1．Introduction 1
2．Skopos Theory 2
2.1 Theoretical foundation of Skopos Theory 2
2.2 Basic aspects of Skopos Theory 3
2.2.1 Basic rules of Skopos Theory 3
2.2.2 Adequacy and equivalence viewed from a Skopos perspective 4
3．The purposes and functions of advertising 6
3.1 Definition of advertising 6
3.2 The purposes and functions of advertising 7
4．Common problems existing in advertising translation 9
4.1 Problems of language 9
4.1.1 Linguistic untranslatability 9
4.1.2 The misuse of words 10
4.2 Cultural differences 11
4.2.1 Differences in cultural allusions 11
4.2.2 Different attitudes towards animals 11
5．Basic strategies of advertising translation under the guidance of Skopos Theory 12
5.1 Strategies on language 12
5.1.1 The Use of rhetorical devices 12
5.1.2 Change the original form 13
5.2 Strategies on culture 14
5.3 Strategies on consumer’s psychology 14
6．Conclusion 16
Acknowledgements 17
References 18
1．Introduction
In this competitive modern world, advertising has become an important part of our daily life. The furious international exchanges and the severe competition involve an increasing need for advertising and thus of advertising translation. Cross-cultural advertising translation has become a hot topic in the world of translation. It has a great influence on the international trade, products intercourse and so on.
An increasing number of scholars of translation, both at home and abroad, have different opinions on advertising translation. However, the study of advertising translation is far from being satisfactory. As a break with the traditional translation ideas and a vital complement to translation studies, the functionalist concept of translation put forward by some German scholars has opened up a new perspective to the study of advertising translation. According to Vermeer’s “Skopos Theory”, any form of international action may be considered as an action, and any action has its purpose.
This thesis is under the guidance of Skopos Theory. So the concrete objectives of the thesis are: (1) Making a comprehensive introduction and analysis of Skopos Theory, clarifying the theoretical basis for this thesis. (2) Discussing the definition, purpose and function of advertising before going on further reach. (3) Finding and analyzing some problems in the current advertising translation. (4) Advocating some specific and practical strategies in advertising translation through providing some new examples on the basis of this guiding theory.
2．Skopos Theory
2.1 Theoretical foundation of Skopos Theory
Before we get down to the basic aspects and rules of Skopos Theory, it is necessary for us to approach the nature of translating from the perspective of functionalism. Skopos Theory is founded on the basis of the action theory introduced by Holz-Manttari who conceives translation as an intentional action.
“The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative approach to the analysis of translation” 73.
Skopos Theory has also taken its root in the action theory. As Vermeer defines, human action is an intentional, purposeful behavior that takes place in a given situation 77. And this is what is called the model of translational action, which views translation as a purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction. It also focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Translational action focuses a lot on producing a target text which is functionally communicative for the receivers.
In Vermeer’s words, it is “an intentional, interpersonal, partly intercultural interaction based on a source text” [3]18. For a deeper study on how Skopos Theory differentiates itself from the traditional translation theories, it is necessary for us to take a closer look at the basic aspects of Skopos Theory.
2.2 Basic aspects of Skopos Theory
2.2.1 Basic rules of Skopos Theory
In Skopos Theory, translation is viewed
not as a process of transcending, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos, derived from Greek, is used as the technical term for the purpose of a translation.
There are basically three rules constituting the Skopos Theory of Vermeer, namely the Skopos rule, intratextual coherence and intertextual coherence. The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule and the other two are subordinate to the Skopos rule. Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in the following way:
Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function[3]29.
While, the Skopos rule does not offer any general principle to translators about how to do his translating job, what translation strategy to adopt, or what translation style to choose. They can only be determined according to the specific Skopos ready to be achieved by a specific translation. All the choices the translator makes must be guided by and must serve the Skopos. In this sense, this rule is helpful in solving the eternal dilemmas of dichotomy existing dynamic in the translation methods such as free vs. literal translation and vs. formal translation.[3]29 The choice of the translation strategies depends on the purpose for which the translation is needed.
