ 14 ] 如英语说 beat the enemy,汉语是战胜 (或战败 )敌人;英语 fight fires在汉语变成了“ 救火 ” 。由此可以看出 ,在互译中英文作品时一定要把握词语的文化内涵 ,出现文化冲突时切忌直译 ,否则 ,将严重损害原作的内容和精神。
两种语言之间的文化差异影响翻译的准确与否 ,因此 ,在翻译中必须深度挖掘词句所要表达的真实意思 ,高度重视语言差异 ,包括语句差异、 思维差异以及不同方面不同层次间的文化差异。
财务会计类论文，有一个网站（学术论文网）这方面的论文很齐全：
财务会计管理：
财务会计研究：
财务会计理论：
财务会计实务：
财务会计概论：
财务会计前沿：
如果在这里没有找到您需要的论文，可以去信该网站的管理人员，可以请他们免费帮你代找：
我觉得这是我所见过的最好的学术论文网站，主要是论文质量都相当不错，一般都是高校教授的代表作。至于学术规范性，自是不必待言。
[经济管理] 浅谈会计人才评价 [佚名][2007年4月24日][2]
简介：无
内容：
在以人为本、人才兴国的战略指导下，财政部从去年开始直接组织高层次会计人才培训，计划用10年左右的时间，培养和造就一批精通业务、善于管理、熟悉国际惯例、具有国际视野和战略思维的高素质、复合型领军人才，发挥会计人才在强化会计职能、宣传会计政策、组织继续教育、研究实务问题等方面的组织推动和辐射作用。这是促进我国会计队伍整体素质全面、迅速提高的一个重要举措。国家通过组织会计从业资格考试、会计技术职称考试、……
[Economic Management] on the evaluation of accounting personnel [Anonymous] [April 24, 2007] [2]
Description: None
Content:
In people-oriented, human resources strategy of rejuvenating the country, under the guidance of the Ministry of Finance last year directly from high-level accounting personnel training, plans to use about 10 years time, to cultivate and foster a number of good business, good management, familiar with international practice, with an international perspective and strategic thinking of high-quality, complex-type leader personnel, accounting personnel to play in strengthening the accounting functions, accounting policies publicity, organization of continuing education, research and other aspects of the practical problems of organizations to promote the role and radiation. This is to promote the overall quality of China's accounting comprehensive, rapid increase in an important initiative. Through the organization of national accounting qualification examination, the examination of accounting titles, ... ...
12. [Economic Management] On Budget Accounting Problems and Solutions [Anonymous] [April 24, 2007] [7]
Description: None
Content:
To 1 January, 1998 full implementation of "a total budget of the financial accounting system", "administrative accounting system", "accounting standards and institutions" (pilot), "Accounting systems and institutions" as the signs that have been out of our budget accounting under the planned economy model, embarked on the establishment of the need to adapt to a market economy with Chinese characteristics, scientific norms of the road budget for the accounting model. In recent years, with the financial management to accelerate the pace of structural reform, designed in accordance with the theory of public finance budget management model has to start building, budgeting, implementation and other aspects of the management system is undergoing a fundamental change in the budget accounting of customer ... ...
13. [Economic Management] of the bank accounting management [Anonymous] [April 24, 2007] [7]
Description: None
Content:
Bank accounting is the emergence of banks and at the same time the birth. Each bank's business operation, that is, the operation of bank accounting, the accounting process to achieve through accounting. In other words, the bank accounts of the accounting process, that is specific for banking business and the realization of the basic functions of the banking process. Bank accounting is not only an important basis for the work of banks, the banks can be an objective starting to reflect the operations, accounting and supervisory role, and of these three banks accounting functions can also be counterproductive in the operation of banks, which are complementary to each other. Accounting functions of the bank to play properly, it may be to promote the bank's business ... ...
