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英语毕业论文参考文献的正文注释格式范文
英语毕业论文参考文献的正文注释格式范文
英语毕业论文参考文献注释格式范文
英语毕业论文参考文献注释格式范文
正文中的注释和参考文献是论文格式最为重要的部分，请论文作者逐条仔细阅读。建议先做好参考文献格式，再对照格式要求作夹注。
分脚注和夹注两种，。
1)脚注
正文内容如有需作出特别说明或解释之处以脚注的形式处理，编号格式设置为“○1,○2,○3…”，编号方式设置为“每页重新编号”，脚注会自动出现在当页正文下。字体采用默认值(小五号)。
2)夹注
对论文中的直接引用或间接引用部分所依据的文献以夹注的形式标出。夹注可以采用以下几种形式：
作者姓氏未在引文中出现，则夹注用括号标出作者姓氏，空一格字母再标出引文页码。为避免不必要的麻烦，中文作者用全名。
引用一位作者
“Time is no longer felt as an objective, causal progression with clearly marked-out differences between periods…” (Frank 20)
As the British novelist-critic Christine Brooke-Rose has put it, the novelists now have nothing new to tell since what should be told have been told altogether (Yin Qiping 33-35) .
引用两位作者
Medieval Europe was a place both of “raids, pillages, slavery, and extortion” and of “traveling merchants, monetary exchange, towns if not cities, and active markets in gain” (Townsend & Waugh 10-16).
作者有三个以上，
则在第一位作者的姓氏后写上et al.以示其余姓氏的省略，或列上全部姓氏，夹注中的形式应与参考文献中的形式保持一致。
Modern Literary studies have their origin in classic studies (Graff et al. 19-35).
Modern Literary studies have their origin in classic studies (Graff, Goldberger, & Tarule 15-20).
同姓作者
还需加名的开头字母予以区分，如：
Although some medical ethicists claim that cloning will lead to designer children (R. Miller 12), others note that the advantages for medical research outweigh this consideration (A. Miller 46).
文本中不指名列举持某一观点的'作者
Others hold the opposite point of view (e.g., Jakobson 9;Waugh 34)
作者姓氏在引文中出现，则只需用括号标出引文页码
Graff defines his recent book, Professing Literature, as “a history of academic literary studies in the United States” (10).
如在引文中提及整个文献及作者姓氏(不必夹注，但参考文献中要注明相关出版信息)
Slade’s revision of Form and Style incorporates changes made in the 1995 edition of the MLA Handbook.
集体作者如果组织名称太长，第一次提及时可采用全称后加注缩略
The annual report revealed substantial progress in fundraising (American Museum of Natural History 12, hereafter AMNH).
以后直接用缩略形式做夹注
The report surveys the major problems in fundraising (AMNH 15).
引用多卷本中的一卷
Between the years 1945 and 1972, the political party system in the United States underwent profound changes (Schlesinger, vol. 4).
Schlesinger pointed out the profound changes the political party system in the United States underwent between 1945 and 1972 (4: 98-104).
引文出自同一作者的不同文献
引用同一作者的两篇以上的文献, 可以分别以文献名全名(如果文献全名简短的话)或文献名的缩略形式(如果文献全名较长的话)注释。
文本中未出现引文作者姓氏，也未出现文献名的，夹注用括号标出作者姓氏，姓氏后加逗号，空一格字母标出带下划线的该作者的书名，书名后空一格字母标出引文页码，如：
Shakespeare’s King Lear has been called a “comedy of the grotesque” (Frye, The Anatomy of Criticism 237).
文本中出现作者姓氏的，夹注用括号标出带下划线的该作者的书名，空一格字母再标出引文页码，如：
Shaughnessy points out that “the beginning writer does not know how writers behave” (Errors 79).
若引文出自杂志，则把文章名放在双引号内，空一格字母再标出引文页码，如：
Teachers applauded Shaughnessy’s assertion that “teaching them [beginning writers] to write well is not only suitable but challenging work for those who would be teachers and scholars in a democracy” (“Diving In” 68).
文本中既出现作者姓氏又出现该作者的书名或文章名，则只需标出引文页码
In The Age of Voltaire, the Durants portray eighteenth-century England as a minor force in the world of music and art (214-48).
一个夹注中涉及一篇以上文献
(Lauter 34; Crane 98)
...as has been discussed elsewhere (Burke 3; Dewey 21).
转引
Edmund Burke was an “extraordinary man” (Johnson qtd. in Boswell 2: 450)
Samuel Johnson admitted that Edmund Burke was an “extraordinary man” (qtd. in Boswell 2: 450)
引文来自于中文作者(对“孔子”等已有英文译名的必须使用标准译名，如Confucius 33; Mencius 22-25)
(Hu Zhuanglin 33)
(Zhu Xianzhi & Lin Chongde 89)
(Xu Guozhang et al. 33-35)
(Confucius 33)
短引文 (四行以内或诗歌三行以内)
引文须加双引号，括号内提供作者、页码(诗歌的话提供诗行)信息，标点符号在括号之后。如果问号、感叹号若是引文的一部分，则须放在引言内，否则，也放在括号之后。
According to some, dreams express "profound aspects of personality" (Foulkes 184), though others disagree.
According to Foulkes's study, dreams may express "profound aspects of personality" (184).
Is it possible that dreams may express "profound aspects of personality" (Foulkes 184)?
诗行与诗行之间用“/”隔开，如：
Cullen concludes, "Of all the things that happened there/ That's all I remember" (11-12).
长引文
如果引文较长，超过4行，拟另起一行，不加引号，左边缩进10个英文字母, 夹注紧随引文末尾，句点应放在引用括号之前。
At the conclusion of Lord of the Flies, Ralph and the other boys realize the horror of their actions:
The tears began to flow and sobs shook him. He gave himself up to them now for the first time on the island; great, shuddering spasms of grief that seemed to wrench his whole body. His voice rose under the black smoke before the burning wreckage of the island; and infected by that emotion, the other little boys began to shake and sob too. (186)
引文为两段或两段以上，或引文来自诗歌，或引文来自剧本，或引文附带译文，详细说明分别参考《MLA科研论文写作规范》82页;83-84页;85页;93页。注意引文来自诗歌等韵文时，可以篇次和行次代替夹注中的页码;引文来自剧本等文献时，以幕次、场次和行次代替页码。
引文中的添加与省略
在添加的词两头加“[ ]”。
Jan Harold Brunvand, in an essay on urban legends, states: “some individuals [who retell urban legends] make a point of learning every rumor or tale” (78).
在省略的此处用省略号“…”代替，省略号前后各空一字母。
In an essay on urban legends, Jan Harold Brunvand notes that “some individuals make a point of learning every recent rumor or tale ... and in a short time a lively exchange of details occurs” (78).
词典词条
将词条在双引号中列出，后加 “def.”，空一字母后再加页码。
According to The Random House Dictionary of the English Language, “study” means “application of the mind to the acquisition of knowledge, as by reading, investigation, or reflection” (“Study,” def. 1888).
5. 关于参考文献
说明：
1)参考文献部分以Times New Roman小四号正体加粗居中标明“Works Cited”列在正文后(或尾注后)，另页书写。“Works Cited”与第一个参考文献之间空一行。不得罗列同正文没有直接关系的文献，参考文献条目与引文夹注要对应。外文文献排列在前，以姓氏的首字母为序排列，中文文献排列在后，以姓氏的拼音为序排列。每条文献顶格写，回行时英文空5个字母，中文空两格。
2) 建议论文作者多使用英文原版图书和学术期刊文献。引用英文原版图书和学术期刊文献至少2本(篇)以上。
4)主要作者(编者、译者)采用姓在前，名在后的形式，作者姓与名之间用逗号分隔(中文姓名不用分隔);2人以内全部写上，第2 者起姓名按正常顺序，两个主要作者(编者、译者)之间英语的加“&”、中文的加 “、”三个主要作者(编者、译者)以上只写第一人再加“et al.”或“等”(中文)。
5)英文图书、期刊、报纸一律使用斜体，如果图书中包含作品名，作品名使用正体。例如：
Parkes, Adam. Kazuo Ishiguro’s The Remains of the Day. New York & London: Continuum, 2001.
6)中文图书等采用汉英对照形式，以便正文中统一按照英文模式(格式同英文文献)做夹注，列中文图书、期刊、报纸一律使用书名号，作者与作者之间用“、”号，英 语文 献中的句点在中文文献中用宋体字体下的逗号代替、冒号也要是宋体字体下的冒号，且汉字之间或标点与汉字之间没有空格。中文文献的英文模式须加“[ ]”，下面参考文献格式不再赘述。例如：
王守仁、方杰，《英国文学简史》，上海：上海外语教育出版社，2006年。
[Wang Shouren & Fang Jie. A Concise History of English Literature. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2006.]
7)除了版本研究(如翻译版本对照研究)之外，不宜将同一本书的英文版本和中文版本同时列为参考文献。英 语文 学论文作者必须使用所研究作品的英文版本。
8) 非单行本短篇小说一般应参照文章格式处理，例如：
Joyce, James. “Araby.” Dubliners. London: Penguin, 1967.