The second rule is the coherence rule, or in Vermeer’s terms, “intratextual coherence”, which means that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation. Intratextual coherence means the receiver should be able to understand it, and it should make sense in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received. In the translating as a cross-cultural interaction, the target text receivers in the target culture remain a very important factor; if the target text fails to make sense to the target receivers, the Skopos of the overall translation action will prove vain. In this sense, a communicative interaction can only be successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation or even “part of the receiver’s situation” [3]32.
So in the translation of advertising, the contextual factors surrounding the translation should not be ignored. These factors include the culture of intended readers of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, in particular, the function that the text is to perform in that culture for those readers.
The third rule of the Skopos Theory is called “intertextual coherence” or “fidelity”. Such a kind of fidelity is involved in the concept of translation in the Skopos Theory. It refers to intertextual coherence between the translated text and the source text. Since a translation is regarded as an offer of information (target language text) about a preceding offer of information (source language text) in the Skopos Theory, there must be a certain kind of relationship between the target language text and the source language text[3]34.
With the fear that a measureless deviation from the source text may occur in the name of the Skopos, Nord suggests the “function plus loyalty” maxim as a supplement for the Skopos Theory to prevent “radical functionalism” [4]11. Different from fidelity that calls for the intertextual coherence between source and target text, loyalty refers to the responsibilities held by the translator for the initiator, the source text producer and the target receiver. This rule limits the range of reasonable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation brief between translators and their clients. Under this rule, it is illegal for the translator to produce the target text entirely at his client’s will, without taking into consideration the factors of the source text producer and the target receivers.
2.2.2 Adequacy and equivalence viewed from a Skopos perspective
Traditionally, equivalence is followed as the guiding principle of translation process. Assuming this, a translator’s task is to provide the target-text addressees with the same amount of information as the source-text producer. However, source-text addressees and target-text addressees belong to different cultures and language communities, which mean equivalence is hard to completely achieve. Based on the concept of equivalence, Reiss developed her idea on “adequacy” which gives a new view of the translator’s task “what the translator does is to offer another kind of information in another form.”[5]123
According to Reiss, adequacy refers to the “goal-oriented selection of signs that are c
onsidered appropriate for the communicative purpose defined in the translation assignment” 12.
In contrast, equivalence is a static, result-oriented concept describing a relationship of “equal communicative value” between two texts or on lower ranks, between words, phrases, sentences, syntactic structures and so on. For Reiss, the general concept is adequacy, not equivalence. Equivalence may be one possible aim when translating but it is not held to be a translation principle valid once and for all [6]28.
3．The purposes and functions of advertising
3.1 Definition of advertising
The word “advertising” derives from the Latin word “advert ere”, which means “the way of drawing attention from the public to something and persuading it to a certain direction.” [7]7 Since the word “advertising” became popular in the commercial world in the seventeenth century, definitions about it have been diverse in version. With economic development and social progress, the meaning of advertisements is also changing and increasingly enriched. According to Webster’s Dictionary, advertising is the activity of calling something to the attention of the pubic, especially by paid announcements.
Harris and Seldon define advertising as “a public notice designed to spread information with a view to promoting the sales of marketable goods and services.” [7]7
American Marketing Association (AMA) defines advertising as “the non-personal communication of information usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature about products, services, or ideas by identified sponsors through the various media.” [8]1
Association of National Advertisers (ANA) states that advertising is “a paid form of mass communication, aiming at offering information, altering others’ attitudes to advertised products, inducing others to get action and at last making profits for the advertisers.” [9]120
From the above definitions of advertising, we can come to the conclusion that advertising should have the following features:
First, advertising should include the basic information about the product or service and it has a certain target audience. Second, advertising depends on all kinds of mass media (e.g. newspaper, magazine, radio, television, Internet), at least a medium used. Third, advertising is persuasive in nature, and it aims at persuading people that the advertised product will certainly benefit them. Forth, advertising is non-personal which indicates that advertising is directed to groups of people rather than individuals and message appears in the mass media. Fifth, advertising is a type of mass communication between certain sponsors and a certain target audience.