14. [Economic Management] of accession to the WTO to meet in rural areas, economic and accounting challenges [Anonymous] [April 24, 2007] [1]
Description: None
Content:
I. Analysis of the current situation: the 21st century, peace and development remain the two main themes of the world. However, we are faced with the times and changes in the competitive environment. (-) Modern science and technology, the rapid development of knowledge-based economy. The 21st century, state-to-state competition in comprehensive national strength, the key is the competitive scientific and technological strength, the use of high precision, the new science and technology to improve
对压缩机单螺杆专用加工机床的介绍更新时间
摘要：本文从四个方面介绍了国内现有单螺杆加工机床的布局和结构，并把优缺点一一列举出来，由于压缩机生产厂的单螺杆加工机床和机床资料对外保密，以上介绍难免有片面、不妥之处，因此仅供单螺杆压缩机生产厂参考。
一、介绍机床的布局
压缩机排气量的大小决定了星轮、螺杆直径的大小和啮合中心距的大小，因此螺杆直径的不同，机床的主轴与刀具的回转中心也不同。为满足加工不同直径的螺杆，目前国内单螺杆加工机床的布局大致有以下几种方案。
第一种：机床的主轴与刀具回转中心的中心距为固定式
机床的主轴与刀具回转中心的中心距为固定式，中心距不可调整。加工几种直径的螺杆就需要几种中心距规格不同的机床。
优点：机床的结构简单。
缺点：每种机床只能加工一种规格的螺杆，当市场上某种规格的压缩机螺杆需要量大时，造成一台机床加工，其他机床闲置。
第二种：机床的主轴箱为可回转式
机床可根据加工螺杆直径的大小在加工前把主轴箱旋转一个角度。这种主轴箱能够回转的机床是对上述第一种机床在使用方法上的改进，与第一种机床的结构基本相同。
优点：机床的结构简单，能适应多种规格螺杆的加工。
缺点1：主轴箱旋转后主轴回转中心线与刀具回转中心线间的距离不易精确测量。
缺点2：主轴箱旋转后主轴前端面与刀具的回转中心线间的距离减少，因此加工较大直径的螺杆受到限制。
第三种：机床的主轴箱为横向移动式
主轴箱底部与底座之间布置有矩形滑动导轨，主轴箱移动的方向垂直于主轴回转中心线并垂直于刀具回转中心线。主轴箱的动力通过花键轴传给底座内的刀具进给机构。
根据加工螺杆直径的大小，在加工前用手轮丝杠进给机构把主轴箱移动到适当位置，然后用螺钉将主轴箱固定在底座上。主轴箱的移动距离可用光栅尺检测，位置误差±0.005mm。
采用主轴箱可横向移动的一个机床就可以加工直径φ95～φ385mm之间任何一种规格的螺杆。
由于加工φ95～φ385mm直径的螺杆，造成主轴前端面与刀具回转中心线间的距离差值过大，因此在实际应用时设计成两种规格的机床，一个机床加工φ95～φ205mm直径的螺杆，另一个机床加工φ180～φ385mm直径的螺杆。
优点：机床能适应多种规格螺杆的加工，每种规格的螺杆不需要配备相应的加工机床。
缺点：机床的结构和机床的装配较前二种机床复杂，机床的造价也较前二种机床高。
二、介绍机床的主轴结构
机床主轴箱的水平主轴和底座上的立式的主轴精度的高低决定了被加工螺杆的精度，同时螺杆在压缩机中以几千转的速度高速旋转时，精度较差的螺杆会使压缩机产生发热、振动、效率低、磨损快等现象。
国内目前现有的单螺杆加工机床主轴结构大致有以下两种方案。
第一种：轴承径向游隙不可调的主轴结构
