物流论文文献英文文献

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1. Naval Research Logistics *0894-069XWiley InterScience1996 to present2. Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review *1366-5545Elsevier ScienceDirect OnSite01/1995 to present3. Air Force Journal of Logistics0270-403XEBSCOhost - Academic Search PremierApr 1999-4. U.S. Industry Quarterly Review: Transportation & LogisticsEBSCOhost - Business Source PremierApr 2002-5. Transport Logistics0929-9645EBSCOhost - Business Source PremierJun 1996-Dec 19986. Retail Logistics Industry Profile: SwedenEBSCOhost - Business Source PremierMay 2004-7. Retail Logistics Industry Profile: SpainEBSCOhost - Business Source PremierMay 2004-8. Retail Logistics Industry Profile: NetherlandsEBSCOhost - Business Source PremierMay 2004-9. Retail Logistics Industry Profile: ItalyEBSCOhost - Business Source PremierMay 2004-10. Retail Logistics Industry Profile: GermanyEBSCOhost - Business Source PremierMay 2004-11. Retail Logistics Industry Profile: FranceEBSCOhost - Business Source PremierMay 2004-12. Retail Logistics Industry Profile: EuropeEBSCOhost - Business Source PremierMay 2004-13. Retail Logistics Industry Profile: BelgiumEBSCOhost - Business Source PremierMay 2004-14. Pharmaceutical Logistics Industry Profile: SwedenEBSCOhost - Business Source PremierMay 2004-15. Pharmaceutical Logistics Industry Profile: SpainEBSCOhost - Business Source PremierMay 2004-16. Pharmaceutical Logistics Industry Profile: NetherlandsEBSCOhost - Business Source PremierMay 2004-17. Pharmaceutical Logistics Industry Profile: ItalyEBSCOhost - Business Source PremierMay 2004-18. Pharmaceutical Logistics Industry Profile: GermanyEBSCOhost - Business Source PremierMay 2004-19. Pharmaceutical Logistics Industry Profile: FranceEBSCOhost - Business Source PremierMay 2004-20. Pharmaceutical Logistics Industry Profile: EuropeEBSCOhost - Business Source PremierJun 2004-

E-business environment under the logistics and distributionAbstract: e-commerce under the logistics and distribution will help reduce production business inventories and accelerate capital turnover, enhance logistics efficiency and reduce logistics costs, and stimulate the social needs and is conducive to the whole community's macro-control and promote the healthy operation of the market economy and electronic Business to develop in depth. Key words: e-commerce distributionFirst, China's development of logistics distribution E-commerce logistics entity is the core issue of the distribution items. China, as a developing country, the logistics industry to its late start, low level, the introduction of e-commerce, e-commerce did not have to support the activities of the modern logistics level. However, since e-commerce in China to settle down, people did not stop distribution of the discussion. At present, China mainly three types of e-commerce distribution model, is a full distribution system, that is, the domestic Internet-based, to various regions of the country's logistics system has been linked by agreement, a comprehensive distribution network for the entire process straight . The second category is a regional system of a single business model. Partial to the original business of a single regional distribution site for the base and be integrated, similar to a single business to business services, computer networking, the entire system of networking, and automated management. The third category is professional distribution system of the model. Such as postal communications, railway transport, air, water, Qiyun and other departments have been the perfect use of the national transport network resources to carry out specialized distribution. From across the country, China has long been subject to the impact of the planned economy, low levels of social logistics, logistics management system confusion, the existing three categories of e-commerce distribution model is not yet ripe, efficiency is not high, but in the red. Therefore, the need for China's economic development, enterprise reform and development of e-commerce logistics and distribution, learn from developed countries through the road and experience from China in 1992 began a logistics distribution center of the experimental work. In 1996 the Internal Trade issued "on strengthening the commercial development of logistics distribution center construction work of the notice," pointed out the development and construction of logistics distribution center the importance of the proposed development and construction of the guiding ideology and principle, put forward the "mechanisms and intensive Management, improve