According to the purpose and perspective of this thesis, I tentatively define advertising as follows: advertising is one form of marketing. It urges people to purchase a product, service, or accept a new concept for the sake of sales of promotion. Meanwhile, advertising is an effective way for product producers to communicate the message of their products or services to the potential consumers. It tries its best to provoke the interest of potential consumers and induce them to try new products or suggest reuse. Besides, advertising can help consumers be familiar with products or services and provide opportunity to choose.
3.2 The purposes and functions of advertising
From the above definition of advertising, we can learn the purposes and the main functions of advertising. It is no doubt that the ultimate purpose of advertising is to persuade potential consumers to make a choice between the same products of different brands and take action to buy a certain product or service. The American Marketing Manager’s Handbook points out that an advertisement should cover four basic purposes: AIDA, which represents four words respectively: Attention, Interest, Desire and Action [10] 13-14.
There are many functions of advertising, and the basic function of advertising is to convey information about products, services or concepts to the public. Consumers can be aware of the products and services newly provided through advertising. What’s more, consumers may be influenced to some degree during their choice of products or services. The informative function of a
dvertising is one of the most important functions as it can boost sales, strengthen competition, and hasten production and connect with the market
Advertising is an art of persuasion. As Tanaka Keiko points out, “information is subordinated to persuasion” [11]36. The purpose of advertisers conveying information to audience is not for increasing the audience’s knowledge but for selling their goods successfully. They just want to convince the audience that their products are better than other similar ones in some aspects, and if the audience takes action to buy these products they can be well satisfied because their products are of high quality. So we can say that the ultimate purpose of an advertisement is to influence people and persuade them to buy products or services advertised, and the other functions are subordinated to it and serve for advertising’s ultimate purpose.
Further more, it has the function of communication. Along with sales promotion, public relations and personal selling, advertising is one of the vehicles employed by a business or an organization to communicate with its customers. Advertising had been regarded as “news about products or services” before 1890s [12]91, which had been the main function of advertising before the 20th century when products were not abundant enough. It provides the customers with the latest information about certain goods or service to the public. Therefore, it is a form of mass communication. It conveys information of products, services and concepts to consumers. It plays a role of connecting advertisers with consumers so as to achieve communication between them in the market place.
Besides, it has the Social function. Advertising has a number of social roles: it increases productivity and raises the living standard; it reflects fashion and design trends, and contributes to the cultivation of our aesthetic consciousness and taste, etc. It is quite clear that advertising has directly or indirectly enlarged sales strengthened competition, improved production and management, and linked up market conditions, in short, it has developed economy.
To reach all these functions, all advertisers face a great challenge: how to design or create a successful advertising. Lund put forward five tasks for advertising as AIDCA. That is to say, the language of advertising should be able to “attract attention, arouse interest, stimulate desire, create conviction, and get action.” [13]49. To put it more clearly, a good advertising should be able to attract consumers’ attention, arouse their great interest toward the product or service advertised, stimulate their desire to buy, help them to memorize the product or service, and finally encourage and convince them to take purchasing action.
4．Common problems existing in advertising translation
Due to the ongoing reform and opening policy, advertising in recent years has led to the emergence of a large quantity of the advertising translation. As such materials play an important role in culture and information exchanges, the quality of advertising translation has got more and more attention from the translation field. However, in the research, the author still finds out there exists some mistakes in the advertising translation. Such mistakes are either due to translators’ carelessness or due to their incapability. Thus, the translation they yield contains a lot of mistakes or inappropriateness. Some translators do not have a practical theory to guide their process of translation. They think if they finish translating the materials word for word, then they do the job. They are not aware of the cultural differences or don’t take readers’ response into serious consideration. As a result, the translation of advertising is in urgent need of improvement. Those mistakes will, of course, affect China’s international image and our advertising to an extent. There are many problems existing in present advertising translation, while the typical ones may the problem of language and culture.