主轴前轴承采用1个双列圆柱滚子轴承和两个推力球轴承组合，该主轴使用双列圆柱滚子轴承承受径向切削力，使用两个推力球轴承承受轴向切削力。
主轴后轴承一般采用1个双列圆柱滚子轴承或采用1个向心球轴承。
这种主轴结构的优点：主轴的加工和装配简单，造价较低。
缺点1：由于主轴轴承的径向游隙不可调整，所以主轴精度较差。虽然可以利用轴承的内径和轴径的过盈配合来消除轴承的径向游隙，但每个轴承的内径和径向游隙不是一个固定值，因此设计和加工时很难给准轴径与轴承内径的配合公差。
缺点2：在市场上很难买到国产或进口的C、D级或P4、P5级的推力球轴承，机床生产厂常用普通级轴承替代使用，此举也影响了主轴精度的提高。
轴承径向游隙不可调的主轴结构适用于一般精度的普通机床，不适用于对主轴精度要求较高的机床。
第二种：轴承径向游隙可调的主轴结构
主轴前轴承采用一个P4级圆锥孔的双列圆柱滚子轴承和1个P4级的双列向心推力球轴承组合。该主轴使用圆锥孔的双列圆柱滚子轴承承受径向切削力，使用双列向心推力球轴承承受轴向切削力和部分径向切削力。
主轴后轴承一般采用1个P5级圆锥孔的双列圆柱滚子轴承。
圆锥孔双列圆柱滚子轴承的内圈和配合轴径均为1：12圆锥，用圆螺母锁紧轴承则使轴承在轴向产生一个位移并使轴承的内圈膨胀，从而达到减少或消除轴承径向游隙的目的。
这种主轴结构的优点：主轴精度较高。在主轴前端面φ230mm直径上测量主轴的端面跳动值为0.010mm。在主轴前端φ230mm外圆上测量主轴的径向跳动值为0.005mm。第二种结构的主轴精度比第一种主轴精度提高50%左右。
这种主轴结构的缺点：
主轴的加工工艺较复杂，主轴的装配也需要有经验的工人操作才能使主轴精度达到理想数值。
三、刀具进给深度的控制
不同直径的螺杆需要加工螺旋槽的深度也不同，螺旋槽的深度从几十毫米到一百多毫米不等，刀具进给机构大约需要旋转进刀几千圈才能完成一个螺杆零件的加工。
由于刀具进给机构在刀具旋转的同时还要完成进刀动作，所以一些在普通机床上常用的机械、电气控制切深的方法都不适用于单螺杆加工机床。
单螺杆加工机床的刀具进给机构采用以下不同的方法都可以达到控制进刀深度的目的。
第一种：摩擦离合器和电气开关控制刀具进给深度
它的控制原理是刀具切深增大时刀具进给机构的负载扭距增大，使刀具进给机构传动链中的摩擦离合器打滑，一个机械连杆机构触发电气开关并发出声、光信号提示操作者，此时操作者人工操作断开刀具进给机构的动力。
这种控制方法的优点是：控制方法简单及零件加工和操作不受突然断电的影响。
缺点是：加工不同直径的螺杆需要调整摩擦离合器压紧碟簧的预紧力。
由于每个螺杆材质的密度、硬度存在细微差异及刀具锋利程度也存在差异，因此使这种控制方法的精度不太准确，可能导致螺杆螺旋槽的深度公差过大。
第二种：用电磁离合器、编码器组合控制刀具进给深度
刀具进给系统中，装有电磁离合器及一对用于检测刀具转动圈数的测速齿轮和一个编码器。
结论：本文从四个方面介绍了国内现有单螺杆加工机床的布局和结构，并把优缺点一一列举出来，由于压缩机生产厂的单螺杆加工机床和机床资料对外保密，以上介绍难免有片面、不妥之处，因此仅供单螺杆压缩机生产厂参考。
Dedicated to the single screw compressor machine updated the Introduction
Abstract: This paper describes four areas from the existing single-screw machine layout and structure, and put out the advantages and disadvantages of the list, because of the compressor plant single-screw machine tools and machine tool external Security information, the above introduction there is inevitably one-sided and wrong, and are therefore single-screw compressor for the production of reference works.
