桥梁论文英文文献

刚好我也在做毕业设计 把我的给你用吧Traditional Construction ProceduresAs mentioned before, construction under the traditional construction procedure is performed by contractors. While they would like to satisfy the owner and the building designers, contractors have the main objective of making a profit. Hence, their initial task is to prepare a bid price based on an accurate estimate of construction costs. This requires development of a concept for performance of the work and a construction time schedule. After a contract has been awarded, contractors must furnish and pay for all materials, equipment, power, labor, and supervision required for construction. The owner compensates the contractors for construction costs and services.A general contractor assumes overall responsibility for construction of a building. The contractor engages subcontractors who take responsibility for the work of the various trades required for construction. For example, a plumbing contractor installs the plumbing, an electrical contractor installs the electrical system, and an elevator contractor installs elevators. Their contracts are with the general contractor, and they are paid by the general contractor.Sometimes, in addition to a general contractor, the owner contracts separately with specialty contractors, such as electrical and mechanical contractors, who perform a substantial amount of the work require for a building. Such contractors are called prime contractors. Their work is scheduled and coordinated by the general contractor, but they are paid directly by the owner.Sometimes also, the owner may use the design-build method and award a contract to an organization for both the design and construction of a building. Such organizations are called design-build contractors. One variation of this type of contract is employed by developers of groups of one-family homes or low-rise apartment buildings. The homebuilder designs and constructs the dwellings, but the design is substantially completed before owners purchase the homes.Administration of the construction procedure often is difficult. Consequently, some owners seek assistance from an expert, called a professional construction manager, with extensive construction experience, who receives a fee. The construction manager negotiates with general contractors and helps select one to construct the building. Managers usually also supervise selection of subcontractors. During construction, they help control costs, expedite equipment and material deliveries, and keep the work on schedule. In some cases, instead, the owner may prefer o engage a construction program manager, to assist in administrating both design and construction.Construction contractors employ labor that may or may not be unionized. Unionized craftspeople are members of unions that are organized by construction trades, such as carpenter, plumber, and electrician unions, Union members will perform only the work assigned to their trade.During construction, all work should be inspected. For this purpose, the owner, often through the architect and consultants, engages inspectors. The field inspectors may be placed under the control of an owner’s representative, who may be titled clerk of the works, architect’s superintendent, engineer’s superintendent, or resident engineer. The inspectors have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets the requirements of the contract documents and is performed under safe conditions. Such inspections may be made at frequent intervals.In addition, inspections also are made by representatives of one or more governmental agencies. They have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets legal requirements and have little or no concern with detailed conformance with the contract documents. Such legal inspections are made periodically or at the end of certain stages of construction. One agency that will make frequent inspections is the local or state building department, whichever has jurisdiction. The purpose of these inspections is to ensure conformance with the local or state building code.Following is a description of the basic traditional construction procedure for a multistory building.After the award of a construction contract to a general contractor, the owner may ask the contractor to start a portion of the work before signing of the contract by giving the contractor a letter of intent or after signing of the contract by issuing a written notice to proceed. The contractor then obtains construction permits, as required, form governmental agencies, such as the local building, water, sewer, and highway departments.The general