英文论文对比研究怎么写

Name is translation often occurred in ingredients. It seemingly small component, but it is bad to can cause many misunderstandings and then. Translation even difficult difficult in its profound cultural connotations, and the source language and target language different expression and accept culture way. To appropriate and scientifically translation gaudentia, must comprehend the profound cultural connotation and to follow certain translation principles, make even in both languages can be correctly understood, and do not break the source language characteristic. This paper tries to Chinese name cultural differences, naming conventions comparison, Chinese and western literature works named after people cultural connotation and so on several aspects to explore even translation principles. A Chinese and western even cultural differences Name and name from 1.1 arranged sequencing see Chinese and western names cultural differences Have surnamed famous common features of the eastern and western people, but in the name of the permutation order is inverted: Chinese (li si) name permutation order is: the name is prior, name behind, While the westerners (George Bush) name permutation order by contrast, name prior, surname last. This surname and name different permutation order is east of traditional culture in different names. Name embodied on the code, and embody family name is individual code of Chinese and western names. In this name and name permutation order is orientals in "universality and individuality" relationship held by different idea reflected. In general supreme, "three cardinal guides emphasizes so-called p-five" of Chinese traditional culture, which is inevitable represents the fathers, family's "surname" prior, who represent the individual, human symbols -- "name" last. By contrast, westerners are stress individual character, respect personal independent personality and subject consciousness, therefore represent personality conception of "name" were put in front, and represents the common surname "concept" rear. The Chinese to "surname" hotly-contested three-week dash across, inspect if "sacred", While the westerners to "surname" is watching very light, very casually. Second, the Chinese and western naming conventions comparison 2.1 named principle Chinese name of total principle is: the form significance is beautiful, choose lucky words: such as "happiness", "wealth", "ting" etc, Or choose refined characters, such as "jia", "ag.bone" etc. We compare the Anglo-American name: Nancy (Nancy, meaning "elegant", Helen (Helen, meaning "sunshine", Frances (Frances, meaning "freedom", it can be seen in principle differences. Naming names from the west principle can be reflected in this sentence, that is "take a good name is better than riches", But Chinese naming principles might as well as "auspicious life, summarize grave life". 2.2 naming convention Chinese naming rich and colorful, reflects the nation in different social, different era of ideas, meanwhile reflected people's aspirations, ideal, etc. (1) the birth horoscope name. This is the Chinese a named custom, birth horoscope and gold, wood, water, fire and earth "five elements" to calculate, see lack a printing line is used the word name, like "f", "water", "sawasaki sichuan, etc; RunTu" Westerners natural don't believe this sets. (2) to be born time fame. Such as "chunsheng", "dawn", "song", Western naming, no this method. (3) ranking order name. Such as: "zhang SAN", "li si", "the king", The Anglo-American children ranked according to metal, such as: "ranking arrangement for the Gold (long children Gold) : Gold and Silver (Silver for children times) : ShiEr eph. (4) parents surname name. Such as: father's song, mother's name Korea, daughter named SongHan (harmonics). (5) to parents look forward to name. Such as: LiFuQin, Ruth (rose), meaning "beauty". (6) birthplace name. Such as: WangHuSheng, Scott (Scott), etc. . (7) on animals and plants for life. Such as: dragon, wild goose, tiger, chicken, rumei, Ephraim; etc. British and American names: started (Rose), Lily (lilies), etc. In addition, there are many Chinese to fame, use fixed degress word mean generation degress, make a cycle, from generation to generation. Three, sino-foreign literature works named after people cultural connotation of perspective Works of literature creation, character name selection is very important. Because in the characters, according to the purpose of writing, in order to deeply reveal characters' personalities, indicating that the fate of the characters, and end always carefully and cautiously for character select name. And, as in the names and nico panov society in his book "the more famous said, master, the more for his work carefully choose name hero." this means its connotation more rich, translation should be more ZiZhenGouZhuo, certain translation guiding principle is necessary. To sum up, the Chinese and western names reflect the differences between Chinese and western culture differences. Names is the carrier of culture and the mirror image, names and cultural change together. In symbiosis named after people more reflects different customs. Literary works named after people usually have clew character and the connotation of destiny. In translation names to follow "name from master", "conventional", "brief" principle of literary works middleman. The name of the translation and processing according to different circumstances, follow the coexistence and free translation, "" principle and" translate "refer to the significance of names principle.