First, introduce the layout of machine tools
Decide the size of the compressor displacement of the stars round, screw diameter, mesh size and the size of the center distance, so different in diameter screw, machine tool spindle and the rotary center are also different. To meet the processing of different diameter screw, single screw Currently the layout of machine tools in general there are several options.
The first is: machine tool rotary tool spindle center and the center distance for the fixed
Machine tool rotary tool spindle center and the center distance for the fixed, can not adjust the center distance. Processing of several of the screw diameter on the center distance required several different specifications of the machine.
Advantages: simple structure of the machine.
Disadvantage: each machine can only process a specification of the screw, when the market on a certain specification requirements when the screw compressor, resulting in a machine, other machine idle.
The second: the machine tool spindle box for rotary
Processing screw machine according to the size of the diameter at the processing before a point of rotating spindle box. Spindle box that the machine can turn on a machine at the above-mentioned article on the use of the improvements, with the first structure of a machine tool is basically the same.
Advantages: the structure of machine tool easy to adapt to a variety of specifications of the processing screw.
One disadvantage: after the rotating spindle box and the tool spindle turning center line distance between the center line of accurate measurement difficult.
2 disadvantage: after the rotating spindle spindle box and the front surface of the rotary cutter centerline distance between the reduction of the larger diameter of the screw processing is limited.
The third: the machine tool spindle box for horizontal mobile
Box at the bottom of the spindle and the base there is arranged between the rectangular sliding rail, spindle box perpendicular to the direction of movement of spindle centerline and perpendicular to the centerline of the tool rotation. Through the power of the spindle box spline shaft to the base of the tool feed mechanism.
Screw diameter, according to the size of the processing in the processing of the previous round by hand to the body put into the screw spindle box moved to the appropriate location, and then screw the spindle box on a fixed base. Spindle box available from the mobile Grating detection, position error ± 0.005mm.
Horizontal spindle box can be used as a mobile machine can process diameter φ95 ~ φ385mm any kind between the screw specifications.
Φ95 ~ φ385mm processing because of the diameter of the screw, causing the front surface and the tool spindle rotation the distance between the center line of the margin is too large, the actual application in the design specifications of the machine into two, a φ95 ~ φ205mm machine screw diameter Another φ180 ~ φ385mm machine screw diameter.
Advantages: a variety of tools to adapt to the specifications of the processing screw, each screw specifications need not be provided with the appropriate machine tools.
Disadvantage: the structure of machine tools and machine tool assembly of the two kinds of more complex machine tools, machine tools than the cost of two kinds of machine tools before the high.
Second, introduce the structure of machine tool spindle
The level of machine tool spindle box on the main axis and the base of the vertical axis determines the degree of precision was the precision screw machining, at the same time screw compressor at a speed of thousands of high-speed rotary switch, the accuracy of the screw will be less so that the compressor have a fever, vibration, low efficiency, such as wear and tear situation quickly.
Currently available single-screw machine spindle structure of the program has the following two.
The first is: bearing radial clearance is not adjustable spindle structure
Before spindle bearing out the use of one pairs of cylindrical roller bearings and thrust ball bearing combination of both, the main use of double row cylindrical roller bearings under radial cutting force, the use of two ball bearings to bear axial thrust cutting force.
After the general adoption of the spindle bearings out one pairs of cylindrical roller bearings or a ball bearing to the heart.
Main advantages of this structure: the main axis of the processing and assembly of simple, low cost.
One disadvantage: because the main axis of the radial bearing clearance can not be adjusted so poor precision spindle. Although the use of bearings and shaft diameter fit to eliminate the radial bearing clearance, but each bearing diameter and radial clearance is not a fixed value, so it is difficult to design and processing to the quasi-axial-radial and bearings with bore tolerances.
2 disadvantage: it is very difficult to buy in the market of domestically produced or imported, C, D or P4, P5 class thrust ball bearings, machine tool manufacturing plant commonly used alternative to the use of ordinary class bearings, which also affected the accuracy of the enhance spindle.
Bearing radial clearance adjustable spindle structure do not apply to the general accuracy of the general machine tools, does not apply to require a higher accuracy of the spindle of machine tools.