4.1 Problems of language
4.1.1 Linguistic untranslatability
There are many differences existing in phonetic, lexical, grammar and semantic between source language and translated language. Undoubtedly, it causes the difficulty to find a perfect expression to reappear the source language’s characteristics. We may ignore the form or implication of the translation and losing the sense of beauty. That is linguistic untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs typically in the cases that an ambiguity peculiar to the source text is a functionally relevant feature, esp. in the cases of figure of speech, such as puns, homophone. Some advertising language uses the humorous and interesting pun to advertise the products. The translated text is required to reach the same effect as the original text, which is difficult, even impossible. The double meanings of the
pun are difficult to translate, sometimes are impossible to translate.
Example1: 默默无蚊(闻)的奉献(mosquito-repellent incense ad)
Example2: 骑(其)乐无穷,乐在骑(其)中(motor-bike ad)
Example3: 月季花油，肴肴(遥遥)领先(鲜)。
蚊and闻, 骑and其,肴肴and遥遥, 先and鲜share the same pronunciation, but have different forms and meanings. They are so difficult to translate accurately and faithfully.
4.1.2 The misuse of words
Accuracy in advertising translation is basically lexical. The translator could apply the grammar flexibly and expertly within limits to strengthen the logic of the text. But the words must be accurate. How to convey the information appropriately to customers? The most important is that translators should be careful and be sure each word used is correct. Sometimes the misuse of words in advertising translation is fatal to the sale of products.
For example, 本品已向中国人名保险公司进行质量及食品卫生责任保险——老四川五香牛肉干。(This product has been to be insured for the foodstuff quality and hygiene by the China People’s Insurance Company.)
This advertising aims to indicate that there would be no problem or danger after eating the food. But “be to do sth” means that the producer has been trying to get this product insured but not actually realized. Besides, “insure” must be followed with “against”. It can be corrected as: “This product has been insured against any food accident.”
Some products are good enough that people won’t forget them after using. So introductions and translations make an issue of sales. And correct using of words shows its importance.
4.2 Cultural differences
4.2.1 Differences in cultural allusions
Allusion is the quoting of remarks of past famous men, or mentioning of well-known events or myths in literature. The use of allusion has the same rhetorical effect as epigram. One more effect is that, as the classical allusion is well-known with high content of literature, using them can help portray an image of well-learnt business persons [14]27. However, such allusion-employed advertising would not bring the same function to the target reader in the target market. Thus the translation should be adaptive to the target reader with its own culture.
Example 1 红豆(shirt)——Love-Pea shirt（not red-pea shirt）
Example 2 Nike——耐克（不是奈可或者耐科）
Nike is the name of Victory goddess in Greek myth. And we all know that “耐” means “wearable” and “克” means “victory” in China. It seems a coincidence that Nike is the name of goddess of victory. Undoubtedly, it is a perfect translation.
4.2.2 Different attitudes towards animals
It is known to all that animals in different culture have different symbols. These words are heavily culture-loaded words, so in advertising translation, this group of words always causes problems and misunderstandings. Therefore this group of words belongs to conflict words, and translators often make mistakes in these words.
Example 1 鸳鸯——Lovebirds (not Mandarin Ducks)
Example 2 喜鹊——Lucky bird (not Magpie)
Example 3 He just killed the last dragon! ——柯达胶卷，属于你的家庭欢乐（而不是他杀了最后一条龙）
“Dragon” is the symbol of an evil and cruel monster in the Western culture. The kill of the last dragon symbolizes victory of venture and courage. However, in Chinese culture,“龙”is something holy and propitious, and it symbolizes the spirit of the Chinese people.
5．Basic strategies of advertising translation under the guidance of Skopos Theory
The purpose of advertising translation is to attract the attention of the consumers, inform them the advantages of the advertised product, arouse their buying desire, and finally make purchase. It is clearly Skopos-oriented. Therefore, which strategy should be used is totally decided by the final purpose of commercial advertising. As long as it can help realize the desired purpose of the translation, the strategy would be successful. To the best of my understanding, the following three strategies are the most useful and successful.
5.1 Strategies on language
In order to leave a deep impression on the consumer, advertising must be readable, eye-catching and attractive. In this way, the image, quality and value of the product or service can be remembered and the consumer will be stimulated to buy. So the language of advertising plays an important role in influencing and persuading the consumer to take action.