高校英语专业英美文学课程的教学 论文关键词：英美文学文学教师素质互动原则 论文摘要：本文从英美文学教学的现状出发,针对英美文学课的学习意义、课堂教学内容和文学教师的素质三方面进行阐述，并提出课堂教学中应采用互动教学原理，从而提高英美文学教学质量和学习效果。 根据《高等学校英语专业英语教学大纲》，英美文学课程的教学目的在于：“培养学生阅读、欣赏、理解英 语文 学原著的能力，掌握文学批评的基本知识和方法。通过阅读和分析英美文学作品，促进学生语言基本功和人文素质提高，增强学生对西方文学及文化的了解。”教学大纲还分别在四级、六级和八级的考试中对文学的阅读提出了明确要求。文学课举足轻重的地位和作用不言而喻，但现阶段高校英语专业文学课程教学的现状却不容乐观。 一、英美文学教学的现状 1.教学内容分配不合理 目前使用的教材基本按照编年史的体例编排，从14世纪一直延续到20世纪。虽脉络清楚，有利于学生认识文学的源流关系，却存在时间跨度过长、厚古薄今的弊病。教师在安排教学内容时，大多侧重传统的经典作家，对当代作家很少问津。由于英语诗歌语言和现代英语语言有很大的区别，加上教师和学生的畏难心理，诗歌教学并未与小说、戏剧教学并重。此外，文学史与文选教学脱节，并没有将文选融入到文学发展的历史进程中去，而是孤立地学习文学史或选读作品。 2.教学方法单一 绝大多数教师仍然采用传统的教学模式，注重教师的讲解, 对学生参与度要求不高。教师一味地单方面灌输,甚至照本宣读, 而学生始终处于被动接受状态，不能充分发挥主观能动性。因不能及时吸收、消化教学内容，从而不能将文学作品中体现出来的真、善、美等价值观运用到实际生活中。这样就影响了教学目标的实现。 3.教师知识结构存在相对的不合理 目前，担任英美文学课程的教师存在着专业局限性，比如专功文学专业的教师，对于语言学、翻译、哲学与历史等相关人文类学科的知识储备不足，没有将文学本身所具有的特征发挥出来。文学是社会的镜子，反映社会生活的方方面面。文学作品中反映的所有问题，都与人文类学科相关。因此，英美文学课教师在相关人文知识领域的欠缺，导致英美文学课教学在深度、准确度与广度方面存在不足。 二、英美文学教学的几点建议 1.文学史应与文学作品选读并重 对于中国学生来说，学习英美文学存在着语言障碍。作家与作家之间的写作风格迥异,语言特色更是千差万别。为了使学生准确地理解原著的内容,提高学生的文学鉴赏能力,在教学过程中,教师应将文学史和文学作品有机结合起来。 其一,联系历史背景来深刻理解作品。任何文学作品都是一定社会历史文化的产物,是作家对社会境况的一种深沉反思。文学史教材一般按照时间顺序编写,不仅具有文学学科的特点,还具有历史学科的特点。只有把作品放到一定的历史环境中,才能理解作品的内涵和社会意义。以英国文学为例,大致可分为五个时期,即文艺复兴时期、新古典主义时期、浪漫主义时期、维多利亚时期和现代主义时期。其文学流派分别为人本主义、新古典主义、浪漫主义、批判现实主义和现代主义。文艺复兴时期,Shakespeare塑造了Portia、Bassanio、 Antonio、 Hamlet等一系列人本主义代表；新古典主义时期,Fielding刻画了Tom Jones等道德说教的典型形象；浪漫主义时期,Byron塑造了Don Juan等Byron式的英雄人物；维多利亚时期,Dickens笔下的David Copperfield曾是资本主义社会的受害者,无情地批判了资本主义的罪恶；现代主义时期,Lawrence塑造了Paul等在当时的社会环境中分裂的、扭曲了的人物性格。文学教师应该搜集相关的文学背景和历史背景资料,力求把最能说明问题的贴切而又生动的材料介绍给学生，并使学生在学习文学史的过程中了解一定的英美两国历史。 其二,导入文化语境，辅助文学史与作品教学。文化语境“三源泉”,即古希腊、罗马神话故事,《圣经》故事和亚瑟王传奇故事,是贯穿整个英美文学的脉络。因此，阐明文化语境有助于学生更好地理解文学作品。纵观英美文学历史,像Shakespeare、Milton、Melville、Faulkner等作家的作品,大部分都有直接引用或间接借用这些文化语境源泉。文学教师本身应该熟悉并研读这些文化语境源泉故事,并向学生讲述这些故事,否则学生阅读文学作品时不能吃透原文的内涵,特别是作品中包含的文化内涵。例如,Milton在《Paradise Lost》中直接引用了《圣经》故事:撒旦造反、伊甸园、偷食禁果等。如果没有文化语境知识,学生在阅读时很难跨越文化鸿沟。 其三,结合作家生平,把握作品的思想精神。分析文学作品,把握它的思想精神必须联系、考察作家的生平,尤其是他一生当中对他的文学创作产生了巨大影响的事件和人物,以及他的创作思想。例如在学习D.H.Lawrence的'《Sons and Lovers》时,学生需要了解他的生平,父亲是一位粗俗的煤矿工人,母亲是一位有教养的教师,对婚姻不满,把自己的全部情感倾注到她的两个儿子身上——D.H.Lawrence和他的哥哥。哥哥不幸夭折,母亲的爱全部给了D.H.Lawrence。母亲的爱超过了母亲对儿子正常的爱,以至于D.H.Lawrence不能与异性发展正常的关系。他后来与一位已婚女子结了婚,但他的一生都生活在母亲的阴影之中,可以说《Sons and Lovers》是他的生平写照。 2.采取互动教学法提高教学质量和学习效果 在传统的教学模式中,教师是所谓的“百科全书”,是至高无上、不可动摇的权威。学生往往具有较高程度的焦虑感和被动感。在教学中,师生之间应该是一种平等合作的关系。这种关系不仅是表现在教师与学生共同解决语言认知方面的问题,而且也表现在包括师生情感、人格在内的精神整体互动的过程中。教师应相信学生具有主观能动性,具有学习的潜力和能力。这对于学生增强自信心、消除焦虑感、解决被动学习尤为重要。英美文学对学生来说是陌生的,学习起来有一定的困难。因此，学生不免会产生畏惧感和枯燥感。教师应该充分调动学生的积极性,鼓励学生查找相关资料，要求他们根据自己所查找的资料和信息进行陈述和发表意见，充分调动学生的主观能动性和思维的创造性。教师可为学生提供思路,或对学生的陈述进行评论,使学生认识到自己思维的独特之处和欠缺之处。另外，研究表明学生与学生之间的互动可显著提升学习效果。因此，在教学过程中，可以采取学生之间相互合作的教学模式，即将学生分成若干小组，每个小组负责查询某一作家或某一文学时期的相关资料。学生在课堂上，将所掌握信息讲述出来，并加以自己的评价。在这个过程中，学生之间相互合作可解决语言问题并进行思想沟通。这样，有助于培养学生友好合作精神。在英美文学教学过程中,不同的学生之间具有信息差。不同的学生会对某一作家或作品从不同的视角来认识和评价。教师要认识到这种差异，做到“有教无类、因材施教”，针对不同的情况采取不同的解决办法。虽然一个人的视野是有限的,但学生通过相互交流,可以丰富和拓宽自己的视野。 3.教师完善知识结构 作为一名高校英美文学教师，首先不仅要熟悉英美两国文学，还要了解和精通中国文学及熟悉其他国别的文学，以便在教学中做到游刃有余，满足学生学习文学专业知识的需求；其次，除文学专业知识外，教师应具有渊博的人文学科知识，要做到精通一门、熟悉几门、涉猎多门。对人文学科中的历史、哲学、心理学等与文学紧密相关的学科具有广博的知识；再次，教师须掌握文献检索、资料查询的方法，具有科学研究和实际工作的能力，并且熟悉现代多媒体等各种先进的教学手段。在教学过程中，教授学生如何查阅文献，并培养学生具有一定的独立学习的能力；最后，英美文学教师须掌握丰富的本国文化知识，使学生了解英美文学史和作品的同时，提高对本国文化的热爱。努力培养出具有国际视野的人才，并能进行中西对比，增强对文化差异的敏感性，认识中西文化各自的优势，扬长避短。 三、结论 传统的英美文学教学模式已经不能有效地培养学生对英美文学的兴趣,提升学生的文化修养和人文素质。英美文学教学需要改革,其中教学过程的改革尤为重要。在这一过程中,只有实现教师与学生、学生与学生、文学史与文选的互动,才能使整个教学系统顺利地运行，从而提高教学质量和学习效果。 参考文献： [1]杨岂深，孙 铢 .英国文学选读（第一册）[M].上海:上海译文出版社,1981. [2]常耀信.美国文学简史（第二版）[M].天津：南开大学出版社, 2003. [3]佐斌.师生互动论——课堂师生互动的心理学研究[M]. 武汉:华中师范大学出版社, 2002. [4]程爱民等.关于我国高校英美文学教学现状的调查报告[J].外语研究,2002,(1). [5]教育部.高等学校英语专业教学大纲[M].上海：外语教育出版社，2000. [6]孟育凤.英美文学课程教学改革的思考与实践[J].长春大学学报，2007，（6）. 论文相关查阅： 毕业论文范文 、 计算机毕业论文 、 毕业论文格式 、 行政管理论文 、 毕业论文 ;
摘要]英语是世界上词汇最丰富的语言之一。英语习语是语言发展的结晶，渗透着浓郁的西方文化，交织着其他民族的影响。本文通过英文影片及其英语习语的发展和特性来探讨英美文化。[关键词]英语；英语习语；英文影片[作者简介]杨柳，南京工程学院外语系副教授。研究方向：教育学、英语教学、英语语言学。作为全球性的语言，英语已经被越来越多国家的人们使用着。英语原是日尔曼语族的一个小语种，“出身”并不那么显得高贵，在它的历史过程中，曾经有两次差点儿被消灭，但是今天它却成了一种人们不得不对它刮目相看的全球性的语言。一、语言与文化的关系语言是一种社会现象，是人与人的交际工具，也是使人与文化融于一体的媒介。它随着人类社会的发展而发展、变化而变化。语言是文化形成和发展的前提，文化的发展反过来又促进语言的丰富和完善。人类用语言创造了文化，文化又反过来影响了人类，并促使人类走向更大的进步[3]。语言与文化是相辅相成、携手共进的。人类的语言是人类社会文化中的语言，它与人类社会、人类的文化有着许多密切的关系。语言具有明显的文化特征：语言是有规律的；语言是人类特有的；语言是后天习得而来的，而不是靠基因遗传的。美国是一个典型的多种族国家，世界各地的人由于不同的原因移民到这个国家，组成了美利坚民族。在这个民族“大熔炉”里只通用一种语言，那就是美国英语。新移民虽然带着自己民族的语言来到美国，最终都得自觉或不自觉地学会讲英语，否则就无法融入美国社会。移民的后裔只会讲英语，不会讲自己祖先的语言。他们可以把自己所有的生理特征遗传给他们的子女，却无法把自己祖先的语言遗传给子女。这说明了语言不是依靠基因遗传给后代的，而是靠后天习得的。语言是人类用来表达思想、传递感情的交通工具。语言以不同地区、不同民族、不同社会集团的社会成员共同认可为前提，以约定俗成的方式，形成各种语音符号和书写符号，加上各种组合规则和表现形式，反映出使用该语言的民族的地域特征、经济发展、风土人情以及社会习俗。因此语言在反映社会文化的同时，又受到社会文化的制约。语言中的词汇与民族文化息息相关，而词汇中的习语对民族文化的发展和变化起着积极的作用。在人类生活中，语言几乎无时不在、无处不在，与人的活动形影不离。因此社会文化中的每一个侧面都会反映到习语中来，这种语言词汇中习语的发展和变化反映了使用这种语言的民族文化的发展史。人们用语言交流思想、表达感情、传授知识的过程，也就是人们从语言中学习文化，又从文化中习得语言的过程。二、语言与习语的关系语言是人在劳动中创造的，习语是语言特征的集中反映，它来自于普通百姓的生产劳动和生活经历，是语言的精华、语言的缩影；语言是一个任意的符号系统，习语是人在长期的语言实践中约定俗成的；语言是以交际为目的的，习语的起源就是在口头交际中使用最频繁的俚语和俗语；语言是人类文化中的一个特殊组成部分，习语则反映出文化对语言的巨大影响；语言是人的智慧的表现，习语较集中地反映出语言的修辞手段和表现手法（其中相当一部分是文学巨匠的精彩词句）；语言是为人类各种活动服务的，而习语正生动地反映出人类生活的方方面面。三、看英文影片学习英语语言英文电影是一种充满魅力的艺术形式，它融入了诸如文学、音乐、戏剧等艺术精华，又涉及文化、宗教、爱情等人类永恒的主题。英文电影中有语言交际的自然环境，加上人物的面部表情、手势、体态，最大限度地体现了语言的感染力，使语言形象化、生动化。看英文影片我们能学到许多的知识，有些句子都是地道的表达法。影片《我最好朋友的婚礼》（My Best Friend’s Wedding）里，牧师问：“Do-you-take-this-man part?”只有了解了英语国家的customs,才能知道这句话指的是婚礼上牧师或法官问新娘是否同意这门婚事，即全句应该是“Do you take this man as your lawful husband?”了解英语国家的一些饮食习惯和风俗是必须的，学语言也要学习文化，因为语言是文化的载体。有的影片不仅能学到英语知识，还能从中悟出些人生哲理。电影《情归巴黎》（Sabrina）里有一句“The girl (Sabrina) grew up, and went beyond the walls of the grounds and found the world.”就表达了一种朴素的人生真理，也就是孔子所说的“行万里路”对人生的作用。的确，当今世界，“眼光和眼界决定人的命运”。影片中该句话就表达了应先“see the world”，再 “find the world”，进而才能“find yourself”。电影是文化的传播者。王佐良先生曾说过：“不了解语言的社会文化，谁也无法真正掌握语言。”观英文电影不能只局限于语音、词汇、句型的归纳和总结，还要上升到用英语来思维的层面。影片《阿甘正传》（Forest Gump）里，无论故事的叙述、情节的发展还是人物关系的变迁都有着与中式思维不太相同的地方。如：阿甘在影片的最后说：“I don’t know if we each have a destiny or we’re all just floating around accidental-like on a breeze. But I think that maybe it’s both. Maybe both are happening at the same time.”这是阿甘对命运的思索。人的命运是按照一定的轨迹运行，还是像羽毛那样漂浮不但不定，或许两者兼有，或许两者同时发生。其实命运本身就包含着必然和偶然，必然之中又蕴涵着偶然，反过来偶然的因素又促成了命运的必然。这些通过语言表达出来的文化差异以英文影片的形式让我们了解了西方文化及其特点。英文影片里大量的习语更有助于我们对英语语言的学习。将影片中一些耳熟能详的经典语言用在口语交际中，通俗易懂，口语质量自然就提高了。四、英语习语的特点习语是语言长期使用的结果，是从语言中提炼出来的短语或短句，是语言的核心和精华。没有习语，语言就会变得枯燥乏味、死气沉沉。交际中，恰当、纯熟、流利的习语能够增强语言的表现能力，好比锦上添花。由于习语是人民大众口头上广为习用、相沿已久、约定俗成的定型词组或短句，所以作为一种特殊的语言形式，也就有着与一般语言形式不同的特点：（一）习语的民族性——习语与一个民族的地理环境、历史背景、经济生活、风俗习惯、宗教信仰、心理状态、价值观念等方面有着不可分割的联系，它能清楚地反映出一个民族的文化特色。同在一个地球上的人们虽居住在世界各地，有些经验和意识却是相似的。习语的民族性的典型表现之一就是“比喻意义相同或相似，比喻的物体不同”。