The second: the radial bearing clearance adjustable spindle structure
Before the adoption of a spindle bearing P4 class of double row tapered hole cylindrical roller bearings and a P4-class double row ball bearing thrust to the combination of heart. The use of the spindle hole of the double row tapered cylindrical roller bearings under radial cutting force, the use of double row ball bearing thrust to the heart to bear part of the axial and radial cutting force cutting force.
Spindle bearings generally used after a P5 class of double row tapered hole cylindrical roller bearings.
Double row tapered hole cylindrical roller bearings with inner ring and shaft are tapered 1:12, bearing lock nut with a round led a bearing in the axial displacement of the inner ring bearings and expansion, to reduce or eliminate Bearing radial clearance purposes.
Main structure of such advantages: high precision spindle. At the front spindle diameter φ230mm noodle on the end measuring spindle Beat value of 0.010mm. Φ230mm cylindrical spindle at the front end on the radial axis measurement value of Beat 0.005mm. The second structure of the spindle of a precision spindle accuracy than the first about 50% improve.
Main disadvantage of this structure:
The principal axis of the more complicated process, the spindle assembly also has the experience necessary to make the workers to operate the spindle achieve the desired numerical accuracy.
Third, the depth of the tool feed control
Required different processing screw diameter spiral groove depth is also different from the depth of the spiral groove mm from dozens to more than 100 millimeters range around the tool into the institutions required to feed the thousands of ring rotation in order to achieve a screw machining .
Feed because of the tool in the tool rotating at the same time achieve motion feed, so on a number of general machine tools used in mechanical, electrical control method of depth of cut does not apply to single-screw machine.
Single screw machine tools give agencies into the following different methods can be feed to control the depth of purpose.
The first is: friction clutch and electrical switches to control the depth of the tool feed
Its principle is to control depth of cut increases the tool cutter feed mechanism increases the load torque so that the tool feeding mechanism of the friction transmission chain slipping clutch, a mechanical linkage concurrent silent trigger electrical switches, optical signal prompted operator, when manual operator to disconnect the tool into the power sector.
The advantages of this control method are: the control method is simple and spare parts processing and operational power from the impact of a sudden.
Disadvantage are: processing of different diameter screw to adjust the clutch friction discs pressed the preload spring.
Material because of the density of each screw, and the hardness of the existence of subtle differences in the degree of cutting tools sharp differences exist, thus the accuracy of this control method was not too accurate, may lead to screw spiral groove depth tolerance is too large.
The second: use of an electromagnetic clutch, encoder control tool into the mix to the depth of
Tool feed system, equipped with electromagnetic clutch and a tool for detecting the number of rotating ring gear and a gun encoder.
It is a tool of control principle刚接触hand screw surface encoder to start counting switch, then start counting counting device, when the rotary tool to pre-set number of laps when the cutting depth is reached, the electromagnetic clutch automatic off open to the power tool into the concurrent silent, optical signal parts prompted the operator has finished processing.
The detection device through the digital display shows the number of feed circles or feed. Torn off and the electromagnetic clutch, the tool does not only into the rotation with the vertical shaft to the sport.
The advantages of this control method are: the depth of the spiral groove screw tolerance control more accurate, because of several significant table shows the depth of processing, or want a few laps and the depth of processing or circle the number of operations is also very intuitive and user-friendly.
Disadvantage are: electrical control of machine tools at the same time more complex parts of this control method at the processing plant, if a sudden power failure, the prior data set will be lost.
If you add in the electrical control of the battery to power at the early-dimensional detection devices to maintain the job, the problem can be resolved.
Four, the control gear drive space
Single screw machine screw in the processing, due to the spiral groove in the rotary tool and the workpiece rotation to complete the synthesis process. Just cut into the workpiece when the tool in the tangential direction of rotation has been going on a greater resistance knife, cutting tool at the workpiece to be cut when the role of the spiral groove, the tool in the tangential direction of rotation has been going up against a smaller knife and even by the spiral groove thrust workpiece.