5.1.1 The Use of rhetorical devices
Rhetorical devices are very efficient linguistic means for both Chinese and English advertising to achieve the special purpose. There are a great number of devices such as Personification, Simile, Metaphor, Repetition, Parody, Pun and so on. It is no exaggeration to say that the success of an advertisement has much to do with proper use of rhetorical d
evices as well as original use of words, phrases, and sentences.
For example: 磁旧换芯，用心换心(IC Card ad)
In this example, both pun and parody are applied to in the advertising. It is easy to find that “磁旧换芯”is a copy of a Chinese idiom“辞旧迎新”，which means to say good-bye to the outmoded chip for an IC card, since“辞”and“磁”，“新”and“芯”，are homonyms in Chinese, and they have the same pronunciation. In the latter part of the advertising,“心”has two implications. It can refer to“心”(the heart) and“芯”(the chip), since“心”and“芯” are also homonyms. So“用心换心”can be understood in the following ways: a) to renew the old chip; b) to serve the consumers heart and soul. With the help of these two rhetorical devices, this advertising creates a very humorous touch and makes the advertising coherent, readable and fascinating.
5.1.2 Change the original form
In advertising translation, a translator should bear in mind the fact that the utmost goal should be the fulfillment of the communicative purpose. In order to achieve this goal, one should exhaust every possible means to attract readers. Sometimes, the original form has to be changed in the target text, and imitation is one of the ways of doing so. By imitation, we mean to transform the original ads with the help of target expressions familiar to the intended readers, as popular set phrases, proverbs, poem lines and four-character words. For example, the four-character compounds usually convey profound sense in very simple structure with strong rhythm and rhyme.
Example1: Safe, easy, quick & with fun! ——安全便捷，妙趣横生！
Example2: Nescafe, good to the last drop！ ——雀巢咖啡，滴滴香浓！
Example3: Sense and Simplicity（Philips） ——科技在内，简易在外！
In the third example, if we translate the advertising literally as “理性与简单”, the consumers may feel confused and incoherent. As long as we think carefully, we could find that the advertiser tries to inform the consumer that this product is full of intelligence, but its design is plain and concise, so consumers can use it easily and conveniently. Therefore, the product has rich sense inside and at the same time a concise appearance outside. So the translation “科技在内,简易在外” is not only attractive but also logical and coherent.
From these examples we could find that the Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule in advertising translation. The intratextual coherence and intertextual coherence are subordinate to the Skopos rule, but they are also quite vital and necessary. To sum up, the perfect employment of the basic rules of Skopos Theory makes perfect advertising translation.
5.2 Strategies on culture
People in a given culture share certain idea about the “correctness” of a peculiar act of behavior or a particular mode of expressions. The differences between cultures also involve different thought patterns, aesthetic values, etc., on a deep level that are culture-specific. According to skopos Theory, the target-language-culture oriented strategy is the basic strategy of advertising translation. Therefore, the translator should not ignore the target culture.
For example：One drop for beauty; Two drops for a lover; Three drops for an affair.
1. 一滴是为了美，两滴是为了情人，三滴足以招致一次风流事
2. 法国名牌香水，男士挚爱的香水
Sexiness is a popular topic in Western countries while in China it is usually a taboo. If the advertising of Flordric perfume is translated literally into Chinese，it will be unacceptable in China. That is because in Chinese moral concept, sex is closely associated with obscenity and debauch, and sex attraction out of marriage is generally indecent and unpardonable. In addition, Chinese Advertising Act also regulates that any content and scene related to obscenity are not allowed in advertisements[15]42. In order to enter the Chinese market and persuade Chinese consumers to buy it, target-language-culture oriented strategies are taken in translating this advertisement. The original advertisement is adapted as“法国名牌香水，男士挚爱的香水”, which not only caters to the Chinese psychology of worship in French perfume but also shows its particular quality. As a result, Flordric perfume enters Chinese market successfully and has been favored by a lot of Chinese people.
5.3 Strategies on consumer’s psychology
Different cultural backgrounds have different consuming psychologies. For instance, French Women drink mineral water to keep their slender figure; German women drink it because it is healthy; English women drink it because it is considered trendy. Therefore, advertising must be adapted to stress these different marketing objectives, and to be specific, different countries have different psychological needs of consumers.