隐喻的中西方文化差异Abstract: Metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a way of thinking, which is one of the basic methods for human survival and cognition. It is rooted in language, thought and culture. Through the analysis and comparison of the use and concept of metaphor in different countries, we find that its universality and commonality of the metaphor as a basic human cognitive activities. However, metaphor in different languages reflects a different way of thinking and behavior and different cultural patterns. Owing to the different two modes of thinking and culture, there are some differences in understanding and formation that can not be ignored. Therefore, this paper will discuss the questions above.Keywords: metaphor, cross-cultural differences, translation. 1. Preamble Metaphor is a common phenomenon, a large number of people use metaphor to express his feelings and ideas. British scientists rhetoric Richards (IARichards) once said, "We have day-to-day in almost every conversation in three sentences may be a metaphor." According to statistics, life around the use of 4,700,000 new metaphor, 2,140,000 stereotypes of metaphor. Research in recent years, there is a great metaphor. This article introduced in the definition of metaphor on the basis of summing up the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western metaphor, and that its culture, precisely because of the prevalence of metaphor, how to translate metaphor has become a very important issue in the latter part of the article is aimed at The translation of metaphor put forward a translation of the three strategies. This paper studies aimed at trying to comparative analysis of English and Chinese in a large number of day-to-day language of metaphor to express, find out the differences and similarities, in order to be able to accurately translate the article in good metaphor to explore a little. This article is about the metaphor from the point of view to explore the differences in the way Thinking allows us to a deeper understanding of language, culture, the relationship between thinking and can more clearly understand the different ethnic language, culture, way of thinking, and so on On the nature of translation. 2. Metaphors in Chinese and Western studies In 1980, Lakoff & Johnson (George Lakoff & Mark Johnson) made a "living metaphor" (Metaphors We Live By) of the book, a modern metaphor to open a new chapter in the school. Domestic academia on the "metaphor" This is also a review of the system, such as Lin Wu's book "Study abroad metaphor Looking at the" beam-setting "metaphor research," Li of China and India "The main subjects Metaphor" and so on. However, the Chinese metaphor for the academic study of rare. "Chinese scholars on the study of metaphor, I am afraid the real contribution should be through the metaphor of the Chinese characteristics of research and study, through the metaphor of the Chinese and other languages in the comparative study of metaphor, metaphor for the establishment of a more general theory of the strong, and even unique The basis. "Lin Wu in the book" metaphor of the basic research the status quo, and the focus of the trend "in the main text, put forward a model of cultural metaphors with the relationship:" The language of metaphor is the emergence of expression into the system, which not only reflects the psychological Structure, but also reflect the different cultural models also play a role. " 2.1 metaphor in the relationship between Chinese and Western cultures 2.1.1 relationship Correspond to (corresponding) refers to the relationship between the two languages, English and Chinese in the meaning and metaphor in the use of the same meaning in the culture and image, and so on and-one mapping. This is because the survival of mankind itself, as well as all the external conditions, including the geographical environment, climate change, and the whole of human society and cultural background are certain there is a common, which formed a common humanity of their own and the outside world on many issues. In the "angry" mood, the English are angry that physiological responses, such as: grind one's teeth. (Teeth), bare one's teeth. (Ziyaliezui) an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth), reflecting the Chinese culture on the basis of common experience. 