contractor plans and schedules construction operations in detail and mobilizes equipment and personnel for the project. Subcontractors are notified of the contract award and issued letters of intent or awarded subcontracts, then are given, at appropriate times, notices to proceed.Before construction starts, the general contractor orders a survey to be made of adjacent structures and terrain, both for the record and to become knowledgeable of local conditions. A survey is then made to lay out construction.Field offices for the contractor are erected on or near the site. If desirable for safety reasons to protect passersby, the required to be removed from the site are demolished and the debris is carted away.Next, the site is prepared to receive the building. This work may involve grading the top surface to bring it to the proper elevations, excavating to required depths for basement and foundations, and shifting of utility piping. For deep excavations, earth sides are braced and the bottom is drained.Major construction starts with the placement of foundations, on which the building rests. This is followed by the erection of load-bearing walls and structural framing. Depending on the height of the building, ladders, stairs, or elevators may be installed to enable construction personnel to travel from floor to floor eventually to the roof. Also, hoists may be installed to lift materials to upper levels. If needed, temporary flooring may be placed for use of personnel.As the building rises, pipes, ducts, and electric conduit and wiring are installed. Then, permanent floors, exterior walls, and windows are constructed. At the appropriate time, permanent elevators are installed. If required, fireproofing is placed for steel framing. Next, fixed partitions are built and the roof and its covering are put is place,Finishing operations follow. There include installation of the following: ceilings; tile; wallboard; wall paneling; plumbing fixtures; heating furnaces; air-conditioning equipment; heating and cooling devices for rooms; escalators; floor coverings; window glass; movable partitions; doors; finishing hardware; electrical equipment and apparatus, including lighting fixtures, switches, transformers, and controls; and other items called for in the drawings and specifications. Field offices, fences, bridges, and other temporary construction must be removed from the site. Utilities, such as gas, electricity, and water, are hooked up to the building. The sit is landscaped and paved. Finally, the building interior is painted and cleaned.The owner’s representatives then give the building a final inspection. If they find that the structure conforms with the contract documents, the owner accepts the project and gives the general contractor final payment on issuance by the building department of a certificate of occupancy, which indicates that the completed building meets building-code requirements.传统的施工程序众所周知，在传统的施工程序中进行施工的承包商。尽管他们想满足业主和建筑设计师的要求，但是最终还是以赚取利润为主要目标的。因此，他们最初的任务是对编写投标价格的建筑成本进行准确的估计。这就需要进行前期调查的工作并且做出施工时间表。等合约批出后，施工方必须提供所有材料并支付其费用，设备，电力，劳动力。业主此时需要进行必要的监督。一个总承包商承担一个建筑整体的责任。从事分包的承建商则需承担建造工程所需的各个工作。例如，管道承包商安装水管，电业承办商安装电气系统，电梯则由电梯承包商安装。他们与总承包商签订合同，费用由总承包商支付。有时候，除了一个总承包商，还有各种专业承包商，如电气和机械承包商，执行工作时需要与业主签订合同。这种承包商被称为间接承包商。他们的工作，由总承包商协调，但它们都是由业主直接联系。还有些时候，业主可以使用设计建造方法同时兼有设计和建筑施工单位的职能。这些单位被称为设计建造承包商。这方面的一个类型的合同聘用的变化是由一户住宅或低层住宅建筑群的开发。在房屋建筑设计和建造的住房，但设计之前需要由购买房屋的业主完成。施工过程管理往往是困难的。因此，一些业主会去寻求专家的协助，这些专家被称为专业施工经理，他们具有丰富的施工经验。施工经理与总承包商进行谈判，并选择其中一个项目。施工经理通常还监督分包商。在施工期间，它们有助于控制成本，加快运送设备和材料，并保持工作的进度。在依法行政，协助设计和建设的情况下，业主可以选择从事建筑项目经理。建筑承包商雇用的劳动力，一般有大工和小工。大工再建筑工程中从事技术活，如木工，管道工，工会成员和电工工会，小工则执行了分配给他们的工作。在施工期间，一切工作都要验收。因此，业主通过建筑师和监理经常进行督查。可能是名为工程员，建筑师或驻地工程师。作为业主的代表实地视察。核查人员必须确保工程符合合同文件的要求，并在安全的条件下进行的责任。这种检查可作出重复。此外，验收还是需要一个或多个政府机构的代表。他们必须确保工程符合法律要求，并负责检查与合同文件是否一致。这种视察一般定期或在某些阶段施工结束以后进行。地方或国家建设部门具有管辖权。这些检查的目的是确保符合当地或国家的建筑规范。以下是传统多层建筑施工的基本程序。建造开始后合同授予开发商，业主可要求开发商开始施工之前签约给或之后签约发出书面通知的同时另一部分工作继续进行。紧接着施工方根据需要获取建筑许可证，例如当地的建设，供水，污水处理，政府机构和公路部门。总承包商的计划和进度详细施工作业以及动员项目设备和人员。分包商得到通知后，做出签订合同的意向或授予分包合同书，然后给出在适当的时候进行通知。在施工前启动，总承包商要进行的一项调查就是邻近结构和地形，这些都要记录在案，并要熟悉当地情况。这项调查结束以后，随即进行布局建设。承建商的现场办事处都建在施工现场或附近。为了安全起见，必须从脚手架上移除的东西，产生的碎片都要运走。下一步，该网架是为建设工程准备的。这项工作为地下室开挖和基础开挖的深度，以及公用事业管道转移找到正确的标高。深挖掘，土方支撑，底部排出。建筑开始于基础上，然后是承重墙和结构框架的施工。梯子，楼梯，或电梯的安装，可让施工人员往返于各个楼层。此外，可安装卷扬机来运送材料。由于建筑高度的上升，管道，电力管道和线路安装以及永久地板，外墙，窗户和构造的影响。在适当的时候，永久的电梯安装。再需要的情况下可以安装防火卷帘。其次，屋顶等地方也需要安装。精加工工序安装有包括以下内容：天花板，瓷砖，墙板，墙壁镶板，水管装置，加热炉，空气调节设备，加热和冷却室装置;自动扶梯;地板，窗户玻璃;活动板，门;电气设备和仪器，包括照明灯具，开关，变压器，控制器，遵照项目的图纸和规格。外地办事处，围栏，桥梁和其他临时建筑，公共设备，如天然气，电力管道，水管，都连接到建筑上。最后，是建筑物内部的打扫和清洗。业主的代表，会给建设工程作最后检查。如果他们满意并认为符合合同文件，那么业主接受该项目，并交给总承包商的一个占用证书，这表明，总承包商已完成建设，建设部门再根据建筑规范的要求发放最后付款。