习语的民族性的典型表现之二是“比喻形象相同，比喻意义不同或者不完全相同”。（二）习语的民间性——世界上各种语言的习语大都来自民间。英语中多数习语是海上的水手、森林中的猎人、田间的农民、军队里的士兵、家庭里的主妇以及作坊里的伙计创作的。英国是个四周环海的岛国，因此习语大多与航海、捕鱼有关。内地山区的人靠狩猎为生，有许多习语包括习语的延伸都与他们有关。主妇们说：“A stitch in time saves nine.”（一针及时省九针。）（三）习语的比喻性——习语是语言中的重要修辞手段，而比喻则是主要的修辞手段。在修辞学上，比喻可以分为明喻、暗喻、换喻、提喻。明喻（Simile）是本体、喻体、比喻词都出现的比喻。在结构中，喻体和比喻意义全部表现出来，意思清楚、一目了然。如我们常用的：as timid as a rabbit（胆小如鼠）；as cool as cucumber （泰然自若）；as silent as the grave （守口如瓶）明喻的另一种结构是用like引出喻体，比喻意义由读者自己去联想。如：like a red rag to a bull （像一块红布对牛那样）。[ 此习语来自西班牙之斗牛比赛：斗牛士用一块红布挑恤牛以引起牛的愤怒，比喻“令某人很生气或大发雷霆”]。暗喻（Metaphor）是一种含蓄的比喻，本体和喻体同时出现，前者与后者是相和的关系，没有比喻词like 或as，但比明喻更简洁、幽默。如：irons in the fire （火中的铁）[ 说的是铁匠打铁时，火炉上有好几块铁都烧红了等着要打，比喻“手头要做的事很多或解决问题的办法很多”]。换喻（Metonymy）是用与本体事物有密切联系的另一类事物来指代本体事物。提喻（Synecdoche）是用与本体事物同类的一件事物来代替本体事物。（四）习语的整体性——习语是语言中独立、固定的部分，以短语或短句出现在句中，但又只当作一个成分使用，有时甚至就等于一个词，即使有的习语可以从词义上或语法上加以分析，也仍然应该把它们作为一个整体来对待。因为习语在意义上往往是独立的，具有整体性。（五）习语的和谐性——习语常利用声音的和谐（Euphony）来达到易懂易记、顺口入耳、生动有力的目的。一般是利用头韵（Alliteration）和尾韵（Rhyme）来增加语音美感和修辞效果。有的习语则体现在对仗工整（Antithesis）。五、英语习语与历史发展人类社会历史的发展对语言的影响是巨大的。随着时代的变迁，旧的语言逐渐衰亡，新的语言则不断产生。英语习语的发展也曾经受到过多种影响，历史上，罗马人的征服、条顿人的征服、斯堪的纳维亚人的入侵、诺曼底人的征服、北美殖民地的独立、以及两次世界大战都对英语习语产生了很大的影响。1066年，诺曼底公爵威廉（William）率领军队和舰队渡海，入侵英国，大败英军开始了历史上的诺曼底王朝时代（House of Normandy）。诺曼底人的征服对英语的影响是巨大的。它使法语成为英语的三大来源之一。同时向英国社会施加法国文化的影响。如今英语里take the French leave或French Farewell（法国式告别），就是因为法国18世纪有参加宴会的客人不向主人告辞而自行离去的习俗，是英国人蔑视法国人的习语，指“不告而别”。从1607年英国在北美洲建立第一个殖民地弗吉尼亚起到1763年一个半世纪里，英国控制了北美洲的大片土地，建立了发达的工商、渔、造船、农、畜牧业，经济上形成统一的大市场，各殖民地都以英语为共同语言，逐步形成了统一的文化和思想，一个新的民族——美利坚民族出现了，并于1776年宣告独立，成立美利坚合众国（the United States of America）。虽说美国英语是在英国英语的基础上发展起来的，但由于其独立的民族、经济和文化等因素，使得其与英国英语必然不同。如今不可否认的是，美国英语已经成为世界英语大家族的一大成员。英语习语来自美国英语的例子也有很多。以人们日常生活中经常用到的OK为例，OK就是一个典型的美国英语习语。起源有几个说法：一说来自美国第26任总统威尔逊，他在批示公文喜欢用印第安语Okeh的缩写，意思是“行，就这么办！”；另一说法是OK来自无线电通信，电报员接到电文后，必须用一种信号表示收到。这个信号最先用all correct ，后来all逐渐演变成O，correct 则变成了K。不管起源怎样，OK最初是美国俚语，而现在已风行全球，即使英国人也常常挂在嘴边。世界进入20世纪以后的战争发生频率也很高，尤其是两次世界大战对英美这两个主要的英语国家的经济文化产生了巨大的影响。战争科学的飞速发展导致大量新武器、新设施、新产品词汇的增长，尤以军事新词汇为多。最点型的例子是jeep(吉普车)一词，现在称作四轮军用小车的jeep原来的正式名称叫“通用车”（Genral Purpose, G. P.）。第一次世界大战期间美国兵大部分都热衷于看漫画家西格的连环漫画《凸眼兽》（Popeye）。这个故事中有一个怪诞、调皮的野兽叫做尤金· 吉普（Eugene the Jeep）。成千上万的美国大兵觉得这个叫jeep的怪兽很有趣，加上这个词又与G.P.的发音相近，于是就用jeep来称呼这种四轮通用军车了。如今这个家喻户晓的词在世界其他地方也很普及，已进入了世界其他民族的语言了。亚洲最受欢迎动作片巨星成龙在《尖峰时刻》（his made-in-America blockbuster Rush Hour）里所扮演的角色就征服了整个好来坞。六、结束语文化是一种社会行为，是社会成员长期从事某些活动而形成的有规律的处世方式，其形成需要时间和人群。习语是俗语、俚语包括行话经过长期、广泛的使用形成的，同样需要时间的检验和大众的认可。习语是有生命的，它像人一样有出生、长大、成熟、衰老、死亡的过程。只有对语言与文化的密切关系有所了解，才能学好语言，用好语言，使语言真正成为能传神达意的交际工具。〔参考文献〕[1] 费尔南德·莫塞《英语简史》[ M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社1990.[2] 平洪，张国扬.《英语习语与英美文化》[ M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社2000.[3] 邓炎昌，刘润清.《语言与文化》[ M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1991[4] 陈治刚等.《英美概况》[ M]，上海：上海译文出版社，1988.[5] 杨柳.《文化差异与翻译的求同存异》[J].南京工程学院学报2005年第2期第5卷一切来源于网络，本人只是帮助人，不负责版权问题
Gone from the Promised Land: Jonestown in American cultural history : John Hall, New Jersey, Transaction Books, 1987, xx + 381 pp. $29.95 Religion, Volume 20, Issue 1, January 1990, Pages 89-92David Chidester Skinheads shaved for battle: A cultural history of American skinheads : By Jack B. Moore Bowling Green State University Press (Bowling Green, Ohio 43403), 1993, 200 pp., hardcover—$37.95, softcover—$14.95 Journal of Criminal Justice, Volume 24, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 369-371Betty Dobratz History of Asian American Psychology Original Research ArticleCultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, Volume 15, Issue 4, October 2009, Pages 352-362Frederick T.L. Leong, Sumie Okazaki The return of cultural history? ‘Literary’ historiography from Nietzsche to Hayden White Original Research ArticleHistory of European Ideas, Volume 29, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 73-84Hans-Peter S�0�2der Asian and European American Cultural Values, Collective Self-Esteem, Acculturative Stress, Cognitive Flexibility, and General Self-Efficacy Among Asian American College Students Original Research ArticleJournal of Counseling Psychology, Volume 52, Issue 3, July 2005, Pages 412-419Bryan S.K. Kim, Michael M. Omizo Managerial competency appraisal: A cross-cultural study of American and East Asian managers Original Research ArticleJournal of Business Research, Volume 61, Issue 3, March 2008, Pages 191-200Eric Chong Cultural history from corporate archives Original Research ArticlePublic Relations Review, Volume 16, Issue 3, Autumn 1990, Pages 105-114Roland Marchand Reflecting media: A cultural history of copyright and the mediaThe History of Information Security, 2007, Pages 83-119Robert Verhoogt, Chris Schriks
英语的起源一 英语的“家谱” 英语是印欧 (1ndo-European)语系。印欧语系是世界上最大的语系，包括欧洲、美洲和亚洲的大部分语言。讲印欧诸种语言的总人数约有十八亿七千五百万，占世界总人口的一半左右。早在1786年，英国梵文（Sanskrit)学者威廉·琼斯爵士 (Sir William Jones) 就指出：欧洲、印度、波斯等地的大多数语言，包括古希腊语、古拉丁语及古印度语属于同一“家族”。 原始印欧人是什么样的人? 他们居住在何方? 他们的语言究竞是什么样子的? 对这些问题，我们今天仍缺乏文献的考证。但是通过长时期的研究，语言学家们得出了探索性的结论他们发现：属于印欧语系的许多语种都有表示“冬天”、“雪”和“寒冷”等意义的词，这说明原始印欧语最初是在气候比较冷的地一带使用的。另一方面，某些热带地区动植物名称的词，如“狮子”、“大象”、“稻米”、“竹”、“棕榈树”等，在原始印欧语中是不存在的；而印欧语系各语种中却都有表示“白杨”、“栎树”、“柳树”、“白桦”、“熊”、“狼”、“羊”、“鹰”、“蜜蜂”等动植物名称的相似词。通过这样的探索和研究，许多人认为，当人类进入新石器时代，欧洲中东部曾居隹着一些游牧部落，他们饲养着象羊、狗、奶牛和马这样的家畜，会使用马和简陋的马车，并能够驰骋于一望无际的原野上。这些游牧部落就是原始印欧人，他们用于交际的语言就是原始印欧语。大约在公元前3500年至公元前2500年间，这些原始印欧人开始迁徒。有些向西移动，有些向东移动，而有些则向南移动，到达今天的南亚次大陆。这些部落的大迁徒导致印欧语系的逐步形成。古印度语与古代欧洲语言之所以非常相近，其历史根源即在于此。 印欧语系包括：（一）印度语族(Indic);（二）．伊朗语族(Iranian);(三)斯拉夫语族（Slavic）,(四)波罗的话族（Baltic）,（五）日耳曼语族（Germanic）,（六）拉丁语族（亦称罗曼语族[Romance]）, （七）凯尔特语族（Celtic）,（八）希腊语族；（九）阿尔巴尼亚语（Albanian）,（十）亚美尼亚语族（Armenian）, （十一）吐火罗语族（Tocharian;Tokharian）（十二）赫梯语族（Hittite）。日耳曼语族是一个比较大的语族。它又分为三个语支：(一)东日耳曼语支（EastGermanic）主要以现已绝迹的哥特语（Gothic）为代表；（二）北日耳曼语支（North Germanic）,主要以古北欧语（Oid Norse）为代表，包括今日的挪威语（Norwegian）、冰岛语（Icelandic）、瑞典语和丹麦语等；（三）西日耳曼语支（West Germanic）包括低地德语（Low German） 今日的荷兰语（Dutch）、高地德语（High German）、英语、弗里西亚语（Frisian）佛兰芒语（Flemish）等。因此，我们说：英语属于印欧语系的日耳曼语族的西日耳曼语支。 二 英语的形成 英国南面隔英吉利海峡（the English Channel）、多佛尔海峡（the Straits of Dover）与法国相望，东面和东南面隔北海(the North Sea)与荷兰、比利时、丹麦、挪威遥对。距 欧洲大陆最窄处的多佛尔海峡仅三十公里宽。英国的领土主要包括大不列颠岛和爱尔兰岛东北部。大不列颠岛包括三个地区：英格兰占南部和中部，威尔士占西部山地半岛，苏格兰占北部；其中以英格兰最为重要。大不列颠岛是欧洲第一大岛，海岸非常曲折，长达一万一千四百五十公里。英语就是在这样的地理环境中形成的。为了说明英语的起源，我们有必要回顾一下英语形之前的英国史前史。文物考查已经证明，古代印欧游牧部落西移之前今天的不列颠诸岛上已居住着旧石器人(Paleolithic Man)。那时，不列颠诸岛和欧洲大陆是连成一片的，英国和法国之间还没有今天的英吉利海峡和多佛尔海峡，莱茵河(the Rhine)与泰晤士河(the Thames)之间尚由其支流相接、今天的英国仍属欧洲大陆的一部分。大约在距今九千年的时候；由于地壳的变迁，大不列颠诸岛从欧洲大陆分离出来。所以史前的旧石器人能够在不列颠定居下来并不足为怪。曾任过英国首相的温斯顿·邱召尔Sir Winston Churchill）(1874?/FONT>1965)在其《说英语的民族史》（History of the English Speaking Peoples）一书中，曾这样描写居住在不列颠的旧石器人：很明显，那些赤身裸体或只披着兽皮的男人和女人或觅食于原始密林之中，或涉猎于沼泽、草滩至于他们所说的语言，尚无史料可查。