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This article puts in detail the meaning of the whole process of cost and impact on the cost of five main phases - the investment decision-making stage, the design stage, the stage of the contracts, the construction phase, the phase of the completion of the current situation in the country and specific method of cost control in detail on Put forward in China's bridge construction cost control should be the focus of the investment decision-making phase of the design phase and transfer. And all that is not actually control the focus of the project itself, but specific to the person in charge, people are all professional and moral quality control in the core of the method is only one tool to achieve their goals. The article recommended active supervision from the design stage to intervene, andAll that is not actually control the focus of the project itself, but specific to the person in charge, people are all professional and moral quality control in the core of the method is only one tool to achieve their goals. The article recommended active supervision from the design stage to intervene, and that from the beginning to allow some of the pre-professional, sophisticated and trusted consulting firm involved in construction costs. Details of how a certain extent, we integrated the wisdom, along with control of a bridge project, the total cost.
Zhuzhou rocky bridge preliminary design for construction of a simply-supported (turn) continuous beamPick toThis design is mainly zhuzhou bozez, preliminary design of the structure of the bridge. Zhuzhou rocky bridge using simply-supported turn construction method of continuous girder hoisting, prefabricated after construction, then into supported beam cast-in-situ dismantle temporary pedestal, formed by the continuous girder girder altitude box girder, span of 30 meters.The design of the first chapter 11 points, the introduction, this paper describes the project for the surrounding environment, the bad design requirements, construction methods, The second chapter for bridge and longitudinal and transverse layout, The third chapter for section geometry, DiSiWuLiu chapter for internal force calculation and internal combination times, Chapter 7 for prestressing tendons estimation, layout, DiBaJiu chapter for loss of prestress and internal force calculation after reinforcement, Chapter 10 of intensity for deck. Chapter 11 for stress, deformation and other computations.Keywords: prestressed concrete continuous girder bridge construction in turn for internal force combined times advance arch