Because there is a box-hole processing machine tool, gear and other processing error, the tool axis of rotation of the drive space is too large, large amount of so-called open.
Detect drive way too much space is a fixed power input shaft and output shaft rotation shaking, in the case of the transmission structure of conventional design and manufacture of machine tools, the transmission output shaft angle space at more than ten degrees to the dozens of degrees. Transmission gap caused by too large spiral screw groove surface then there is obvious marks, thus affecting the machining accuracy of the screw.
Upon completion of the assembly machine tool axis of rotation of the drive space is too large, in fact are subject to various errors gear, creating a backlash of the gear is too large.
Machine tools in the mechanical transmission gear are used regardless of the accuracy of a few of the class, the designers take into account the gear manufacturing error, processing error box center distance, temperature, lubricating oil film thickness, the assembly error and other factors, machine design must ensure that transmission gear A certain amount of backlash, backlash decide the size of the gear tooth thickness tolerance size.
Single-screw machine has the Main Drive from other machine tool structure specificity. In order to reduce transmission or reasonable gap single-screw machine tools currently used by the following two ways.
The first is: the installation at the output shaft brake
Tool at the output shaft rotating the location of cylindrical symmetry with radial brake, brake stand up to the tool front-end of the cylindrical rotary output shaft, brake for spring preload.
The working principle of the brake is generated by the friction brake to increase the output shaft damping, reducing the sensitivity of the rotation axis.
Are: brake and easy does not change the structure of the original machine tool structure, the method of indirect reduction to achieve the purpose of drive space, in practical applications there is a certain effect.
One disadvantage: the pre-spring brake tool because of the cylindrical output shaft to exert a greater radial force, in fact increases the load machine torque, resulting in increased motor power at the same time gears, bearings to accelerate wear and tear.
Disadvantage 2: pre-spring brake because of the output shaft of the cylindrical tool to exert a greater radial force on the possible geometry of the tool output shaft a negative impact on accuracy.
Conclusion: This article describes four areas from existing single-screw machine layout and structure, and put out the advantages and disadvantages of the list, because of the compressor plant single-screw machine tools and machine tool external Security information, the above introduction there is inevitably one-sided and wrong, and are therefore single-screw compressor for the production of reference works.
管道支吊架 Pipe Supports and Hangers
6.1 管架零部件 Attachment of Support
管托 shoe
管卡 clamp
U形夹（卡） clevis
锻制U形夹 forged steel clevis
支耳；吊耳 lug; ear
耳轴 trunnion
止动挡块 shear lug
托座 stool
托架 cradle
带状卡 strap clamp
夹板，导向板 cleat
可调夹板 adjustable cleat
角板；连接板 gusset
筋；肋 rib
支承环 ring
加强板 stiffiener
底板 base plate
顶板 top plate
翅片式导向板 fin
预埋件 embedded part; inserted plate
垫板（安装垫平用） shim
锚固件；生根件 clip
预焊件(设备上) clip (on equipment)
聚四氟乙烯滑动板 PTFE sliding plate
连接板 tie plate
连接杆 tie rod
限制杆 limit rod
带环头拉杆 eye rod
连接杆 connecting rod
杠杆 lever
支撑杆 strut
定位块 preset pieces
间隔管（片、块） spacer