the function of the development of the logistics and enhance strength "of the reform and development principles, to establish modern logistics distribution center to change the social construction of logistics distribution centers, the development of modern network as the main direction. Second, China's logistics and distribution patterns and problems of At present, China's increased the number of e-commerce sites, transactions involving goods of daily necessities and other non-consumables, and on its e-commerce distribution model, can be divided into three types, namely operating BtoB (business to business) business model, BtoC (Business to consumers) model and the virtual logistics company model, in practice, although these three models get the recognition and application of common, but in e-commerce and distribution of convergence and optimal operation, there are still many problems, reflected in concrete : China's current social low level of information networks, network infrastructure is relatively weak, especially as e-commerce platform for the delivery and billing infrastructure lags behind, the computer penetration rate low rate of Internet users only about 8 percent and are mainly concentrated in major cities , The use of Internet users in the real rate of online shopping less than 0.5 percent, electronic shopping credit has not been widely recognized. The understanding of the importance of e-commerce logistics enough. Availability of the overall level of enterprise network low ratio of less than Internet companies, logistics enterprise information construction lagged behind, logistics and distribution of specialization, social, electronic, modern low level. There have been serious problems of poor business reputation, late delivery, delivery or do not send the wrong frequent phenomenon. E-commerce logistics infrastructure is not yet perfect, logistics systems theory is not enough, the logistics technology is still very backward, China's logistics workers and practice the theory of modern logistics of the new theories, new technologies, such as integrated supply chain management, third party logistics, automation Warehouse, automatic sorting system, global positioning system (GPS), and so has just contacted. Jidong of the lack of e-commerce and e-commerce technology has practical experience in human resources, in particular the lack of Jidong e-commerce and logistics distribution to understand the innovative spirit of the compound talents. Third, logistics and healthy development of the countermeasure 1. Enhance the degree of information. Distribution of information for performance: the logistics of the database of information collection and code, the logistics of the electronic information processing and computer, the transmission of information and the standardization of real-time logistics information such as the digital storage. Therefore, the bar-code technology, database technology, electronic ordering system, electronic data exchange, radio frequency technology, management information systems, enterprise resource planning, and other advanced management strategy should be in China's logistics and distribution enterprises to promote use. Information is all modern technology and management tools of the foundation, only to achieve distribution of information can take up to the era of e-commerce distribution industry and historic task. 2. Improve the logistics management system, improve service quality. Internet shopping for the delivery time is too long and has yet to supply the phenomenon as e-commerce company in order to better serve customers, suppliers and customers should be strengthened between the exchange of information and feedback. This will save users to order processing fees, users can also save time and gradually raise awareness of online shopping sense of trust, making good steady development of e-commerce. 3. Distribution lower prices. China's large-scale development of e-commerce online shopping has been difficult, logistics and distribution costs high, especially in the type of Internet transactions, for each client to achieve door-to-door is the high cost, we must work hard to reduce costs, e-commerce solution Logistics and distribution companies and distribution services among enterprises in the prices of contradictions. 