毕业论文外文翻译：将外文参考文献翻译成中文版本。
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参考文献是在学术研究过程中，对某一著作或论文的整体的参考或借鉴。征引过的文献在注释中已注明,不再出现于文后参考文献中。外文参考文献就是指论文是引用的文献原文是国外的，并非中国的。
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译文就是翻译过来的文字，如在中国也可以找到莎士比亚《罗密欧与朱丽叶》的中文版本，这个中文版本就称为译文。
主要标准
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忠实
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等我下,我帮你重新翻译下
兄弟 专业的论文翻译在百度上很难等到答案的，这个文献的找寻工作你还是得自己来弄 如果找到的话 不会翻译就干脆拿给沈阳美东旭翻译公司去翻译看看 ~说不定他们有这方面专业的翻译人才哪 而且他们作为一家来自美国的翻译公司，还可以让你选择是否需要找以英语为母语的人进行翻译或者校对，这样的服务我没听说哪家本土翻译公司有呢
1．中国古代的桥（潘洪萱） 根据史料和考察，在原始社会，我国就有了独木桥和数根圆木排拼而成的木梁桥。早在战国时期，单跨和多跨的木、石梁桥已普遍在黄河流域及其他地区建造。公元前三百多年建于陕西省蓝田县蓝峪水上的蓝桥，就是多跨木梁木柱桥的一个代表。《诗经·大雅·大明》第一次记叙周文王娶妻，在渭河上造了座专供帝王使用的浮桥。长江、黄河上曾设过近二十座浮桥。第一座黄河浮桥建于公元前541年临晋关附近，是秦景公的母弟后子，怕被景公杀害，乘车逃奔晋国途中所建。第一座长江浮桥是公元35年东汉光武帝建造的，桥址在宜昌至宜都之间的江上。 吊桥首创于我国，吊索由藤索、竹索发展到铁链。在唐朝中期，就有了铁链吊桥，比西方早八百年以上。拱桥始建于东汉中期，其形式之多，造型之美，为世界少有。 灞桥、洛阳桥、安平桥、虎渡桥、绍兴八字桥、阴平桥、程阳桥等是木、石梁桥的代表。西安灞桥建于汉代，是座木梁石柱墩桥，它用四段圆形石柱卯榫相接（中间还加石柱）形成一根石柱，由六根石柱组成一座轻型桥墩，墩台上加木梁并铺设灰土石板桥面。是石柱墩的首创者。 “闽中桥梁甲天下”是宋朝（特别是南宋）闽中地区大量建造石梁桥的真实写照。南宋一百五十年中，建成七十余座石梁桥，其中五公里以上的长桥就有四五座。被誉为“天下无桥长此桥”的安平桥，宋绍兴八年到二十一年（1138—1151）建造，长约2．5公里，故又名五里桥，用花岗石砌筑，为我国现存最长古桥。1240年建成的虎渡桥（又名江东桥），它最大的石梁长23．7米，宽1．7米，高1．9米，重二百余吨，即使在今天要开采、运输、架设这样的石梁，也是十分困难的。1979年5月，我国有关部门发现现存最古老的石梁桥——晋江县大桥和小桥，这两座桥均建于北宋太平兴国年间（976—984）。绍兴八字桥是座宋代城市石梁桥，布局十分巧妙，既保证了水陆交通，在建造中又不拆房屋，不改街道。程阳桥坐落在广西三江侗族自治县林溪河上，是一座四跨石墩伸臂的木梁桥，建于1916年，全长64．4米，分四个桥孔，每孔净跨12．2米，宽3．4米，高16米。五个桥墩之上各有民族形式的宝塔型、宫殿型桥亭，桥亭檐层层而上，如翼欲飞，宏伟壮观。整座桥梁建筑不用一颗铁钉或其他铁件，均采用榫槽结合或竹木梢钉，但结构联系却十分牢固。程阳桥精湛的建桥技术充分显示我国侗族人民杰出的智慧和创造力。 四川灌县的珠浦桥是竹索桥的代表，它位于著名的都江堰口，横跨岷江的内外两桥，长340米，8孔，最大一孔跨径为61米，它的24根粗5寸的竹索由细竹篾编织而成，桥的两端和中间石室中，安放绞竹索和木绞车等设备，桥始建于宋代以前，历代时毁时修。泸定县的大渡河铁索桥建成于1706年4月，净跨100米，净宽2．8米，桥面距枯水位14．5米。用了13根铁链9根底索承重，两边各放二根作为扶手缆。每根铁链平均由890个扁环扣联而成，重约一吨半。1935年红军长征中，飞夺泸定桥，创造了震惊世界的奇迹。它在国际桥梁展览活动中多次展出。据调查，跨径不小于泸定桥的铁链桥或铁眼杆桥，在四川、云南山区不止一座。由于它结构简单、用料节约，当地人民又有世代相传的建造经验，因此解放后这种桥型不仅没有淘汰，还有所发展。 赵州桥、宝带桥、卢沟桥、枫桥以及北京颐和园的玉带桥、十七孔桥等都是拱桥的杰出的代表。河北赵县的赵州桥是世界上第一座采用弓形拱的敞肩拱桥，欧洲在赵州桥建成七百余年后才采用弓形拱。 解放后，桥梁建筑事业取得巨大的成就，1968年南京长江大桥胜利建成，标志着我国桥梁建设事业达到了先进的水平。 （选自《旅游天地》1980年第3期） 2．