2.1.2 non-correspondence English-Chinese metaphor, after all, rooted in two different languages on the soil, resulting in very different cultural backgrounds, fully corresponds to the few metaphors, the vast majority do not have common cultural identity in order to form the corresponding non-(non-corresponding ) Relations. Non-relationship metaphor can be roughly divided into three categories: 2.1.2.1 Vehicle counterpart, Yu Yi does not correspond to English and Chinese in some cases there is the same as a metaphor, but in their own language and culture in the meaning of the metaphor means is different, even different. Peacock in the Chinese culture is auspicious, a symbol of beauty, especially the Dai people to express jumped Pavaner desire to better their own. If the Chinese people will be likened to a peacock, it means that beautiful light. However, in English, peacock (Peacock) is a symbol of pride, often interpreted as arrogance, love to show off. For example, They were eager to take the young peacock down a peg. (They want to pressure a pressure that the arrogant young guy's momentum). 2.1.2.2 counterpart Yu Yi, the vehicle does not correspond to English-Chinese two nations due to their differences, from different angles to look at things the same, it will be a different analogy. As a result both English and Chinese language there is a different vehicle, but Yu was referring to was basically the same as the meaning of the case, that is the same kind of non-correspondence. Such as: a person described as the hearts of anxious, restless, Chinese is "ants on the hot pan" and English is "a cat on the bricks". There are similar: To kick down the ladder. Guohechaiqiao. 2.1.2.3 Yu Yu Yi and do not correspond to Some of the metaphors Yu-Yu has a meaning and it refers to the language and culture are closely related, in another culture often can not find corresponding Yu and Yu Yi, which resulted in a culture known as the default Phenomenon. For example: in English "my rib" I am referring to Yu's wife, it comes from the "Bible" story, that is, Adam (Adam)'s wife Eve (Eve) God is with a piece of Adam's rib made. The Chinese did not, "the Bible" cultural background, and there was no analogy with rib habit, so the formation of a corresponding gap. Similarly, "ugly duckling" (Ugly Duckling) refers to the metaphor will get ahead of Little, "early bird" refers to the diligent Yu, in the words into Chinese language, culture, as a result of the default, can not find a corresponding relationship between metaphor . 2.2 Chinese and Western cultures in the common metaphor Metaphor and culture to a large extent, human beings have a common understanding, rooted in the people's own day-to-day experience. In this connection, often between different ethnic groups are the same. Both English and Chinese language in a lot of abstract thinking that the metaphorical expression is the same. For example: the human child in the period to form a position on the concept of input in that direction in the form of many of them easily understood, including the position expressed by metaphor, which has become a fixed pattern of thinking. For example: The term direction (up, down) to describe people's social status, physical, emotional, and other abstract concepts to the case when the good is up; Sad is down. We Chinese are also not difficult to find a similar sentence: "Gas Prices "," enhance the social status "and" vision "and" depressed. " Since the objective laws of nature with the relative unity of different cultures to understand the nature of the course is similar to the cognitive experience. 