大约在公元前3000年，伊比利亚人（Iberians）从地中海地区来到不列颠岛定居。他们给不列颠带来了新石器（Neolithic）文化，同时征服了先前在那儿居住的旧石器人。大约从公元前500年开始，凯尔特人；（Celts）从欧洲大陆进犯并占领了不列颠诸岛。凯尔特人最初居住在今天德国南部地区，他们是欧洲最早学会制造和使用铁器和金制装饰品的民族；在征服不列颠之前，他们曾征服了今天的法国、西班牙：葡萄牙、意大利等地区；来到不列颠后，一部分凯尔特人在今天的爱尔兰和苏格兰定居下来，其余的一部分占领了今天的英格兰的南部和东部。每到一处，他们都对伊比利亚人进行残酷的杀戳。凯尔特人讲凯尔特语。今天居住在苏格兰北部和西部山地的盖尔人（Gaels）仍使用这种语言。在英语形成之前凯尔特语是在不列颠岛上所能发现的唯一具有史料依据的最早的格言。 公元前55年的夏天，罗马帝国的恺撒大帝（Julius Caesar）在征服高卢（Gaul）之后来到不列颠。那时，他的目的未必是想征服不列颠，而是想警告凯尔特人不要支持那些居住在高占的、正受罗马人奴役的凯尔特同族人。恺撒大帝的这次‘不列颠之行’并没有给罗马帝国带来什么好处，相反却在一定程度上降低了他的威信。第二年，即公元前54年的夏天，恺撒大帝第二次亲临不列颠。这次，他在不列颠岛东南部站稳了脚跟，并与当地的凯尔特人发生了一些冲突。恺撒大帝虽然取胜，但并没有能使凯尔特人屈服。不久，他又回到了高卢；在以后的大约一百年间，罗马帝国并没有对不列颠构成很大的威胁。 英国历史上的真正的“罗马人的征服”(Roman Conquest)是在公元后43年开始的。当时罗马皇帝克罗迪斯(Claudius)率领四万人马，用了三年时间终于征服了不列颠岛的中部和中南部随后，整个的英格兰被罗马牢牢控制了。，随着军事占领，罗马文化与风格习惯渗入不列颠。罗马人的服装、装饰品、陶器和玻璃器皿很快在不列颠得到推广；社会生活开始：“罗马化”这必然导致拉丁语在不列颠的传播。在以胜利者自居的罗马人看来，凯尔特人无疑是“低贱的”，凯尔特语自然不能登“大雅之堂”那时，在不列颠，官方用语、法律用语、商业用语等均是拉丁语；拉丁语成了上层凯尔特人的第二语言。这就是凯尔特语词汇为什么很少能幸存下来的历史原因。在今日英语中，只是在一些地名和河流名称方面还保留着凯尔特的词汇成分。例如the Thames ,the Cam,the Dee ,the Avon , the Esk , the Exe , the Stour , the Aire , the Derwent , the Ouse , the Severn , the Tees , the Trent , the Wye等，均是凯尔特人命名的河流。在Duncombe, Winchcombe, Holcome, Cumberland, Coombe 等地名中，也可看到凯尔特语cumb (=deep valley::深谷）一词的成分，在Torcross , Torquay,Torrington等地名中，尚保留着凯尔特语torr (=high rock or peak;高岩或山顶）一词的成分。英国著名城市多尔佛（Dover）、约克(York)的名称也源于凯尔特语。罗马人占领不列颠长达四百年，直到公元407年，罗马人才因罗马帝国内外交困不得不开始撤离不列颠。 大约在公元449年，居住在西北欧的三个日耳曼部族侵犯不列颠。他们是盎格鲁（Angles）、撒克逊人（Saxons）和朱特人（Jutes）他们乘船横渡北海，借罗马帝国衰落、自顾不暇之机‘一举侵入大不列颠诸岛。他们遭到凯尔特人的顽强抵抗，征服过程拖延了一个半世纪之久：到了公元六世纪末，大不列颠请岛上原先的居民凯尔特人几乎灭绝，幸存者或逃入山林．或沦为奴隶。这就是英国历史上发生的“日耳曼人征服”，亦称“条顿人征服”Teutonic Conquest）。这次外来入侵．对英语的形成起了十分关键的作用。 盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人属古代日耳曼人。分市在北欧日德兰半岛、丹麦诸岛、德国西北沿海一带。在罗马帝国时期，他们往往统称为“蛮族部落”。他们从事畜牧和狩猎，过着半游牧的生活，且很早就知道农耕。他们的土地是氏族的公有财产，农业经营带有原始的流动性质。随着社会的发展，氏族公社逐渐解体，出现了氏族贵族和军事首领。他们的财富和权势在频繁的掠夺中剧增。军事首领名义上是由民众大会推选产生的，实际上都出于同一家族。恩格斯曾把这种氏族部落的管理制度称作军事民主制；他这样写道：“其所以称为军事民主制，是因为战争以及进行战争的组织现在已成为民族生活的正常职能。邻人的财富刺激了各民族的贪欲。这些民族把获得财富看成是最重要的生活目的之一。他们是野蛮人。进行掠夺在他们看来是比进行创造性劳动更容易，甚至更荣誉的事情。以前进行战争，只是为了对侵犯进行报复，或者是为了扩大已经感到不够的领上；观在进行战争，则纯粹是为了掠夺，战争成为经常的职业了。“ 这些所谓的‘蛮族”，在摧毁当时罗马帝国的奴隶制，以及推动西欧封建制度的诞生过程中，起过十分重要的作用。征服不列颠后，盎格鲁人主要占领了洪伯河（the Humber）以北地区；撒克逊人主要占领了泰晤士河以南地区；朱特人主要盘踞在英格兰东南端的肯特（Kent） 和南汉普郡（Southern Hampshire）；以及位于英格兰之南、靠近今天的朴次茅斯(Portsmouth)的怀特岛（the Isle of Wight），形成许多小国。公元七世纪初，这些小园合并为七个王国：南部有撒克逊人的威塞克斯（Wessex）、萨塞克斯(Sussex)和埃塞克斯(Essex)；东北部和中部有盎格鲁人的梅尔西亚(Mercia)、诺森伯里亚（Northumbria），和东盎格里亚(East Anglia)；东南部有朱特人的肯特(Kent)王国。各国竞相争雄，达两百年之久；在英国历史上称为“七国时代”(the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy)。这三个日耳曼部族虽然有各自的方言，但这些方言均属低地西日耳曼语(Low West Germanic)。有许多共同之处．因此三个部落在语言方面基本上是相通的。他们都使用一种叫做茹尼克（Runic）的文字。这种文字是古代日耳曼各民族通用的文字．它的字母主要由直线组成，以便于刻在木头或石块上，是一种由古希腊语和拉丁语发展起来的北欧碑文字。随着人类社会的发展，盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人逐渐形成统一的英吉利民族．他们各自使用的方言也逐渐溶合，出现了一种新的语言枣盎格鲁撒克逊语(Anglo-Saxon)。这就是古英语。它是在特定的地理和历史环境中，经过一系列民族迁移与征服的过程所形成的。 那么English和England的名称是如何来的呢？原来，凯尔特人将征服他们的盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人习惯地统称为Saxons(撒克逊人)。早期拉丁语学者仿照凯尔特人的习惯．也将这三个日耳曼部族称作Saxones．并将他们征服的不列颠称作Saxonia。到了公元七世纪． 由于用森伯利亚王国和梅尔西亚王国在政治上和文化上的影响剧增，而在这棿�ň酉吕吹闹饕�前桓衤橙耍��栽缙诶�⊙д哂殖S?/FONT>Angli和Anglia指所有的三个部族和他们在不列颠所占有的地盘。随后,Angli和Anglia在拉丁语著作中分别代替了Saxones和Saxonia。到了公元700年所有的人都把当时通行在不列颠岛上的语言称作Englisc（盎格鲁人一直就是这样称呼其使用的语言的)，三个入侵的日耳曼部族则统称为Angelcynn(=kin of the Angles即“盎格鲁人的家族”)到了公元1000年整个国家则被称作Englaland (=land of the Angles盎格鲁人的土地)。由于语言内部在发音和拼写方面发生了演变Englisc和Englaland才变成了今天的English和England。 在追溯英语的历史发展时，我们通常将它分为三个时期：（一）古英语(Old English)，从公元450年至1150年；(二)中古英语(Middle English)，从公元1150年至1500年；，（三）现代英语(Modern English)，从1500年至今。为便于研究，我们常把1500?/FONT>1700年的英语称作“早期现代英语”(Early Modern English)，1700年至今的英语称作“后期现代英语”(Later Modern English)。这样的分期当然不是绝对的，但它有助于我们对英语历史发展全过程的了解和研究。
Old English, until 1066 Immigrants from Denmark and NW Germany arrived in Britain in the 5th and 6th Centuries A.D., speaking in related dialects belonging to the Germanic and Teutonic branches of the Indo-European language family. Today, English is most closely related to Flemish, Dutch, and German, and is somewhat related to Icelandic, Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish. Icelandic, unchanged for 1,000 years, is very close to Old English. Viking invasions, begun in the 8th Century, gave English a Norwegian and Danish influence which lasted until the Norman Conquest of 1066. Old English Words The Angles came from an angle-shaped land area in contemporary Germany. Their name "Angli" from the Latin and commonly-spoken, pre-5th Century German mutated into the Old English "Engle". Later, "Engle" changed to "Angel-cyn" meaning "Angle-race" by A.D. 1000, changing to "Engla-land". Some Old English words which have survived intact include: feet, geese, teeth, men, women, lice, and mice. The modern word "like" can be a noun, adjective, verb, and preposition. In Old English, though, the word was different for each type: gelica as a noun, geic as an adjective, lician as a verb, and gelice as a preposition. Middle English, from 1066 until the 15th Century The Norman Invasion and Conquest of Britain in 1066 and the resulting French Court of William the Conqueror gave the Norwegian-Dutch influenced English a Norman-Parisian-French effect. From 1066 until about 1400, Latin, French, and English were spoken. English almost disappeared entirely into obscurity during this period by the French and Latin dominated court and government. However, in 1362, the Parliament opened with English as the language of choice, and the language was saved from extinction. Present-day English is approximately 50% Germanic (English and Scandinavian) and 50% Romance (French and Latin). Middle English Words Many new words added to Middle English during this period came from Norman French, Parisian French, and Scandinavian. Norman French words imported into Middle English include: catch, wage, warden, reward, and warrant. Parisian French gave Middle English: chase, guarantee, regard, guardian, and gage. Scandinavian gave to Middle English the important word of law. English nobility had titles which were derived from both Middle English and French. French provided: prince, duke, peer, marquis, viscount, and baron. Middle English independently developed king, queen, lord, lady, and earl. Governmental administrative divisions from French include county, city, village, justice, palace, mansion, and residence. Middle English words include town, home, house, and hall. Early Modern English, from the 15th Century to the 17th Century During this period, English