4. Perfect laws and policies. E-commerce for the logistics and distribution problems, the relevant government departments should actively study the characteristics of e-commerce, the rapid development of targeted laws, regulations and policies to regulate e-commerce activities, enterprises and consumers in general to increase the confidence of e-commerce Flu. 5. Actively developing third-party logistics enterprises. "TPL" refers to the logistics business from the supply side and demand-side beyond the completion of a third party, in a sense that it is a form of logistics professionalism, "third-party logistics" in logistics management experience, Talent, technology, philosophy and other areas have certain advantages, the e-commerce transactions in both supply and demand of all the logistics activities of agent credentials, well-funded third-party logistics, the logistics can take full advantage of modern technology, is built on the foundation of modern information network technology On the logistics management software to ensure that customers at any time and any place check of goods and provision of supporting services, e-commerce transactions between the parties involved in the logistics can be entrusted to professional logistics enterprises, concentrate on developing the electronics market and business efficiency of the e-commerce BtoB transactions. The establishment of a national logistics public information platform, the development of 4PL. 4PL is a supply chain integrator, mobilization and management organizations and their complementarity of the service provider's resources, capacity and technology to provide an integrated supply chain solutions. Clearly, 4PL must meet three conditions: not the interests of the logistics side, to achieve information sharing, the ability to integrate all the logistics resources. And really meet these conditions, only a virtual network of platforms, and this is the logistics and public information platform. It provides comprehensive supply chain solutions to social integration of logistics resources, enhance the country's logistics industry integrated collaborative capabilities.电子商务环境下的物流配送摘要：电子商务下的物流配送既有利于减少生产企业库存，加速资金周转，提高物流效率，降低物流成本，又刺激了社会需求，有利于整个社会的宏观调控，促进市场经济的健康运行及电子商务向纵深发展。关键词：电子商务 物流 配送一、我国物流配送发展概况 电子商务物流的核心问题是实体物品的配送。我国作为一个发展中国家，物流业起步较晚，水平低，在引进电子商务时，并不具备能够支持电子商务活动的现代化物流水平。但自从电子商务在中国落户，人们就没有停止对物流配送问题的讨论。目前，我国主要有三类电子商务物流配送模式，一类是全程物流配送系统，即以国内互联网为基础，把全国各地区已有的物流系统通过协议联系起来，形成全方位的全程直投配送网。第二类是区域性单一业务系统改造模式。以原有局部区域性单一业务的配送站点为基础，并加以集成，把单一业务改为同类业务服务，通过计算机联网，实现整个系统的网络化、自动化管理。第三类是专业化配送系统改造模式。如邮政通讯、铁运、空运、水运、汽运等部门利用已有的完善的全国性运输网络资源进行专业化配送。从全国范围来看，我国长期以来受计划经济的影响，物流社会化程度低，物流管理体制混乱，已有的三类电子商务物流配送模式还不成熟，效率不高，而且处于亏损状态。因此，针对我国经济发展需要、企业改革及电子商务物流配送发展现状，借鉴发达国家走过的道路和经验，我国从1992年起开始了物流配送中心的试点工作。1996年原国内贸易部发出了《关于加强商业物流配送中心发展建设工作的通知》，指出了发展建设物流配送中心的重要意义，提出发展建设的指导思想和原则，同时提出了“转换机制、集约经营、完善功能、发展物流、增强实力”的改革与发展方针，确定以向现代化物流配送中心转变，建设社会化的物流配送中心，发展现代化网络为主要方向。 二、我国物流配送模式及存在的问题 目前我国电子商务网站数量大增，交易商品涉及日用品及其他非易耗品等，就其电子商务物流配送模式而言，可分为三种类型，分别是经营BtoB（商家对商家）业务的模式、BtoC（商家对消费者）的模式以及虚拟物流公司模式，在实践中这三种模式虽然得到共同的认同与应用，但在电子商务与物流配送的接轨和优化运行上还存在许多问题，具体体现在： 中国目前的社会信息网络化水平低，网络基础设施相对薄弱，特别是作为电子商务平台的传递和结算基础设施滞后，计算机普及率低，网民比率只有8%左右，并主要集中在各大中城市，网民中真正采用网上购物的比率不到0.5%，电子购物的信用没有得到广泛认同。 对电子商务物流的重要性认识不够。供货企业网络化整体水平低，上网企业比率不足，物流企业信息化建设滞后，物流配送的专业化、社会化、电子化、现代化程度低。 存在严重的商业信誉差的问题，迟送、送错或不送现象时有发生。 电子商务物流基础尚不完善，物流理论还不够系统，物流技术还很落后，我国物流理论工作者和实践者对现代物流的新理论、新技术，如集成化供应链管理、第三方物流、自动化立体仓库、全自动分拣系统、全球定位系统（GPS）等才刚刚接触。 缺乏既懂电子商务理论和技术又有电子商务实践经验人才，尤其缺乏既懂电子商务又懂物流配送的有创新精神的复合型人才。三、物流配送健康发展的对策 1.提高信息化程度。物流配送信息化表现为：物流信息收集的数据库化和代码化、物流信息处理的电子化和计算机化、信息传递的标准化和实时化、物流信息存储的数字化等。因此,条码技术、数据库技术、电子订货系统、电子数据交换、射频技术、管理信息系统、企业资源计划等先进的管理策略，应在我国的物流配送企业大力推广运用。信息化是一切现代技术和管理手段的基础，只有实现物流配送信息化,才能承担起电子商务时代赋予物流配送业的历史任务。 2.完善物流管理系统功能,提高售后服务质量。针对网上购物出现的送货时间过长以及迟迟没有货源的现象，作为电子商务公司为了能更好的服务于顾客，应加强顾客和供货商之间信息的交流与反馈。这样可以给用户节约订单处理费用，又可以节约用户的时间，逐渐提高人们对网上购物的信任感，使得电子商务良性稳步发展。 3.降低配送服务价格。我国发展电子商务实现大规模的网上购物一直困难重重，物流配送费用偏高，特别是零售型的网上交易，为每个客户实现送货上门是高成本的，必须努力降低成本，解决电子商务公司与物流配送企业之间在配送服务价格方面的矛盾。 4.完善法律政策。针对电子商务物流配送出现的种种问题，政府有关部门应该积极研究电子商务的特点，迅速制定有针对性地法律、法规和政策，以规范电子商务活动，增加企业和广大消费者对电子商务的信任感。 5.积极发展第三方物流企业。“第三方物流”是指物流由商务的供方、需方之外的第三方完成,从某种意义上说它是物流专业化的一种形式，“第三方物流”一般在物流管理经验、人才、技术、理念等方面都具有一定的优势,对电子商务交易中供求双方的所有物流活动进行全权代理，同时第三方物流资金雄厚,可以充分利用现代物流技术,具有建立在现代信息网络技术基础上的物流管理软件,保证客户在任何时间、任何地点查看货物及提供配套的服务，参与电子商务交易的双方可以把物流委托给专业物流企业,专心于电子市场的开拓和商务效率的提高电子商务BtoB交易模式。 建立全国物流公共信息平台，发展第四方物流。第四方物流是一个供应链集成商，它调集和管理组织自己的以及具有互补性的服务提供商的资源、能力和技术，以提供一个综合的供应链解决方案。显然，第四方物流必须满足三个条件：不是物流的利益方、能实现信息共享、有能力整合所有的物流资源。而真正满足这些条件的只有一种虚拟的物流网平台，这就是全国物流公共信息平台。它能提供综合的供应链解决方案，以整合社会物流资源，提高我国物流产业的综合协同能力。

Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one location to another. Transport is performed by various modes, such as air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. Infrastructure consists of the fixed installations necessary for transport, and may be roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals and pipelines, and terminals such as airports, railway stations, bus stations, wharehouses, trucking terminals, refueling depots (including fueling docks and fuel stations) and seaports. Terminals may both be used for interchange of passengers and cargo, and for maintenance. Vehicles traveling on these networks include vehicles of appropriate types such as automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks people, helocopters and aircraft. Operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose including financing, legalities and policies. In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be either public or private, depending on the country and mode. Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, or private. Freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items. Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but has a deteriorizing impact on the environment. While it is heavily subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow, and restrain urban sprawl. Mode Main article: Mode of transport A mode of transport is a technological solution that used a fundamentally different vehicle, infrastructure and operations. The transport of a person or cargo may be by one or more modes, the latter called intermodal transport. Each mode has its advantages and disadvantages, and will be chosen for a trip depended on the nature of the purpose, cargo and destination. While there transport in air and on water has their own mode, land transport has several modes. Human-powered transport remains common in developing countries [edit] Human-powered Main article: Human-powered transport Human-powered transport is the transport of person(s) and/or goods using human muscle-power. Like animal-powered transport, human-powered transport has existed since time immemorial in the form of walking, running and swimming. Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human-power. Many forms of human-powered transport remain popular for reasons of cost-saving, leisure, physical exercise and environmentalism. Human-powered transport is sometimes the only type available, especially in underdeveloped or inaccessible regions. It is considered an ideal form of sustainable transportation. Although humans are able to walk without infrastructure, the transport can be enhanced through the use of roads, especially when enforcing the human power with vehicles, such as bicycles and inline skates. Human-powered vehicles have also been developed for highly encumbering environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowings and skiing; even the air can be entered with human-powered aircraft. [edit] Animal-powered Main article: Animal-powered transport Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people and goods. Humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled vehicles. Animals are superior to people in their speed, endurance and carrying capacity; prior to the Industrial Revolution they were used for all land transport impracticable for people, and they remain an important mode of transport in less developed areas of the world. [edit] Air Main article: Aviation Scandinavian Airlines System MD-80 airliner at Kiruna Airport, SwedenA fixed-wing aircraft, commonly called airplane, is a heavier-than-air craft where movement of the air in relation to the wings is used to generate lift. The term is used to distinguish from rotary-wing aircraft, where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the air generates lift. A gyroplane is both fixed-wing and rotary-wing. Fixed-wing aircraft range from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners and military cargo aircraft. Two necessities for aircraft are air flow over the wings for lift, and an area for landing. The majority of aircraft also need an airport with the infrastructure to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading of crew, cargo and passengers. While the vast majority of aircraft land and take off on land, some are capable of take off and landing on ice, snow and calm water. The aircraft is the second fastest method of transport, after the rocket. Commercial jets can reach up to 875 kilometres per hour (544 mph), single-engine aircraft 175 kilometres per hour (109 mph). Aviation is able to quickly transport people and limited amounts of cargo over longer distances, but incur high costs and energy use; for short distances or in inaccessible places helicopters can be used.