2.3 in the metaphor of the difference between Chinese and Western cultures As the English-Chinese geographical and cultural differences, living in two different cultures in practice there are a lot of differences, and different life experiences and let people understand the objective world, a different language carries different nationalities Cultural characteristics and cultural information. Understanding of metaphor is not out of socio-cultural backgrounds. For example, social and cultural impact of the color words is deep-rooted, some color words in different cultures in an entirely different meaning, has a distinctive feature of our national culture. Such as: English, said in green "inexperienced" and "shallow knowledge", such as: "a green hand", "I was very green when I started working there." The Chinese like to express the meaning of the word is "yellow" Such as: "Huangmaoyatou" and "flower girl". Cultural background knowledge is the metaphor to create a rich source of thinking, as the Eastern and Western cultures are different, metaphors in English and Chinese applications there are also significant differences. 2.4 The metaphor of the cross-cultural differences between Chinese and Western influence Language is a cultural change in the development of the complex, subject to political, economic, historical, environmental and other factors. Chinese and Western styles are different, but in many ways to infiltrate interaction and integration, language differences and cultural metaphor for the inevitable impact is complex and diverse. 2.4.1 metaphorical expression of cultural conflict Different nationalities in the world to observe a different perspective and ideas, different cultures there are a lot of conflict or inconsistency metaphor. If the animal metaphors, in English Long (dragon) is a kind of evil, will belch out smoke monster. "Bible", the dragon is the devil, is a symbol of evil and terror, there is a terrible vicious meaning. The Chinese dragon is in power, the auspicious symbol of Chinese traditional culture, the Chinese have "Wangzichenglong", "descendants of the Dragon." The same analogy in different cultures, different meaning, of two cultures "Dragon" to give a different connotation. 2.4.2 differences in living conditions caused by differences in metaphor In English is a lot of metaphor and marine-related, such as: all at sea (at a loss what to do); drink like a fish (drinking cow); fish in the air (Shuizhonglaoyue); give up the ship (give up). In Chinese, there are a lot of the horse or cattle pose a metaphor, such as: "a willing ox" (a willing horse) Gan means to serve the community; "old ox" (a working horse) refers to the hard work; "bragging "(Talk horse), and so on. This is due to different geographical location and natural environment caused by different cultural metaphor. Britain is an island, ultimately, dependent on the sea, and China is a large agricultural country, farming culture deeply feudal society. 2.4.3 different religious and cultural differences arising from the metaphor Religious culture of human culture is an important part of it by referring to the nation's religious beliefs, such as the formation of the sense of culture, "the Bible" in the story, with its language and meaning has become a feature of daily life in the West in terms of . For example, power of the keys (the keys to the kingdom of heaven; the rights of the Pope), in the right church, but in the wrong pew (in general is right, but not the details), and so on. Chinese culture and Buddhism, Taoism and more affected by the impact of Confucianism, the Chinese, there are a lot of related argot. "Jiehuaxianfo"; "临时抱佛脚"; "做一天和尚撞一天钟" and so on. It is due to the diversity of culture, resulting in the differences between English and Chinese metaphor. This difference to the cross-cultural communication has brought the impact. As a foreign language students, do not understand the difference between metaphor and language will make mistakes, sometimes mistakenly made good as pleasant, caused by either one or both of the conversation unpleasant; also sometimes mocked as a praise. When a native language other operators do not understand the language contained in the cultural differences, it is often difficult for such language to accurately convey the meaning of the understanding, difficulty to the cross-cultural exchange. 