知道上面传不了，先给你看两个题目：Cost-effectiveness related to the earthquake resisting system of multi-span bridges成本效益与地震有关的多跨桥梁抵抗系统Vibration, control and monitoring of long-span bridges—recent research, developments and practice in Japan日本振动,控制和监测研究,发展大跨度桥梁最新研究与实践上面文献来自Elsevier 数据库 文献不会有Word格式，一般是pdf，你可以转化为Word；桥梁类文献都会有图片的，你不需要的话自己去掉就行了；另外文献一般不会有10-30页这么多，你需要的话我可以传给你，或者你查到其它满意的文献不方便下的话可以找我，我可以通过教育网下载。查外文文献可以在以下数据库中查到：APS美国物理学会期刊数据库Conference Proceedings Citation Index - Science (CPCI-S)Emerald期刊库数据库Essential Science Indicators数据库Encyclopedia Britannica OnlineElsevier 数据库Ei CompendexEBSCO 数据库ICE（英国土木工程师协会）全文期刊数据库I Mech E（英国机械工程师协会）数据库INSPEC科学文摘数据库IEEE/IEE(IEL)数据库ICONDA(国际建筑数据库)Intel Technology JournalIndex to Scientific and Technical ProceedingsJournal Citation Reports on the WebJSTOR西文过刊全文库科技报告数据库LexisNexisLWW数据库MathSciNet美国科学研究出版社免费期刊Marklines全球汽车信息平台（Marklines Automobile Information Platform）MIT & IEEE-Wiley eBooks电子书数据库Nature Geoscience电子期刊数据库nature期刊电子版的回溯档Nature系列电子期刊NTIS数据库netlibrary(ebsco电子图书)网络图书馆NSTL国家科技图书文献中心OSA美国光学学会Optics Infobase数据库OCLC First SearchOVID 数据库OSO牛津在线学术专著数据库OUP牛津期刊数据库PQDD博硕士论文文摘数据库PQDD学位论文全文数据库Royal Society of Chemistry电子期刊数据库REASON睿则恩教育视频数据库Springer电子图书数据库SpringerProtocols实验室指南SpringerMaterials数据库SAGE Knowledge电子书数据库SAGE Premier电子期刊SEG( Society of Exploration Geophysicists) Digital LibrarySocial Sciences Citation Index,Arts & Humanities Citation IndexSciFinder ScholarScience OnlineSpringer LinkSIAM数据库TRANSPORT(交通运输文摘)Taylor & Francis OnlineTaylor & Francis社科期刊数据库Tech science press电子期刊数据库Taylor & Francis科技期刊数据库WorldSciNet世界科技期刊网Ulrich s Periodicals Directory乌里希期刊指南Web of Science(SCI)Wiley-Blackwell电子期刊数据库卓越联盟图书馆知识共享服务平台

我也是土木专业的，把以前我用的那个发给你参考一下。去看邮箱吧。

看来你是想结题答辩时使用吧。 这样的话，可以做一个PPT，在里面以文字、图片、视频的形式来表达你的研究性学习成果，这样效果会比较好。 如果按照你说的话，PPT的内容框架已经比较明确了，分类、作用、特点、例子都可以很方便的搜索到。至于例子，除了很有名的古今中外的桥梁，如中国古代的赵州桥，当代的南京长江大桥，国外的如美国金门大桥，英国伦敦大桥等之外，你应该尽量举一些你们当地的比较有代表性的桥梁，甚至需要实际考察一下，可以拍照、摄像来采集一下相关资料，放在PPT中。还可以把你们活动的照片也放进去，内容会显得更丰富一些。 如果要做的，我觉得你最好还是自己做，因为研究性学习强调的是自主学习，自主探究，自主体验，如果全部让我或别人做，那么研究性学习的初衷就没有了。你说是吗？因为做课件本身也是研究性学习的重要一部分，这一环节也是提高你研究性学习能力的重要形式。所以不要随便把它转让出去。虽然这样简单方便了，但最后自己什么也没有收获到，是不是很遗憾的事情呢？！ 说了这么多，如果你还有具体的制作课件的困难，也可以问我，我可以帮你想办法！祝你顺利！

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