[1] InterCityExpress, a German high-speed passenger train [edit] Rail Main article: Rail transport Rail transport is where train runs along a two parallel steel rails, known as a railway or railroad. They rails are anchored perpendicular to ties (or sleepers) of timber, concrete or steel, to maintain a consistent distance apart, or gauge. The rails and perpendicular beams are placed on a foundation made of concrete, or compressed earth and gravel in a bed of ballast. Alternative methods include monorail and maglev. A train consists of one or more connected vehicle that run on the rails. Propulsion is commonly provided by a locomotive, that hauls a series of unpowered cars, that can carry passengers or freight. The locomotive can be powered by steam, diesel or by electricity supplied by a trackside systems. Alternatively, some or all the cars can be powered, known as a multiple unit. Also, a train can be powered by horses, cables, gravity, pneumatics and gas turbines. Railed vehicles move with much less friction than rubber tires on paved roads, making trains more energy efficient, though not as efficient as ships. Intercity trains are long-haul services connecting cities;[2] modern high-speed rail is capable of speeds up to 350 km/h (220 mph), but this requires specially-built track. Regional and commuter trains feed cities from suburbs and surrounding areas, while intra-urban transport is performed by high-capacity tramways and rapid transits, often making up the backbone of a city's public transport. Freight trains traditionally used box cars, requiring manual loading and unloading of the cargo. Since the 1960s, container trains have become the dominentsolution for general freight, while large quantities of bulk are transported by dedicated trains. [edit] Road Main article: Road transport Interstate 80 near Berkeley, United StatesA road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places.[3] Roads are typically smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel;[4] though they need not be, and historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or maintenance.[5] In urban areas, roads may pass through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a dual function as urban space easement and route.[6] The most common road vehicle is the automobile; a wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. Other users of roads include buses, trucks, motorcycles, bicycles and pedestrians. As of 2002, there were 590 million automobiles worldwide. Automobiles offer high flexibility and with low capacity, but are deemed with high energy and area use, and the main source of noise and air pollution in cities; buses allow for more efficient travel at the cost of reduced flexibility.[7] Road transport by truck is often the initial and final stage of freight transport. [edit] Water Main article: Ship transport Automobile ferry in CroatiaWater transport is the process of transport a watercraft, such as a barge, boat, ship or sailboat, over a body of water, such as a sea, ocean, lake, canal or river. The need for buoyancy unites watercraft, and makes the hull a dominant aspect of its construction, maintenance and appearance. In the 1800s the first steam ships were developed, using a steam engine to drive a paddle wheel or propeller to move the ship. The steam was produced using wood or coal. Now most ships have an engine using a slightly refined type of petroleum called bunker fuel. Some specialized ships, such as submarines, use nuclear power to produce the steam. Recreational or educational craft still use wind power, while some smaller craft use internal combustion engines to drive one or more propellers, or in the case of jet boats, an inboard water jet. In shallow draft areas, hovercraft are propelled by large pusher-prop fans. Although slow, modern sea transport is a highly effective method of transporting large quantities of non-perishable goods. Transport by water is significantly less costly than air transport for trans-continental shipping;[8] short sea shipping and ferries remain viable in coastal areas.[9][10] Trans-Alaska Pipeline for crude oil [edit] Other Pipeline transport sends goods through a pipe, most commonly liquid and gases are sent, but pneumatic tubes can send solid capsules using compressed air. Any chemically stable liquid or gas can be sent through a pipeline. Short-distance systems exist for sewage, slurry, water and beer, while long-distance networks are used for petroleum and natural gas. Cable transport is a broad mode where vehicles are pulled by cables instead of an internal power source. It is most commonly used at steep gradient. Typical solutions include aerial tramway, elevators, escalator and ski lifts; some of these are also categorized as conveyor transport. Spaceflight is transport out of Earth's atmosphere into