滑动吊板（吊架顶部用） sliding traveler(for hanger)
滑轮组 tackle-block
钢索，电缆 cable
木块 wood block
鞍座 saddle
裙座 skirt
软管卷盘（简） hose reel
管部附着件 pipe attachment
6.2 管支架型式 Type of Pipe Support
支承架 resting support
滑动架 sliding support
固定架 anchor
导向架 guide
限制性支架；约束 restraint
限位架 stop
限位器 stopper
定值限位架 limit stop
二维限位架 two-axis stop
往复定值限位架 double-acting limit stop
定向限位架 directional stop
吊架 hanger
弹簧架 spring support
弹簧托架 resting type spring support
弹簧吊架 spring hanger
恒力吊架 constant hanger
重锤式吊架 counter weight hanger
弹簧恒力吊架 spring constant hanger
弹簧恒力托架 resting type spring constant support
滚动支架 rolling support
弹簧支撑架 spring bracing
减振器 snubber
液压减振器 hydraulic snubber
减振装置 damping device
缓冲简（器） dash pot
刚性吊架 rigid hanger
6.3 标准及通用型支架
标准管架 standard pipe support
通用管架 typical pipe support
悬臂架 cantilever support
三角架 triangular support’
支腿 leg
Ⅱ形管架 Ⅱ-type support
L形管架 L-type support
柱式管架 pole type support
墙架 support on wall
可调支架 adjustable support
管墩，低管架 sleeper
特殊管架 special support
管道支吊架图 piping support drawing
6.4 管架安装
背至背 back to back
钻孔 drill
长孔 slot; slot hole
放气孔；通气孔 vent hole
灌浆；水泥砂浆填平 grouting
组装；装配 assembly
攻螺孔 tapped.tapping
自由滑动 free to slide
跨度 span
对中心；找正 alignment
切割使适合 cut to suit
修饰使适合 trim to suit
伸出长度（指预埋螺栓） extrusion
液压试验中，对试验液体要求是：试验液体一般采用水，需要时也可采用不会导致发生危险的其它液体。试验时液体的温度应低于其闪点或沸点。奥氏体不锈钢制容器用水进行液压试验后应将水渍去除干净。当无法达到这一要求时，应控制水的氯离子含量不超过25mmg/L.
试验温度：
1． 碳素钢、16MnR和正火15MnVR钢制压力容器液压试验时，液体温度不得低于5℃，其它低合金钢制容器液压试验时液体温度不得低于15℃。如果由于板厚等原因造成材料延性转变温度升高，则需相应提高试验液体温度。
2． 其它钢种制容器液压试验温度按图样规定。
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建筑工程项目分承包管理方式的探讨 闻迅 关键词：项目、项目管理、总承包商（总包商）、分承包商（分包商）、建筑市场分包体系、矩阵式组织结构、合同管理、目标管理提要：随着建筑工程项目化管理更加深入，项目管理的科学方法应用更加广泛，建筑业向更高层次发展，建立完善的建筑业专业分包体系，将是我国建筑市场发展的必然趋势，笔者认为在目前的环境中，采用集权式的公司发包，授权项目的实施管理，采取矩阵式的组织管理结构，着重于合同管理和生产过程目标管理的方式，是较为有效的分包管理形式。 一.项目的概念及特征、项目管理、建筑工程项目管理特点（一）项目的概念 “项目”的提法由来以早，建筑业及军事领域最早运用项目管理的工具和方法。项目的定义有多种，但都围绕着项目的基本概念而归纳的。ISO10006中规定项目为“具有独特的过程，有开始和结束时间，由一系列相互协调和受控的活动组成。过程的实施是为了达到规定的目标，包括满足时间、费用和资源的约束性条件。” 美国项目管理协会PMI在PMBOOK（2000版）给出的定义为：“项目是为了完成某一独特的产品或服务而作的一次性努力。” 德国国家标准DIN69901地应项目为“项目是指总体上符合下列条件的具有唯一性的任务。（具有预定目标，具体的时间、财务人力和其它限制条件，具有专门的组织）。” （二）项目的特征 1.独特和唯一性的任何项目所处的时间、地点、环境、参与的人、目的均各不相同，他们因项目二临时联系起来。就象“人没有相同的两个人”一样，是独特和唯一的。另外项目在进行过程中，所发生的事件、冲突和矛盾都不相同，所以对参与项目的人或物来说，每个项目都是独特的。因其在发展变化上的独特性，项目也是唯一的。 2. 生命周期项目均具有明确的开始时间和结束时间。一般的，在这其中任何项目均具备四个阶段，即概念、计划、实施、结束四阶段，就如生命的孕育、出生、成长、成熟、消亡一样，项目周而复始，每个阶段都有相应不同的特点。现代，又将四阶段扩展为五阶段：“概念、计划、实施、结束、运行和维护”。 3.明确的目标项目活动均是“为了完成某一独特的产品或服务”，所以项目具有明确是目标，如建筑工程的质量、工期、成本文明施工目标。目标之间可能是相互矛盾和约束的，但又统一于项目内，目标具有约束性，项目活动就是要在受着许多约束和限制的条件下，完成诸多相互冲突矛盾的，但又不得不完成的任务。项目管理的结果就是在目标间求得一种平衡的结果。目标可以分解，总的目标由多层次的分目标组成。 4.系统组织项目是一个整体，项目各个组成部分相互影响，相互约束，形成一个完整的系统，并且项目都是在有组织的背景下产生的，如建筑工程项目都是在某建筑公司的组织内被组织和管理的，所以项目是一个有组织的整体系统。 5.不确定性项目是独特的，且是唯一的，项目发展没有固定先例。
Construction project management sub-contracting of Wen Xun Keywords: project, project management, general contractor (general contractor), sub-contractors (subcontractors), the construction market sub-system, matrix organizational structure, contract management , the target management Abstract: With the construction projects in greater depth of management, project management of more extensive application of scientific methods, the construction industry to a higher level of development, set up a sound system of construction specialist sub-contractors will be building market development in China are the inevitable trend, I think in the current environment, the use of centralized contract-style company, authorized the implementation of the project management, to take the