If you
live in China for years, you can easily find that some characters are favored by the Chinese consumers very much, such as“宝” 、“贝” 、“金” (treasure), “乐” 、“喜” (pleasure), “福” (happiness), “发”(fortune), “达”(eminence), “顺”(smoothness), “利” (profit ) , “美” (beauty, perfect) and so on. These characters and phrases can easily strike the Chinese consumers’ heart and stimulate their desire to buy the advertised products. In order to cater for Chinese consumer’s psychology, many well-known multinational corporations adopt these strategies. For example:
BMW (automobile)宝马 Ford (automobile)福特
Mazda(automobile)马自达 Amway(medicine) 安利
Mild Seven (cigarette)万事发 Adidas(sport product)阿迪达斯
Rococo(chocolate) 乐可可 Cadbury(chocolate)吉百利
BEINMATE(baby product)贝因美 7-up(drink)七喜
Coca Cola(drink)可口可乐 Holsten( beer)豪顺
Tesco (super market)乐购 P&G(makeup)宝洁
DANONE(biscuit) 达能 Goldlion( tie)金利来
Lay’s Potato Chips(potato chips) 乐事薯片
Similarly，when we translate the Chinese advertising, we should also pay more attention to the foreign consumer’s psychology.
For example:藕粉,营养丰富,科学精制而成。——Lotus root starch , it is very nutritious , a scientifically and highly finished product.
This product is not favored by foreign consumers because the translation cannot cater for the consumer’s psychology. In English, the “starch” means a white substance that is found in quite large amount in bread, potatoes, etc. It implies that this product contains a lot of sugar and will make people fat after eating it. Besides, “scientifically and highly finished” may cause the misunderstanding that the product is man-made, because western people prefer natural food.
6．Conclusion
Nowadays, advertising has become an important part of our daily life. With the rapid development of international business and multinational companies, there is a growing need for efficient international advertising communication and translation. As a branch of translation study, advertising translation has its own laws and demands a systematic study. This thesis tries to study the common problem and basic strategies of advertising translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory.
Since it is important to meet the expectation of the target language consumers as to what advertising should be like, the evaluation of advertising translation relies completely on the target audiences’ responses. In order to achieve the intended purpose of buying action from target consumers, a specific translation theory, Skopos Theory, was proposed.
In this thesis, a tentative study of advertising translation is made to provide a basic strategy for advertising translation. The Skopos Theory is not perfect, but it is brave enough to challenge the traditional translation ideas and makes great contributions to translation studies. The Skopos Theory sheds new lights on the translation field and frees people from the traditional disputes on concepts (such as equivalence) by providing them a new way of thinking.
From what have been mentioned above, we can come to a conclusion that the Skopos Theory is the inherent guiding principle for advertising translation, and the translator can employ it as the guidance when translating advertising. Skopos Theory throws light on the translation of advertising and the Skopos rule is the most important criterion in judging the quality of the advertising translation when its nature is taken into consideration. In short, perfect employment of Skopos Theory makes perfect advertising translation. So it is advisable to make full use of Skopos Theory in advertising translation. Only in this way, can we translate the advertising perfectly and achieve the ultimate purpose of advertising: to persuade potential consumers to make a choice between the same products of different brands and take action to buy a certain product or service or accept a new concept successfully.
Acknowledgements
I am greatly indebted to my supervisor, Xia Junsuo, who, in spite of his being fully occupied, devoted much time and energy to revising and commenting on this thesis. Without his strict guidance, constant encouragement and valuable suggestions, this thesis would not have taken its present shape.
I also would like to express my sincere thanks to all the other teachers in the Languages and Literature College of Zhe Jiang University of Science and Technology, from whom I have undoubtedly benefited a great deal. In the past for years, they enlightened me and helped me in one way or another.
Last but not least, my heartfelt gratitude goes to my family and my friends for their concern and encouragement during my thesis writing and in my life. They are the source of confidence and strength for me to ove
rcome difficulties in study and life.
The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.
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