became more organized and began to resemble the modern version of English. Although the word order and sentence construction was still slightly different, Early Modern English was at least recognizable to the Early Modern English speaker. For example, the Old English "To us pleases sailing" became "We like sailing." Classical elements, from Greek and Latin, profoundly influenced work creation and origin. From Greek, Early Modern English received grammar, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. Also, the "tele-" prefix meaning "far" later used to develop telephone and television was taken. Modern English, from the 17th Century to Modern Times Modern English developed through the efforts of literary and political writings, where literacy was uniformly found. Modern English was heavily influenced by classical usage, the emergence of the university-educated class, Shakespeare, the common language found in the East Midlands section of present-day England, and an organized effort to document and standardize English. Current inflections have remained almost unchanged for 400 years, but sounds of vowels and consonants have changed greatly. As a result, spelling has also changed considerably. For example, from Early English to Modern English, lyf became life, deel became deal, hoom became home, mone became moon, and hous became house. Advantages and Disadvantages of Modern English Modern English is composed of several languages, with grammar rules, spelling, and word usage both complimenting and competing for clarity. The disadvantages of Modern English include: an alphabet which is unable to adequately represent all needed sounds without using repeated or combined letters, a limit of 23 letters of the 26 in the alphabet which can effectively express twice the number of sounds actually needed, and a system of spelling which is not based upon pronunciation but foreign language word origin and countless changes throughout history. The advantages of Modern English include: single consonants which are clearly understood and usually represent the same sounds in the same positions, the lack of accent marks found in other languages which permits quicker writing, and the present spelling displays European language origins and connections which allows European language speakers to become immediately aware of thousands of words. Modern English Words British English, known as Standard English or Oxford English, underwent changes as the colonization of North American and the creation of the United States occurred. British English words changed into American English words, such as centre to center, metre to meter, theatre to theater, favour to favor, honour to honor, labour to labor, neighbour to neighbor, cheque to check, connexion to connection, gaol to jail, the storey of a house to story, and tyre for tire. Since 1900, words with consistent spelling but different meanings from British English to American English include: to let for to rent, dual carriageway for divided highway, lift for elevator, amber for yellow, to ring for to telephone, zebra crossing for pedestrian crossing, and pavement for sidewalk. American English, from the 18th Century until Modern Times Until the 18th Century, British and American English were remarkably similar with almost no variance. Immigration to America by other English peoples changed the language by 1700. Noah Webster, author of the first authoritative American English dictionary, created many changes. The "-re" endings became "-er" and the "-our" endings became "-or". Spelling by pronunciation and personal choice from Webster were influences. Cough, Sought, Thorough, Thought, and Through Why do these "ough" words have the same central spelling but are so different? This is a characteristic of English, which imported similarly spelled or defined words from different languages over the past 1,000 years. Cough From the Middle High German kuchen meaning to breathe heavily, to the French-Old English cohhian, to the Middle English coughen is derived the current word cough. Sought From the Greek hegeisthai meaning to lead, to the Latin sagire meaning to perceive keenly, to the Old High German suohhen meaning to seek, to the French-Old English secan, to the Middle English sekken, is derived the past tense sought of the present tense of the verb to seek. Thorough From the French-Old English thurh and thuruh to the Middle English thorow is derived the current word thorough. Thought From the Old English thencan, which is related to the French-Old English word hoht, which remained the same in Middle English, is derived the current word thought. Through From the Sanskrit word tarati, meaning he crossed over, came the Latin word, trans meaning across or beyond. Beginning with Old High German durh, to the French-Old English thurh, to the Middle English thurh, thruh, or through, is derived the current word through
论文答辩自述英文
在个人成长的多个环节中，大家都经常接触到论文吧，通过论文写作可以提高我们综合运用所学知识的`能力。那么问题来了，到底应如何写一篇优秀的论文呢？以下是我帮大家整理的论文答辩自述英文，欢迎大家分享。
Good morning, professors and everyone. I come from JMU College. I am XXX and my supervisor is prof XXX. With her sincere and intellectual guidance, I have finished my paper.
The title of my paper is An Analysis of Ahab’s Personality Tragedy in Moby Dick. I choose this title as my topic due to the following reasons. Firstly, I am fond of literature works , especially gothic literature works. Secondly, I am quite familiar with this work as this is one of the texts in our American literature course . Last but not least , Moby-Dick is widely recognized as the summit not only of Melville’s art but of American nineteenth-centry fiction.
The purpose of this essay is to study Captain Ahab,the role in Moby-Dick, whose leg was bitten by the white whale in his process of the whaling. After losing his leg, he determined to revenge Moby Dick and tried to kill it. In order to revenge, Ahab ultimately dooms the crew of the Pequod (save for Ishmael) to death by his obsession with Moby Dick. By taking the comprehensive analysis perspective of Moby-Dick, this thesis will point out that the main characteristics of Ahab.
This paper consists of three parts. Part one presents an introduction to the Social Background and the life of the Author Herman Melvillehe ,Part two presents The Main Characteristics of Ahab. there are three aspects have been divided to analyze his characters: his monomania , his selfishness, and his individualism. Part three presents The Consequences of Ahabs Personality Tragedy.