matrix-style organization and management structure, focused on contract management and production process management by objectives approach is a more effective management of subcontractors form. 1. The concept and characteristics of the project, project management, construction project management features (1) project concept "project" was the origin of a morning, the building industry and the military field, the earliest use of project management tools and methods. The definition of the project has a wide range, but they all revolve around the basic concept of the project and summarized. ISO10006 in the project as "a unique process that has the beginning and end of time, by a series of coordinated and controlled the activities of the composition. The process of implementation are in order to achieve the objectives set, including the needs of time, cost and resource binding conditions. "American Project Management Institute PMI at PMBOOK (2000 version) give the definition as:" projects are completed for a unique product or service for a one-time effort. "German National Standard DIN69901 and should project as a" project are refers to the following conditions are met on a unique mission. (with the intended target, a specific time, financial and other restrictions on human conditions, with specific organizations). "(b) the characteristics of the project 1. a unique and uniqueness any item in which the timing, location, environment, participation of people, the aim should vary, they are linked to project the Second Provisional. As "people do not have the same two people", is unique and unique. In addition the project during the course of events, conflicts and contradictions are not the same, so for example people or things involved in the project, each project is unique. At the development and changes on its uniqueness, the project is also unique. 2. The life cycle of projects have specific start and end times. In general, and in this one of any of the items are available in four phases, namely, the concept, planning, implementation, ending four stage of life such as breeding, birth, growth, maturity, like the demise of the project cycle, each stage has a corresponding different characteristics. Modern, will be extended to four stages of five stages: "the concept, planning, implementation, end of operation and maintenance." 3. Specific objectives of the project activities are "for the completion of a unique product or service," so the project with a clear goal, such as construction quality, duration and cost goals of civilized construction. Between the objectives may be contradictory and constraints, but are united in the project, the target of a binding nature, the project activity is to much suffering and limit the conditions, the completion of the many contradictions in conflict with each other, but had to be completed task. The results of project management is to achieve a balance between the objectives of results. Goals can be decomposed, the overall target from multi-layered composition of the sub-goals. 4. System project is a whole organization, project the various components of the mutual influence, mutual constraints, form a complete system, and projects are organized at the background, such as construction projects are at a construction company organizations are organized and managed, so the project is an organized system as a whole. 5. Uncertainty projects are unique, and is the only project the development of no fixed precedent.