3. Metaphor of the three methods of translation The translation of metaphor not only accurately and effectively convey the original language, but also loyal, accessible, complete reproduction of the original language and cultural connotation and significance. But in the West because of cultural differences and different, so the translation of metaphor in English on the need to consider not only its literal sense, and so on, but also in the West should pay attention to their cultural differences. American Eugene Nida said: "Translation is the exchange between the two cultures. The real success of the translation, even more familiar with the two cultures is more important to master two languages. Because only in terms of its role in the culture In the background will only be meaningful. "Therefore, the translation of metaphor to combining Chinese and Western cultures, and cultural backgrounds to leave the translation, can not be achieved between the two languages of the real exchange. 3.1 Literal Translation The so-called "literal" is asked in the language when conditions permit, in the translation to maintain the original content, but also to maintain the original form, in particular, to maintain the original metaphor, the image of the nation, and other local color. In the literal translation method to maintain the original expression of the culture and at the same time, target enriched the vocabulary and expression, such as: "a Pandora's box" (Pandora's Box); "chain reaction" (chain reaction). In the original text and asked the information contained in the same culture, we should adopt the literal translation method. (1) You are my sunshine, my only sunshine. : You are my sun, my only sunshine. In Chinese and English, the sun is warm, beautiful, in both languages, they disseminate information on culture are the same. As a rule, and asked in the original text in the form of grammatical structure, similar to the style or color on basically the same, the law should adopt the literal translation. (1) He is another Shylock. : He is also a Shylock. (Note: Shakespeare's Shylock is "The Merchant of Venice" in a very harsh mean business People. ) (2) To carry coals to Newcastle. : Coal to Newcastle. (Note: "Newcastle" is a British coal, coal is superfluous here.) 4. Conclusion Metaphor as a way to figures of speech or skills, a unique feature of grammar, which features make the sentence more flexible and constructive, but the United States. Is a metaphor to express more complex ideas and things, a powerful tool. Wherever and whenever people in their daily lives are often used metaphor. As Mr. Lin Zhuang said: "The metaphor is no longer expanding his knowledge and understanding of a passive process. To help us in the form of new knowledge, the metaphor has played an active role so that we can better a better understanding of the objective world." In English and Chinese Metaphorical significance of the difference is due to cultural differences between East and West, that mode of thinking, moral values and sense of difference. However, different cultural impact of what is the concept of metaphor, it is still a need to examine and address the problem. At the same time, in the metaphor of the process of translation must pay special attention to cultural differences. The best translation is to be able to accurately reflect the true meaning of the author, as well as its cultural and stylistic characteristics of the translation, that is, the translation of metaphor to make as much as possible the original language and to achieve the target language culture, and so on.