OK, thats all. Thank you !
Good morning,Distinguished professors and teachers, ladies and gentlemen, thank you for attending the oral defense. (或Welcome to attend the oral defense.) ：
I am Zhao Jing. Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Zhong Ming, for his intellectual guidance, invaluable instructions and comments on my thesis. It is with his valuable assistance that I have finally accomplished this thesis.
The title of my paper is The Masculine Spirit of The Old Man and the Sea
The whole thesis consists of 3 parts. The first part will give brief introductions on the background which contains the social and cultural aspects and the introduction to the author of the masterpiece. In The second part is going to have a brief
introduction of the old man and the sea and analyze the masculine spirits in the old man and the sea such as the faith optimistic and the wisdom of the hero. In the third part, it is the natural conclusion and the deep consideration.
I choose this as my topic due to the following reasons. Firstly, I am fond of literature works. Secondly, I am quite familiar with this novel as this is one of the texts in our intensive teaching course and I have taught this text for more than 3 times. Last but not the least, I’m deeply appreciated to the masculine spirit and hope I can get and practice it in my future. For the above facts, I select the subject of The Masculine Spirit of The Old Man and the Sea as the title of my paper.
I hope by studying this novel we can know more about the author Hemingway and his honorable masculine spirit. “A man can be destroyed but not be defeated.” Such kind of spirit can
help us raise our independence and confidence and show more concern for our mental health.
That’s all.Thank you!
stant encouragement and guidance, I have finished my paper. Now, its show time. You and I will work hard to welcome any correction.
The topic of my thesis is 《Angela carter to mythology research - the female archetype in “new eve passion”, for example》. I choose this as my topic due to the following reasons.
Angela Carter (1940-1992) is an outstanding feminist writer whose influence on Britishwomens writing was “pivotal in this opening and transformation”. The year 2014 represents the 22” anniversary of Angela Carters death. In those twenty-two years, her works have been widely taught internationally and brought about much critical debate. In a survey conducted by Cristina Bacchilega and Danielle M. Roemer [2],Carter is one of the most commonly taught women writers on North American programs. She has endowed us with an amazingly large number of legacies in her comparatively limited life, setting foot in various fields such as novels,short stories,children stories, dramas, non-fictions and so on. The acute observations with great insights,as well as the devastating wit and poignant mockery in Carters works have made her stand out as an iconic figure in English literature. Many scholars and critics have devoted themselves to the research on Angela Carter from many perspectives,including gothic, magic realism, feminism,post-modernism and so on. As a prolific writer who is always ready to blur the boundaries between different genres, Carter has left us a wonderful world to delve into.
With the emergence of western womens movement as well as the development of feminist criticism in the 1960s,the feminist approach has become a potent weapon for those who are concerned with the emancipation and legal rights of women. Though womens social status has considerably improved due to the contribution made by countless predecessors,the fundamental problem still lingers on. Carter, with her versatile and avant-garde reputation, is best known as a feminist writer. Concerning the dilemmas and predicaments faced by women nowadays,it is very necessary for us to probe into her insightful and penetrating reflections on femininity as well as the relationship between two genders. The Passion of New Eve, as one of Carters most representative works, is of great value in the research of her feminist thoughts and propositions.
Next, is my paper outline. In the main part of this article, I put it into five parts.
Chapter one is an introduction to the thesis, covering the research background, theobjective and significance as well as the organization of the thesis.
Chapter two presents a broad picture of Angela Carters life and her works, as well as the background information about The Passion of New Eve. It also reviews previous studies on Angela Carter and her works at home and abroad, summarizing achievements in the past and pointing out new directions in the future.
Chapter three conducts a retrospective study on feminism and archetypal criticism. The author attempts to work out the origin and development of feminism, demonstrating the important role feminism plays in Carters life. Then is the history of archetypal criticism,as well as those classic female archetypes in mythology. Regarding those fossilized and monotonous images as impediments to womens freedom and liberation,Carter endeavors to shatter them in her demythologizing strategy and appeals for a rational attitude toward heterosexual relationship.
Chapter four is the main body of the thesis. Through an in-depth analysis on The Passion of New Eve,it demonstrates Carters demythologizing of “The Temptress,,,”Mother Goddess“and ”Eve“ respectively in the text. Leilah,the embodiment of Delilah,the famous temptress in the Bible,cannot escape the fate of being objectified by men and herself. By exposing”temptresses“ as mere victims rather than symbols of viciousness. Carter condemns the oppression and exploitation of women in a patriarchal society. ”Mother“ in Beulah serves as a severe satire on those mother goddesses in mythology. Carter smashes the legend by revealing the surgically-made essence of mother and the patriarchal values lurking behind her alleged matriarchal kingdom, warning against the peril and impracticality of extremist matriarchy.And her most convincing example goes to Eve, the most important female character in the Bible, Her transformative journey from a chauvinist to a real woman in the story illustrates that gender, rather than a hereditary feature, is the result of social influence and unremitting imitations. Carter concludes the story with proposing ”androgyny“ as a solution to the current problems,implying that mutual respect and understanding is the only way to achieve the harmony between the two genders.