outer space by means of a spacecraft. While large amounts of research have gone into technology, it is rarely used except to put satellites into orbit, and conduct scientific experiments. However, man has landed on the moon, and probes have been send to all the planets of the Solar System. [edit] Elements Bridges, such as Golden Gate Bridge, allow roads and railways to cross bodies of water [edit] Infrastructure Main article: Infrastructure Infrastructure is the fixed installations that allow a vehicle to operate. It consists of both a way, terminal and facilities for parking and maintenance. For rail, pipeline, road and cable transport, the entire way the vehicle travels must be built up. Air and water craft are able to avoid this, since the airway and seaway do not need to be built up. However, they require fixed infrastructure at terminals. Terminals such as airports, ports and stations, are locations were passengers and freight can be transferred from one vehicle or mode to another. For passenger transport, terminals are integrating different modes to allow riders to interchange to take advantage of each mode's advantages. For instance, airport rail links connect airports to the city centers and suburbs. The terminals for automobiles are parking lots, while buses and coaches can operates from simple stops.[11] For freight, terminals act as transshipment points, though some cargo is transported directly from the point of production to the point of use. The financing of infrastructure can either be public or private. Transport is often a natural monopoly and a necessity for the public; roads, and in some countries railways and airports are funded through taxation. New infrastructure projects can involve large spendings, and are often financed through debt. Many infrastructure owners therefore impose usage fees, such as landing fees at airports, or toll plazas on roads. Independent of this, authorities may impose taxes on the purchase or use of vehicles. A Peugeot 206 participating in the World Rally Championship [edit] Vehicles Main article: Vehicle A vehicle is any non-living device that is used to move people and goods. Unlike the infrastructure, the vehicle moves along with the cargo and riders. Vehicles that do not operate on land, are usually called crafts. Unless being pulled by a cable or muscle-power, the vehicle must provide its own propulsion; this is most commonly done through a steam engine, combustion engine, electric motor, a jet engine or a rocket, though other means of propulsion also exist. Vehicles also need a system of converting the energy into movement; this is most commonly done through wheels, propellers and pressure. Vehicles are most commonly staffed by a driver. However, some systems, such as people movers and some rapid transits, are fully automated. For passenger transport, the vehicle must have a compartment for the passengers. Simple vehicles, such as automobiles, bicycles or simple aircraft, may have one of the passengers as a driver. [edit] Operation Incheon International Airport, South KoreaPrivate transport is only subject to the owner of the vehicle, who operates the vehicle themselves. For public transport and freight transport, operations are done through private enterprise or by governments. The infrastructure and vehicles may be owned and operated by the same company, or they may be operated by different entities. Traditionally, many countries have had a national airline and national railway. Since the 1980s, many of these have been privatized. International shipping remains a highly competitive industry with little regulation,[12] but ports can be public owned.[13] [edit] Function Relocation of travelers and cargo are the most common uses of transport. However, other uses exist, such as the strategic and tactical relocation of armed forces during warfare, or the civilian mobility construction or emergency equipment. Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus in Mumbai, India [edit] Passenger Main article: Travel Passenger transport, or travel, is divided into public and private transport. Public is scheduled services on fixed routes, while private is vehicles that provide ad hoc services at the riders desire. The latter offers better flexibility, but has lower capacity, and a higher environmental impact. Travel may be as part of daily commuting, for business, leisure or migration. Short-haul transport is dominated by the automobile and mass transit. The latter consists of buses in rural and small cities, supplemented with commuter rail, trams and rapid transit in larger cities. Long-haul transport