语言是思维的表达方式，不同的语言特征往往反映着不同地域、民族的思维习惯差异。下文是我为大家整理的关于英汉语言对比方面论文的 范文 ，欢迎大家阅读参考!关于英汉语言对比方面论文篇1 浅探英汉委婉语对比 摘 要： 本文应用范畴和构造手段对英汉委婉语进行了对比，通过对比英汉两种语言中的委婉语可以了解委婉语不仅是一种语言现象，更是一种社会 文化 现象。研究英汉委婉语的异同，有助于我们了解英语国家的社会风俗与文化。 关键词： 英汉委婉语 应用范畴 构造手段 一、引言 委婉语euphemism源自希腊语，由词头“eu”(good)和词干“phemism”(speech)构成，意为吉利之语(words of good omen)或优雅的说法(good speech)。委婉语是人类语言使用过程中的一种普遍现象。 通过对比英汉两种语言中的委婉语，我们可以了解委婉语不仅是一种语言现象，更是社会文化现象。委婉语的产生和发展是不同社会心理和语言因素共同作用的结果。委婉语反映了不同社会的发展、价值观、道德观和社会文化。 二、英汉委婉语应用范畴的对比 1.关于疾病的委婉语 生病是人们忌讳说的，因而东西方人常常用委婉语表达。在现代英语中，多用trouble婉指病，如heart trouble，lung trouble等。cancer的委婉语为“the Big C”或“long illness”，“terminally ill”。性病在英语里被称为“social disease”，“the French disease”，“certain disease”，“communicable disease”。汉语里人们把这种病称为“花柳病”、“富贵病”、“那种病”。汉语中，我们把“生病”称作“身体不好”、“身体欠安”，说“癌症”为“不治之症”。 而在身体缺陷方面，英语中婉称crippled(残疾)为physically handicapped(有生理缺陷的)或者用disabled，the inconvenienced表示crippled(瘸子)，用imperfect hearing(听觉不完美)代替the deaf(聋子)，用visually retarded(视力有障碍的)代替the blind(瞎子、盲人)。在汉语中，四肢残疾称“手脚不灵便、走路不便”，偏瘫称“半身不遂”等，秃顶婉称“谢顶”，耳朵聋称“耳背、耳朵不灵”。其他的还有“挨了一下子”、“划了个口子”等代称“受伤”。 2.关于性的委婉语 从古至今，各民族对性爱及与其相关的一些说法均持谨慎态度。随着人类的进步，也出现了一些开放性的说法，但其主流仍然采用回避、模糊、委婉的说法。英语中谈及性行为的委婉语有make love，to have sex with，to go to bed with etc.汉民族历来对性行为持封闭态度，谈及性行为时总是遮遮掩掩，含混模糊。汉语中表达性爱的委婉语有：同房、夫妻生活、房事、云雨之事、那种事等。在谈到性行为不检点时，英语中有free love，trial marriage，love companion，mixed singles等模糊与中性化的委婉语。汉语中则采用较严厉的贬义词抨击不检点的性行为。如男盗女娼、三者插足、寻花问柳、水性杨花等。对于妓女这一令人鄙弃的角色，西方社会给予了许多雅号，如，street walker，street girl，a woman of the town，pavement princess。谈到怀孕时，英汉两种语言均用委婉语，如英语很少直接说pregnancy(怀孕)，而说be in the family way，in an interesting condition，in a delicate condition，knitting little bootees etc.汉语则说，有喜了、要当妈妈了、身怀六甲等。 3.关于死亡的委婉语 古今中外，无论东西方，“死亡”都是一个避讳莫深的话题。人们在语言交际中尽量回避“死亡”二字而尽可能用委婉语代替。虽然英汉语中都有很多表示“死亡”的委婉语，但其中的差异具体表现在： (1)英汉表达死的委婉语在体现社会地位上大相径庭。中国经历了几千年的封建社会，封建制度对中国文化影响颇深。天子死称“崩”，诸侯死称“薨”，大夫死曰“卒”，士死曰“不禄”。西方人笃信__，认为人都是上帝创造的，故生来人人平等。英语中有一条古老的格言：Popes，Kings，beggars，and thieves alike must die.头衔和地位并不能免人一死。在死神面前，卑贱者和高贵者一律平等。 (2)由不同的宗教文化带来的表达差异。英语中die的很多委婉语来自《圣经》，如to go to a better place/world(到一个更美好的地方、世界)，to go to Heaven/Paradise(进入天国)。汉语中，入佛门的则说“迁化、圆寂、舍生”等;对信仰道教的则说“蝉脱、羽化、别驾、遁化”等。 (3)因价值观念的不同，英汉委婉语也不同。汉语中表“死亡”的委婉语还有褒贬之分，如壮烈牺牲、慷慨就义、为国捐躯等。英语国家的民族英雄常常受人敬仰，在英语里找到一些表示为国家或事业而捐躯的委婉词语，如bite the dust/the ground，fire one’s last shot，give one’s life，kiss the dust lay down one’s life。 4.有关“低微职业”的委婉语 在英汉这两种语言里，职业也是一个敏感的话题，因为它直接反映了一个人的社会和经济地位。为提高某些职业的社会地位，人们往往使用委婉语加以美化。这种现象在现代英语中俯拾皆是：把maid(女仆)或housekeeper(女管家)称为domestic help(家务助手)、day-help(白天帮工)或live-in help(住家帮手);一般服务员也升级为service manager(服务管理人员);butcher(屠夫)也改称为meat technologist(肉类技术专家);garbage collector(垃圾收集工)也称sanitation engineer(环境卫生工程师)。 现代汉语也有类似的职业委婉语，“理发师“成了“发型设计师”，理发店也随之改成了发型设计中心，“佣人”成了“家政人员”，“厨子”婉称为“大厨”、“大师傅”，用“服务员”代替“跟班、听差、跑堂”，“司机”代替“车夫”等。这些职业委婉语的使用一方面反映出人们文明程度的提高和追求高雅的心理趋势，另一方面体现出现代人的尊重意识和平等观念。 5.关于年龄上的委婉语 英语中有关老的委婉语很多，这与其文化密切相关。美国文化以个人主义为中心，讲究独立与隐私，子女成人后即与父母分居，老人生活孤单寂寞，于是老成了生活中的一大忌。因此，英语中有许多关于老的委婉语。如：senior citizen，advantage in the age，the mature，seasoned man等。 同时人们把晚年称为golden years(黄金年华)，养老院并非理想去处，也被婉称为a home for adults(成人之家)、a rest home(休养所)等。然而在中国，情况却正好相反，因为中国历来有尊老敬老的传统观念和价值观。在中国，“老”字带敬意，是资历和地位的象征。人们有时还倚老卖老，以老为荣。 如什么“老板、老大、老总、老师、老师傅”等。汉语中类似“年老”的委婉语也很多，如：古稀之年、高龄、高寿、桑榆、夕阳红等。同时，中国人还常把老字放在姓氏的前面或者后面，来称呼那些德高望重的老年人，以表尊重，如：老赵、王老。这体现了中国重视老人的价值观，而这些在英美文化中是不可思议的。可见，在不同的文化背景中，人们对同一事物的态度可能截然相反。 三、英汉委婉语构造手段的对比 由于英汉民族的语言不同，两种语言在文化、语言形式和 思维方式 等方面存在较大的差异。英汉委婉语的差别正是由于两种语言的语言特点差异所造成的，主要体现在英汉委婉语各自的词汇形态特点、语义特点和语法特点等方面。英语是一种拼音文字，通过语音及语法手段构成委婉语，或拼写形式的变异，达到委婉的目的，汉语却侧重于词汇手段。 英语委婉语的构成方式： (1)缩略(Abbreviation)：ladies代替ladies’ room，婉指女厕所。 (2)尾脱落(Apocopation)：lav代替lavatory(厕所)。 (3)首字母缩略(Initiating)：B.O.代替body odor(狐臭)。 (4)逆生(Backforming)：ecnop 代替ponce，婉指“拉皮条的人”。 (5)音节或字母重复(Reduplication)pee-pee=piss(小便)。 (6)音节扭曲(Phonetic Distortion)Cripes=Christ(基督)、God(上帝)。 (7)混合词(Blend word)：gezunda=This object“goes under”the bed.(那东西放在床底下，即“夜壶”)。 (8)小词(Diminutive)：heinie=hind end(后端，即“臀部”)。 汉语委婉语独特的构成方式： (1)拆字法。如：张俊氏道：“胡子老官，这事你作法便了，做成了，少不得言身寸。”(“谢”拆开后即“言”、“身”、“寸”)。(《儒林外史》第32回) (2) 歇后语 法。人们在做一些消极评论时，常会借助一些歇后语来缓冲过于直白的语气，以达到委婉的目的。比如骂人时说：茶壶里的水(滚开)。 (3)换字法。例如，北方话口语中常说“扯蛋”，书面语转写时，换成“扯淡”。 (4)符号替换法。例如：“×你妈!你怎么不说话，哑巴吗?” (5)反义法。所谓反义就是指与禁忌语的意义相反。如广州人把“气死我”说成“激生我”;把“笑死我”说成“笑生我”。显然，生与死是 反义词 ，这里用“生”避开了“死”。 三、结语 笔者对英语和汉语中的委婉语从应用范畴与构造手段两方面进行了比较，试图找到两种语言中的差异和相似之处。委婉语不仅仅是修辞现象、语言学现象，更蕴含浓厚文化内涵、民族特征。在各个国家的日常交往及工作中，委婉语的运用极为广泛，它可以润滑和协调人际关系，使交际活动顺利进行。充分认识其构造手段、形式特点、发展规律将有助于我们了解英语国家的社会风俗与文化，从而增强跨文化交际的能力。 参考文献： [1]邓志昌，刘润清.语言与文化[M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1989. [2]束定芳，徐金元.委婉语研究：回顾与前瞻[J].外国语，1995(5). [3]王希杰.汉语修辞学[M].北京：商务印书馆，2004. [4]刘瑞琴.英汉委婉语对比与翻译[M].银川：宁夏人民出版社，2010. 关于英汉语言对比方面论文篇2 浅谈英汉词缀对比研究 【摘 要】英语和汉语是两种不同的语言，两者在构词法上有着巨大的差别。分析了这两种语言的词缀，通过前缀和后缀的词缀对比，会给英语教学以及英汉互译提供一些启发。 【关键词】词缀;前缀;后缀;对比 1 词缀的定义 词缀法是把词缀附加在词根上构造新词的 方法 (陈，1991)，也叫做派生法。总的来说，前缀起着语义功能，而后缀有语法功能。在英语中，它是一种重要的构词法，自从第二次世界大战以来，它在新的 英语单词 中占17.5%。在汉语中，由词缀法构成的词非常少，然而词缀化是汉语本身发展的自然趋势(吴，2001)。 2 英汉前缀对比 英汉前缀的不同反映在英语比汉语有更多的前缀。英语前缀是构词主要的成分，仅次于词根。整体来说，英语派生过程比汉语更复杂、更多样化。 2.1 英语前缀的分类 英语前缀大多只是改变词义而不改变词性，所以英语单词是在意义的基础上分类的，英语前缀可以分为九类，列举如下： 2.2 汉语前缀的分类 汉语的前缀表示语法意义，其首要功能是改变词性，这种功能相当于英语的后缀，这是两种语言最大的区别。汉语的前缀可以分为两类，一类只是为了构词，如“老”，老婆、老大、老虎;“阿”，阿爹、阿婆。另外一类不全是语法的性质，可能会改变词性，汉语前缀根据意义可以划分为以下类型。 汉语前缀和其相对应的英语形式： 1)否定前缀 不人道 inhuman 非正式 informal 不科学 unscientific 非导体 nonconductor 无形 invisible 无条件 unconditional 2)态度前缀 反建议 counterproposal 亲美 pro-American 反常 abnormal 伪政府 pseudo-government 反社会 anti-social 3)程度或大小前缀 超自然 supernatural 泛非 pan-African 超音速 hypersonic 次大陆 subcontinent 准学者 quasi-scholar 4)数字前缀 半封建 semi-feudal 单边 unilateral 半人半神 demigod 单晶体 monocrystal 双音节 disyllabic 多中心 polycentric 双语 bilingual 多级 multipolar 2.3 英汉前缀的对比分析 通过上面的分析，可以推测出两种语言的大多数前缀都有对应关系。总体来说，英语前缀在不改变词性的基础上，对词根起着语义功能，而汉语前缀具有语法的功能，更倾向于语义分类。 然而，在两种语言中，由相对应的前缀构成的派生词并不是一一对应的关系。也就是说，一种语言中的派生词在另一种语言中有着相同意义也可能不是派生词。例如，“不毛”在汉语中是个派生词，由前缀“不”和名次“毛”组成。在英语中相对应的词是“barren”，是个单词素的词。同样，英语中派生名词“non-smoker”是由一个前缀“non-”和一个名词“smoker”组合起来的，在汉语中是个名词词组“不吸烟的人”。 许多前缀具有多种意义，这种现象是非常普遍的，即一种语言的前缀在另一种语言中具有几种意义，反之亦然。英语前缀“a-”有三种意思：a. 强调原来的意思，如await; b. 改变词性和意思，如awash; c. 非、不， atypical。在汉语中，前缀“不”可以用英语中不同的前缀来表示，如un-， il-， ir-， a-等。 3 英汉后缀对比 与英语相比，汉语中表示人的后缀比指示状态和动作等的后缀多。两种语言的后缀都是加在词根之后。 3.1 英语后缀的四种范畴 英语后缀是对原来的词的一种修饰，它改变了词原有的词性。英语后缀有四种类型：名词后缀、形容词后缀、副词后缀和动词后缀。当词根加上这些后缀后，分别形成名词、形容词、副词和动词。 3.2 汉语后缀的分类 与英语后缀不同，汉语后缀主要构成名词。加上后缀的词根几乎限于名词、动词和形容词，尤其是名词。下文选择了若干汉语后缀和所对应的英语后缀。 1)名词后缀 ①表示代理人和职业的后缀 专家 specialist 教员 teacher 银行家 banker 打字员 typist 发明家 inventor 技术员 technician 读者 reader 讲师 lecturer 逃亡者 escapee 工程师 engineer 马克思主义者 Marxist 魔术 师 magician 助手 assistant 积极分子 activist ②表示属性、状态和学说意义的后缀 灵活性 flexibility 创造性 creativity 正确性 correctness 湿度 humidity 长度 length 唯心论 idealism 相对论 relativity 社会主义 socialism 达尔文主义 Darwinism 电子学 electronics ③表示亲昵或轻蔑意味的后缀 胖子 fatty 酒鬼 drunkard 赌棍 gamester 电影迷 filmnik 2)动词后缀 人格化 personify 简化 simplify 深化 deepen 现代化 modernize 革命化 revolutionize 3)形容词后缀 男孩子气 manly 孩子气 childish 阔气 luxurious 傲气 cocky 井然 orderly 默然 speechless 4)副词后缀 油然 spontaneously 惨然 miserably 特地 specially 继而 afterwards 率尔 rashly 3.3 英汉后缀对比分析 如上所述，汉语在构成名词方面有丰富的后缀，尤其是指示人的名词。据估计汉语表示人的后缀在词缀中达到32%，在英语中只有13%。两种语言的后缀很明显的不同在于汉语后缀大多带有些许感情色彩，尤其是轻蔑意义;而英语后缀很少带有这种贬义的感情色彩。 汉语中一定量的后缀在英语中没有相对应的后缀，因此，在英语中由自由词来表达这些后缀的意思，例如桌子(desk)、杯子(cup)、石头(stone)、尾巴(tail)、泥巴(mud)。同样，当表示女性的后缀附加于对应的动词之上，整个词就代表了女性。然而，在汉语中单个词就代表了相同的意义，比如女演员(actor-actress) and母老虎 (tiger-tigress)。 后缀中有一种有趣的现象，加上后缀的英语派生词与加上前缀的汉语派生词相对应，比如，“lawless” 和 “fearless”分别译成“非法”和“无畏”。英语中带有指小意义名词后缀在汉语中经常译成前面加“小”的名词，如小鸭(duckling)、小猫(kitten)。有时，同时使用前缀“小”和后缀“儿”，如小罐儿(cannikin)。 4 结语 总之，科技全球化给英语和汉语提供了更多的接触机会，在此过程中相互学习、相互比较。英汉词缀既有相似处也有不同点，将两者相比不仅有益于 英语学习 者深刻认识两种语言，而且有益于他们丰富英汉词汇。 【参考文献】 [1]陈治安.英汉词缀法构词比较[J].四川外语学院学报，1991(1). [2]韩汉雄.英汉词缀比较及 其它 [J].杭州师范学院学报，1994(7). [3]胡壮麟.语言学教程[M].北京：北京大学出版社，2006. [4]吴东英. 再论英语借词对现代汉语词法的影响[J].当代语言学，2001 (3). [5]萧立明.英汉比较研究与翻译[M].上海：上海外语 教育 出版社，2010. [6]张晗.英汉构词法对比[J].厦门大学外文学院，2010(3).