Chapter five comes to a general conclusion, summarizing the limitations of the theses as well as some suggestions for further study.
OK! That is all. Thank you! Please ask questions.
英语专业毕业论文答辩陈述稿范文
时间过得真快，大学生活即将结束，毕业论文是大学生都必须通过的，毕业论文是一种有准备的检验大学学习成果的`形式，毕业论文应该怎么写才好呢？以下是我整理的英语专业毕业论文答辩陈述稿范文，仅供参考，大家一起来看看吧。
Good morning, all appraiser committee members. I am xx and my supervisor is xx. With her constant encouragement and guidance, I have finished my paper. Now, it is the show time. I will present my efforts to you and welcome any correction.
The title of my paper is On Transformation of Parts of Speech in Translation. I choose this as my topic due to the following reasons. Different languages have different standards to distinguish parts of speech. Each language has its own special structure. And there are no equivalent parts of speech between different languages. In order to make the target version more idiomatic and standard, the transformation of parts of speech is always used by translators. So the transformation of parts of speech is playing a more important role in English to Chinese based on different characteristics of English and Chinese. For the above facts, I select the subject of“On Transformation of parts of speech”as the title of my paper.
I hope by studying this topic we can know the importance of the transformation of parts of speech in English to Chinese translation. Through transformation, we can get the better version and improve the translation skills.
The way of thinking and expressing is quite different between Chinese and English. English is a kind of static languages which tends to use more nouns. While Chinese is a dynamic one in which verbs are often used.
So when we make translation in English to Chinese, we should know this point and shift the parts of speech.
Next, it is an outline of my paper. In the main part of this paper, I divide it into five parts.
Part one presents an introduction to the basic concepts of parts of speech and transformation.
Part two discusses the definition of translation and emphasizes the importance of transformation of parts of speech in the course of translation.
Part three gives four basic ways of transformation of parts of speech through illustrative examples. There are transformed English words into Chinese verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs.
Part four presents some problems about transformation and gives some advise to solve the problems.
Part five draws some conclusions that transformation between parts of speech is necessary for us to achieve good translation. It is demonstrated that we can have a good master of transformation and improve the translation. In addition, we must continuously study and explore in all kinds of translation practices.
OK! That is all. Thank you! Please ask questions.
Good morning, distinguished professors and teachers, thank you for attending the oral defense. Im xxand come from class xx. My supervisor is professor Li. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Prof. Li.With his consistent guidance and valuable suggestions, I have finished my paper. Now I will present my efforts to you and gratefully welcome any suggestion.
The title of my paper is xx.I choose this as my topic due to the following reasons.
Firstly, I am very interested in the study of ambiguity. Ambiguity is a common phenomenon in all natural languages. As is known to all, in our daily conversations, ambiguity is often employed to achieve the effect of humor, thus creating a relaxing atmosphere and letting people feel at ease. Some jokes caused by ambiguity is very interesting.
Secondly, I have read several articles about ambiguity written by linguistics and scholars. I found my knowledge of ambiguity is very limited, superficial and nonsystematic. What I knew is just the tip of the iceberg. So I plan to learn more about ambiguity by this research.
Thirdly, I found many scholars have carried out numerous studies of ambiguity, but a majority of these studies are focused on single language separately. Articles about comparison between English ambiguity and Chinese ambiguity are not sufficient. So it is necessary to make further study.
For the above facts, I select this title.
Next, I will present the outline of my thesis. It consists of 7 parts.
The first part gives a brief introduction to the ambiguity and structure of the thesis.
The second part is literature review, briefly introducing the development of study of ambiguity and some scholarss main views.
The third to fifth parts focus on three types of ambiguity in English and Chinese: phonological ambiguity, lexical ambiguity, syntactic ambiguity. In every broad type, I respectively list some detailed branches and cite some vivid English and Chinese examples to explain these ambiguity phenomena. But I put more focus on the third part and point out two differences of ambiguity between English ambiguity and Chinese ambiguity.
The part six will point out positive results by using ambiguity deliberately in daily conversations, advertisements and literary works.
The last part is the conclusion.
I hope by this contrastive research, we will have a better understanding of ambiguity in English and Chinese and apply it to our life and study.
When reading the final draft, I still find my argument is not so comprehensive and improvements are needed. So welcome your precious suggestion.
Thats all. Thank you.
从简单的文章开始学习阅读会比一开始就接触较难的文章让人更容易坚持下去，下面是我带来的一些文章，欢迎阅读!
简单英语文章一
"We are reading the first verse of the first chapter of a book whose pages are infinite..."
I do not know who wrote those words, but I have always liked them as a reminder that the future can be anything we want to make it. We can take the mysterious, hazy future and carve out of it anything that we can imagine, just as a sculptor carves a statue from a shapeless stone.
We are all in the position of the farmer. If we plant a good seed, we reap a good harvest. If our seed is poor and full of weeds, we reap a useless crop. If we plant nothing at all, we harvest nothing at all.
I want the future to be better than the past. I don’t want it contaminated by the mistakes and errors with which history is filled. We should all be concerned about the future because that is where we will spend the remainder of our lives.
The past is gone and static. Nothing we can do will change it. The future is before us and dynamic. Everything we do will affect it. Each day brings with it new frontiers, in our homes and in our business, if we only recognize them. We are just at the beginning of the progress in every field of human endeavor.
简单英语文章二
No living creature can laugh except man. Trees may bleed when they are wounded, and beasts in the field will cry in pain and hunger, yet only I have the gift of laughter and it is mine to use whenever I choose. Henceforth I will cultivate the habit of laughter. I will smile and my digestion will improve; I will chuckle and my burdens will be lightened; I will laugh and my life will be lengthened for this is the great secret of long life and now it is mine.
I will paint this day with laughter; I will frame this night in song. Never will I labor to be happy; rather will I remain too busy to be sad. I will enjoy today's happiness today. It is not grain to be stored in a box. It is not wine to be saved in a jar. It cannot be saved for the morrow. It must be sown and reaped on the same day and this I will do, henceforth.
And with my laughter all things will be reduced to their proper size. I will laugh at my failures and they will vanish in clouds of new dreams; I will laugh at my successes and they will shrink to their true value. I will laugh at evil and it will die untasted; I will laugh at goodness and it will thrive and abound. Each day will be triumphant only when my smiles bring forth smiles from others and this l do in selfishness, for those on whom l flown are those who purchase not my goods.
简单英语文章三
The only problem unconsciously assumed by all Chinese philosophers to be of any importance is: How shall we enjoy life, and who can best enjoy life? No perfectionism, no straining after the unattainable, no postulating of he unknowable; but taking poor, modal human nature as it is, how shall we organize our life so that we can woke peacefully, endure nobly and live happily?
Who are we? That is first question. It is a question almost impossible to answer. But we all agree with the busy self occupied in our daily activities is not quite the real self. We are quite sure we have lost something in the mere pursuit of living. When we watch a person running about looking for something in a field, the wise man can set a puzzle for all the spectator to solve: what has that person lost? Some one thinks is a watch; another thinks it is a diamond brooch; and others will essay other guesses. After all the guesses have failed, the wise man who really doesn't know what the person is seeking after, tells the company:" I'll tell you. He has lost some breath." And no one can deny that he is right. So we often forget our true self in the pursuit of living, like a bird forgetting its own danger in pursuit of a mantis which again forgets its own danger in pursuit of another.
篇1
I have a best friend, we know each other when we are five years old, now we talk about everything. But sometimes we will have the argument, none of us want to give in first.
We make a deal that the next day we will meet in a place every time, so we become good again. I cherish our friendship so much.
我有一个最好的朋友，我们彼此认识的时候是在我们五岁的时候，现在我们无所不谈。但有时我们会有争吵，谁也不想先屈服。
我们达成协议，第二天我们会在一个地方见面，这样我们再次和好。我珍惜我们的友谊。
篇2
I am a shy girl, when there is activity in my class, I will run away from it and try to be nobody. But in my heart, I want to be noticed and show my talent. My friend encourages me to take part in the activity, she helps me to finish the task.
At last, I become more and more confident and get along with others. I am so thankful to her for finding my confidence.
我是一个害羞的女孩，班上有活动的时候，我会逃离，让自己成为隐形人。但在我的心里，我想要得到关注，并展示我的才华。我的朋友鼓励我参加活动，她帮助我完成任务。
最后，我变得越来越自信，与他人相处得也很愉快。我很感谢她帮助我找到了自信。
篇3
Today, when I walk pass a special shop, there sells all kinds of funny things. I love them all. Then I see a thing that my father must like. But I don’t have enough money at hand, I have to make choice.
I finally decide to buy things for my father, because I think it’s value is more important. My father has bought so many things for me, now I want to do it for him.
今天，当我走过一个特别的商店时，那里有卖各种各样的有趣的东西。我爱不释手。然后我看到一样我父亲一定很喜欢的东西。但是我没有足够的钱，我必须做出选择。
最后我决定给我的父亲买东西，因为我认为它的价值更为重要。我父亲已经给我买了很多东西，现在我想为他做这些。
篇4
I like reading books so much, especially the novel books. When I start to go to school, my mother buys me the classic novel Harry Porter. I am so crazy about the movie, so I read the books very quickly.
I gain so much knowledge and broaden my vision. I enjoy the novel world, because I can see other person’s story and then learn from it.