involves the use of the automobile, trains, coaches and aircraft, the last of which have become predominantly used for the longest, including intercontinental, travel. Intermodal passenger transport is where a journey is performed through the use of several modes of transport; since all human transport normally starts and ends with walking, all passenger transport can be considered intermodal. Public transport may also involve the intermediate change of vehicle, within or across modes, at a transport hub, such as a bus or railway station. International travel may be restricted for some individuals due to legislation and visa requirements. [edit] Freight Main article: Shipping Freight transport, or shipping, is a key in the value chain in manufacturing.[14] With increased specialization and globalization, production is being located further away from consumption, rapidly increasing the demand for transport.[15] While all modes of transport are used for cargo transport, there is high differentiation between the nature of the cargo transport, in which mode is chosen.[16] Logistics refers to the entire process of transferring products from producer to consumer, including storage, transport, transshipment, warehousing, material-handling and packaging, with associated exchange of information.[17] Incoterm deals with the handling of payment and responsibility of risk during transport.[18] Freight train with containers in the United KingdomContainerization, with the standardization of ISO containers on all vehicles and at all ports, has revolutionized international and domestic trade, offering huge reduction in transshipment costs. Traditionally, all cargo had to be manually loaded and unloaded into the haul of any ship or car; containerization allows for automated handling and transfer between modes, and the standardized sizes allow for gains in economy of scale in vehicle operation. This has been one of the key driving factors in international trade and globalization since the 1950s.[19] Bulk transport is common with cargo that can be handled roughly without deterioration; typical examples are ore, coal, cereals and petroleum. Because of the uniformity of the product, mechanical handling can allow enormous quantities to be handled quickly and efficiently. The low value of the cargo combined with high volume also means that economies of scale become essential in transport, and gigantic ships and whole trains are commonly used to transport bulk. Liquid products with sufficient volume may also be transported by pipeline. Air freight has become more common for products of high value; while less than one percent of world transport by volume is by airline, it amounts to forty percent of the value. Time has become especially important in regards to principles such as postponement and just-in-time within the value chain, resulting in a high willingness to pay for quick delivery of key components or items of high value-to-weight ratio.[20] In addition to mail, common items send by air include electronics and fashion clothing. [edit] History Main article: History of transport Bullock team hauling wool in AustraliaHumans first means of transport was walking and swimming. The domestication of animals introduces a new way to lay the burden of transport on more powerful creatures, allowing heavier loads to be hauled, or humans to ride the animals for higher speed and duration. Inventions such as the wheel and sled helped make animal transport more efficient through the introduction of vehicles. Also water transport, including rowed and sailed vessels, dates back to time immemorial, and was the only efficient way to transport large quantities or over large distances prior to the Industrial Revolution. The first forms of road transport were horses, oxen or even humans carrying goods over dirt tracks that often followed game trails. Paved roads were first built by the Roman Empire, to allow armies to travel quicky; they built deep roadbeds of crushed stone as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from the crushed stone, instead of becoming mud in clay soils. The first watercraft were canoes cut out from tree trunks. Early water transport was accomplished with ships that were either rowed or used the wind for propulsion, or a combination of the two. The importance of water has led to most cities, that grew up as sites for trading, being located on rivers or at sea, ofter at the intersection of two bodies of water. Until the Industrial Revolution, transport remained slow and costly, and production and consumption were located as close to each other as feasible.