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A Comparative Study of Animal Words between English and Chinese[Abstract] In the history of developing process of human beings, some animals always keep relation with human and deeply influence human survival and development to some extent. This close relation repose human’s abounding emotions, like love, joy, hatred, fear and jealousy in animals, so there are lots of animal words in different languages. Words can reflect differences of culture and words are influenced by history, customs, values, and religion. Animal words are given special cultural connotations in different languages. There are many words of animals, such as dogs, birds, sheep, dragons, etc, used in metaphors in the human languages. These animal metaphors have explained the origins of different cultures. Research on comparisons of animal metaphors between Chinese and foreign language provides an answer to the explanations of cultural generalities. Cognitive interpretations of cultural differences or coincidence in different animal metaphors have been reflected from different language levels. Therefore, a reasonable explanation can only be found from the point of view of cognitive science. There are a lot of animal words in both English and Chinese. Their modes of thinking and background are different and they result in the implied meanings of animal words are possibly different. As we known, language is a culture carrier. Culture loaded words play an important role in language.This paper focuses on the similarities and differences of animal words in both Chinese and English. Different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking result in the different connotation of animal words. To be aware of the different cultures and ways of thinking in the two countries will help us understand the usage of the animal words better, thus understand the language itself much better.[Key Words] Animal words; cultural connotation; similarities and differences 英汉动物词的对比研究 【摘 要】在人类历史发展的漫长进程中, 有些动物一直与人类保持着密切联系并对人类的生存、发展有着深刻的影响。这种关系使得人类对动物产生喜爱、同情、厌恶、恐惧等错综复杂的情感, 人们也常常借动物来寄托和表达人的感情, 所以在英汉两种文化中都有许许多多与动物相关的词汇。同时语言中的词汇反映了文化发展的差异, 由于受历史、习俗、价值观念、宗教信仰等诸方面文化因素的影响, 中英两种语言赋予动物词汇以各自特定的文化内涵众所周知, 在不同语言和不同文化背景下, 每个词除了具有字面意义外, 还有丰富的文化内涵, 即该词所隐含的附带的联想义、比喻义、象征义及带有感情色彩的褒义和贬义等。许多同一动物在不同语言中其语词有着不同的文化内涵。从文化语言学和对比语言学的角度来分析对比中英两种语言中动物词的文化内涵之异同会有助于语言学习。动物词在英汉两种语言中的出现频率都很高。英汉民族思维方式和文化背景不同,同一动物所承载的意义也就会出现差异。通过对动物词文化意义的揭示和研究,不仅可以避免交际中的语用失误,而且对于不同文化的比较与导入有一定的理论和实践意义.语言是文化的载体, 不同民族的语言使世界上的文化呈现出千姿百态。文化差异赋予同一动物词语不同的内涵, 词汇反映了特定的社会文化, 不同的社会背景和文化差异造成了词汇在文化内涵上的差异。通过比较, 人们可以更清楚地感受到英汉文化在动物词语上留下的历史文化差异。本文从同一个动物词代表相同的意义；同一个动物词代表不同的意义； 不同的动物词代表相同的意义； 英汉特有的动物词涵义这四个方面来讨论英汉动物词汇涵义的相同点和不同点。【关键词】动物词；文化内涵； 异同 1. IntroductionIn the history of developing process, human beings keep close relation with animals. They live together on the same earth, and they have great impact on each other. This close relation reposes human’s abounding emotions, like love, joy, hatred, fear and jealousy in animals and results in the emergence and enrichment of animal words in different languages. However, different people from different countries have different ways of thinking and social backgrounds. Therefore, the implied meaning of the words that have the same denotations may be totally different. They are given special cultural connotations for the different social backgrounds and national conventions. And as it is well-known, both English and Chinese have a sea of animal words, which are endowed abundant cultural connotations. So, this paper tries to discuss the cultural connotations of animal words both in English and Chinese from the following aspects: the words refer to the same animal with the same connotations; the words refer to the same animal but with different connotations; the words refer to different animals with the same connotation; the words refer to the same animal but only has connotation in English or Chinese. With comparison, the English learners can better understand the usage of the animal words. 2. The worth for the comparison of animal words between English and Chinese“Cultural connotation refers to the general meaning including connotative meaning and cultural meaning carried in different cultural circumstance. It includes the meaning added and the amplified meaning under special social and cultural background, and also includes the emotions and attitudes of some particular cultural colony.”[1] As we have mentioned above, different social backgrounds render diverse cultural connotations to different languages. Therefore, even if animal words of different languages have the same conceptual meanings, their connotative meanings are not totally the same. As we all know, English has become one of the most open languages around the world. Since it was born, it has never stopped its self-development and meanwhile assimilated other’s cultural essence from different countries. As the result, it can be sure that the animal words in English language have rich cultural implications. And Chinese, as one of the oldest languages in the world, has evolved over 5000 years. The animal words in Chinese have their own specific cultural connotations as well. Fore these reasons, it is worthwhile to make a good comparison of animal words between English and Chinese both for the English language learners and Chinese language learners. It can help them get a better comprehension of the intercultural communication as well. 3. The similarities and differences of animal words between English and Chinese3.1. Similar words or similar meaning3.1.1. The words refer to the same animal with the same connotation It is sure that people around the world live in similar surroundings, so they will have similar thinking on some aspects. When they learn some animal words from their basic cognition to the world, these animal words are endowed with the same cultural connotation. For example, regardless of English or Chinese culture, the animal, fox is the symbol of crafty. Phrases: old fox; play the foxSentences: (1) She is as cunning as a fox, you’ve got to watch her. [2] (2) I could not help reflecting on the strange by which the old fox had saved himself. (3) Are you sure you can trust that man------he is such a sly old fox. [3] Fox also means sly crafty and doubtful in Chinese, for example: (1) 狐假虎威: the ass in the lion’s skin;(fig) bully people by flaunting one'spowerful connections.(2) 狐狸尾巴: fox's tail-cloven hoof; something that gives away the evil intention of somebody like a fox tail(3) 狐朋狗友: a pack of rogues; a gang of scoundrels(4) 狐狸精: fox spirit symbolizing a seductive woman(5) 狐疑: doubt; suspicion [4]In Chinese, “old fox” means someone who is very crafty. For example：(1) 他是一只老狐狸，不要轻易相信他说的话。(He is an old fox, whose words cannot be believed.)(