我喜欢读书，尤其是小说方面的书。我开始上学的时候，我妈妈给我买了经典小说《哈利波特》，因为我很喜欢这部电影，所以书我也看得很快。
我获得了很多知识，拓宽自己的视野。我很享受小说的世界，因为我能看到别人的故事，然后从中学习。
篇5
My mother is the greatest person in the world. She takes care of the family and does all the housework. I never want to make her angry. But sometimes I will do something let her down and when I see her upset face, I feel painful.
So I am very strict to myself, I want to be an excellent girl and let her be proud of me. So, I can see her smile often.
我妈妈是世界上最伟大的人。她照看整个家庭，承包了所有的家务。我从来都不想惹她生气。但有时我会做一些让她失望的事情，当我看到她沮丧的脸时，我会很难受。
所以我对自己很严格，希望自己成为一个优秀的女孩，让她以我为荣。这样我就可以经常看到她的笑容了。
1、Today was Sunday and I was very happy!In the morning，I stayed at home to do my homework and watch TV.In the afternoon，I went to a park with my best friends.There were many flowers，and some birds were singing songs.We played games and talked about our dreams.At last，we went home for dinner.Today，I had a great time!
翻译：这天是星期天，我十分高兴！早上，我呆在家里做作业看电视。下午，我和我最好的朋友去了公园。那里有许多花儿，一些鸟还在唱歌呢、我们一齐玩游戏，谈论我们的梦想。最后，我们就回家吃晚饭了。这天玩的真的很开心！
2、Most kids like animals.Girls like cats，and boys like dogs.However，my favorite animal is the horse.The horses are strong，not like the tame cats or puppy dogs.They look wild and hard to get close.Yet，they will be very timid and friendly after they get to know you.Horses remember the way home.
They are also faithful to their masters.They even understand what you are trying to tell them.I’ve heard many stories about how a horse saved his master’s life.That's also the reason why I love horses.They never betray you.
翻译：大多数孩子喜欢动物。男孩和女孩喜欢猫，喜欢狗。然而，我最喜欢的动物是马。马是强大的，不像温顺的猫或狗狗。他们看起来野生和难以接近。然而，他们将会十分胆小，友好的了解你之后。马还记得回家的路。他们也对他们的主人忠心耿耿。他们甚至明白你想告诉他们什么。我听说许多故事关于一匹马救了主人的命。这也是为什么我喜欢马。他们永远不会背叛你。
3、Look，I have a nice room.Come and have a look.Its small and nice.There is a big bed，a small desk，a shelf and a closet.The bed is near the desk.There is a shelf near the closet too.
Many good books are in the shelf.I like the books very much.Oh，yes，There is a big board on the wall.I often write and draw pictures on the board.Oh，My bedroom is too beautiful.I like it very much.Do you like my bedroom?Can you tell me about your beroom，please？
翻译：看，我有一个舒适的房间，过来看一看，它小而漂亮，那有一张大床，一张小桌，一个书架和衣柜，床在桌子旁边，书架也在衣柜旁边，很多好的书都在书架上，我十分喜欢书，哦，是的，那有一个大的黑板在墙上，我经常写和画一些图片在黑板上。哦，我的卧室是太漂亮了，我十分喜欢它，你喜欢我的卧室吗，请你有告诉我你的卧室吗？
4、My best friend is.He’s a very funny person.For example，he keeps his watch one hour ahead of the real time.He says it’s because he doesn’t want to be late.is also very honest and intelligent.He doesn’t need to cheat to get ahead.
In school he always gets the highest scores，but he never seems to study.He says he studies only when nobody is looking.Everybody likes my friend very much.
翻译：我最好的朋友我最好的朋友是。他是一个很风趣的人。比如，他把表拨快1小时，他说那是因为他不想迟到。很诚实并且聪明。他不用作弊就能够名列前茅。在学校他总是得最高分，但是他好像从来不学习。他说他只有在四周无人时才学习。每个人都十分喜欢我的朋友。
5、My classmate who called Limei.She is a beautiful girl，she has long long hair and big eyes.She always smiles.She has a little brother.We often play together.I like her very much.
翻译：我的同学叫丽美。她是一个美丽的女孩，她有长长的头发和大大的眼睛。她总是微笑。她有一个小弟弟。我们经常在一齐玩。我十分喜欢她。
第一篇：I'm Tong tong ,I'm 12 years old .There are three people in my family ----my father ,my mother and I .In summer, I like swimming. In fall, I like flying kites . In winter , I like making a snowman . In spring , I like planting trees.I like singing and dancing . Can you tell me , what about you. 第二篇:I am Li Kai. I was bron in 1995,that is to say , I am eleven years old this year. I am a pupil from Class3 ,Grade 6 in the primary school.Myfavourite persons are teachers.Because they teach us knowledge. Teachers let us understand the world. 第三篇：我的英语老师My English Teacher In my life, Ms. Wang is the most important person to me. Her teaching skills are diverse. In class, she usually uses games and posters. She works hard for us. When other teachers rest, she still keeps working and working. When we are mischievous, 第四篇：Save Water 保护水资源 Water is very important for us. We must drink water everyday. We can’t live without water. Water is everywhere around us. At home, we use water to wash clothes, to wash dishes, to cook rice, to clean the flat, to have showers, to make drinks, to cle 第五篇：I like Chinese New Year very much. I can meet many many friends in my family. I like them very much. We sit together to have dinner, I like the food, it's very nice. Do you know what is lucky money? It is the money children get from aunt and uncles, grandpa grandma. I've got a lot this year! I love Chinese New Year. I hope you will like it too. 第六篇：I have a small bedroom.There are only a small bed,a small desk and a small chair in the room.And there is a beautiful doll on my blue bed.Everyday I do my homework,read books and play games with the doll in my bedroom.It is small,but it gives me much happiness. 第七篇：My father is a tall and handsome man.He is a policeman. Everyday he comes back home very late,because he must help the others.He doesn't have time to examine my homework and take me to the park.But I like my father,because he is a good policeman. 第八篇：There is a park near my home.There are a lot of beautiful trees,flowers and birds in the park.So many people go to the park to enjoy their weekends.They like walking or having a picnic in the park.But I like flying a kite with my sisiter there. 第九篇：Japan was fun. It was very cool and windy. We flew kites in the park. I bought a watch there. I wanted to buy more, but I didn't have money. The gardens there were beautiful. I very liked the gardens . The japan department stores were too big. I couldn't find Mom. The food was delicious. We ate a lot of fish。 I also liked the vegetables and cake there. I hope I can go to Japan one more time. 第十篇：Last Sunday, I visited my grandmother. We listened to music and planted flowers. I counted the flowers. There were ten.. Then I helped my grandmother cook lunch. When we finished, I washed the dishes and she cleaned the kitchen. In the evening, I watched TV and played the violin at home, It was fun.
议论文是以议论为主要表达方式，通过摆事实，讲道理，直接表达作者的观点和主张的常用文体。接下来给大家分享英语议论文模板及范文，供参考。
Recently we’ve had a discussion about whether we should... (导入话题) Our opinions are divided on this topic.(观点有分歧)
Most of the students are in favour of it.(正方观点) Here are the reasons. First... Second... Finally...(列出2-3个赞成的理由)
However, the others are strongly against it. (反方观点) Their reasons are as follows. In the first place... What’s more... In addition...(列出2-3个反对的理由)
Personally speaking, the advantages overweigh the disadvantages, for it will do us more harm than good, so I support it.(个人观点)
Nowadays,there is a widespread concern over (the issue that)___作文题目______. In fact, there are both advantages and disadvantages in __题目议题_____. Generally speaking, it is widely believed there are several positive
aspects as follows. Firstly, ___优点一______. And secondly ___优点二_____.
Just As a popular saying goes, "every coin has two sides", __讨论议题______ is no exception, and in another word, it still has negative aspects. To
begin with, ___缺点一______. In addition, ____缺点二______.
To sum up, we should try to bring the advantages of __讨论议题____ into full play, and reduce the disadvantages to the minimum at the same
time. In that case, we will definitely make a better use of the ____讨论议题___.
Shall we send children to study abroad?
With more and more people becoming rich in recent years, it is a new tendency for them to send their children to study abroad. But I don’t think it is a good idea. First of all, children are too young to look after themselves. Second, the language barrier is a serious problem. Many children are not proficient in the foreign language before going abroad. As a result, they have difficulty in understanding what the native speakers are talking about. Third, they may get into trouble when dealing with various situations for lack of knowledge of the customs in the strange land. Furthermore, the cost of living is much higher than that in our country, which might cause a heavy burden to the family. #p#分页标题#e#
In conclusion, there are more disadvantages in sending children to study abroad. So, we’d better not do it.
对于中考生来说，英语作文想要得高分，就要在平时多积累一些素材。下面整理了英语议论文作文模板，供大家参考。
Recently we’ve had a discussion about whether we should... (导入话题) Our opinions are divided on this topic.(观点有分歧)
Most of the students are in favour of it.(正方观点) Here are the reasons. First... Second... Finally...(列出2-3个赞成的理由)
However, the others are strongly against it. (反方观点) Their reasons are as follows. In the first place... What’s more... In addition...(列出2-3个反对的理由)
Personally speaking, the advantages overweigh the disadvantages, for it will do us more harm than good, so I support it.(个人观点)
There is no doubt that enough concern must be paid to the problem of ...毫无疑问，对……问题应予以足够的重视。
Obviously,.... If we want to do something... , it is essential that...显然，如果我们想做某事，很重要的是……
Only in this way can we... 只有这样,我们才能...
1.It is well-known to us that……（我们都知道……）==As far as my knowledge is concerned, …（ 就我所知…）
2.With the rapid development of science and technology，more and more people believe that……（随着科技的迅速发展，越来越多的人认为……）
3.A lot of people seem to think that……（很多人似乎认为……）
4.Recently the problem of…… has been brought into focus. ==Nowadays there is a growing concern over ……（最近……问题引起了关注）
5.People may have different opinions on……（人们对……可能会持有不同见解）