桥梁审美观（樊凡） 桥梁主要用于交通负荷、跨越障碍，这是它的基本功能，所以桥首先要符合此要求。如果是一座不堪使用的危桥，摇摇欲坠，也就没有什么美可谈了。因此，桥梁结构的造型应表现出有力量、稳定、连续和有跨越能力等等，以显示功能的保证性。这也就自然地引起人们的美感。对于不同用途的桥梁，如园林、城市、公路、铁路桥梁等，或同一用途而其所在环境条件不同时，其结构及各项附属设施的造型都应准确鲜明地表现出符合使用要求，并能恰如其分。这也就是一种美的因素。就所有桥梁而论，交通使用功能要求和鉴赏要求在其重要性上，并不是等量齐观的，它随着建桥目的和建桥环境等因素而有所差异，并通过造型表现出来为人们所理解。如荒漠原野上的公路桥和繁华城市中的园林桥应当各自“量体裁衣”地选择适合的型式。 正确的桥梁审美观是功能、技术、经济与美观融合一体，共同作用，美寓其中。 3．桥梁美十则（樊凡） 关于桥梁美，很多人早就关心了，并提出过很多设想和措施，关于桥梁美的形态规律、审美标准等等，从一些文献资料中披露出其看法、分类多不一致，可以说是众说纷纭。现参考这些资料，并结合我国桥梁工程中习用的一些原则，以简单明了的形式拟以下桥梁美十则，并列举桥例分别论述。这十则是：1．环境的协调；2．主从与对称；3．韵律；4．均衡与稳定；5．统一；6．比例与尺度；7．连续与明暗搭配；8．力线明快；9．色彩；10．风格。这些法则也可以说是达到“协调”的法则。 （以上两则资料均选自《桥梁美学》，人民交通出版社1987年版） 4．桥名谈往（茅以升） 万物皆有名，有的还要有专名，就像人有名字一样。既然是名，就要起得好。我国近代桥梁，受了西方影响，题名时，总是从地理观点出发的。只要能指出它的所在地，使人一望而知，就行了。铁路公路上，更是用里程标记作名字，如同某某路上的“345，678公里桥”，那才真是确切不移的。然而我国古时桥名，不是这样。它总要有些文学气息，使人见了，不由地发生情感，念念不忘。或是纪事抒情，引起深思遐想；或有诗情画意，为之心旷神怡。这样，通过慎重题名，一座桥的历史、作用或影响，就立刻表现出来，因而容易流传。桥的“身价”，也因此而抬高。一座桥出了名，它的名字还会跟着多起来，除了正名，还有俗名、别名等等，就像人名，除了学名，还有别号、小字等等。有的是在民间自然而然地逐渐形成的，有的却是文人学士，要借此而为自己题名的。总之，桥成就要题名，成为风气，也是我国古代文化的一个特色。 桥的题名，字不在多，如同人名一样，一般都是两个字，有时只有一个字。就只这一两个字，而能显示出桥的特征，正是我国文字的妙用。这是由于我国历史上的典故多和文学里的成语丰富的缘故。文史里的财富，大为桥名增光。然而桥多了，关于它的典故和成语也反过来为文史服务。比如，《史记》里“信如尾生”一辞来自桥的典故，《阿房宫赋》里，“长桥卧波”一辞来自桥的成语。桥的名字题得好，它对文史就可有贡献了。桥名的重要，有如此者。 现在来介绍一些桥名，借以窥知我国桥梁文学的丰富，它也许是世界无双的。先谈单名。较著名的有：“蓝桥”，在陕西蓝田县蓝溪上，“传其地有仙窟，即唐裴航遇云英处”；“枫桥”在苏州，唐张继有《枫桥夜泊》诗；“断桥”在杭州西湖，唐张祜诗：“断桥荒藓合”，明朝莫仲有《断桥残雪》词等。但单名之桥往往系泛指，而又可能是专名，其中有的以材料为名，如“石桥”，梁简文帝即有《石桥》诗：“写虹便欲饮，图星逼似真”；“铁桥”，明朝吴兆元有《渡铁桥》诗：“宝筏群生渡，金绳八道开”；“竹桥”，杜甫有《观造竹桥》诗等。有的指明桥的所在，如“山桥”，梁简文帝诗：“卧石藤为缆，山桥树作梁”；“江桥”，唐杜甫诗：“山县早休市，江桥春聚船”；“野桥”，唐刘长卿诗：“野桥经雨断，涧水向田分”等。有的指明桥的形状，如“方桥”，唐韩愈诗：“君欲问方桥，方桥如此作”；“斜桥”，宋朝欧阳修诗：“波光柳色碧溟蒙，曲渚斜桥画舸通”；“画桥”，宋朝范与求诗：“画桥依约垂杨外，映带残阳一抹红”；“朱桥”，唐朝郑谷诗：“朱桥直抵金门路，粉堞高连玉垒云”；“天桥”，山西太原保德州及云南大理都有，大理的“下断上连，石梁跨之，两岩激水溅珠，宛如梅绽，人呼为不谢梅”等。有的与桥畔景物有关，如“花桥”，福建宁德县、湖北长阳县及广西桂林都有，桂林的有“花桥烟雨”之称；“柳桥”，在杭州西湖，宋周邦彦词：“水涨鱼天拍柳桥”等。有的比较特殊，如“草桥”，在北京右安门外；“席桥”，在山东东平县，“相传宋真宗东封泰山，车驾经行，以席铺藉”；“瓜桥”，浙江富阳县，“世传孙钟设瓜于此桥”；“鸭桥”在陕西陕城。“金桥”在山西上党，唐潘炎有《金桥赋》。更有事涉怪诞的，如“暗桥”，在安徽建平县，“旧传伍员奔吴，避于山中，追者至此，云气护之，员及桥而天暗”；“鬼桥”，《初学记》“上方有鬼桥”；“赤桥”，在山西太原晋水北渠上，“宋太宗凿卧龙山，血出成河，因更今名”等。 桥名用两个字是最普遍而又标准化的，单名的桥已经不少，双名的更是多得多。试思每桥皆有名，在我们古老的大国，该有多少桥名啊!然而在这成千上万的单名和双名中，重复的究竟不多，如果把这所有的桥名都搜集起来，编成一部《中国桥名录》，该是够洋洋大观的了。 现在再来举一些双名的例，说明桥名的丰富多彩。根据反映内容，一部“桥名录”可分为五章。 第一章是“表扬”。首先是表扬桥的功用的，如“安济桥”，即“赵州桥”，在河北赵县南河上，一名“大石桥”，制造奇特，“隋匠李春之迹也”；“万安桥”，即“洛阳桥”，在福建泉州，为渡海用，“去舟而徒，易危以安，民莫不利。”“灭渡桥”，在江苏吴县，桥成“南北往来者踊跃称庆，名灭渡，志平横暴也。”“安平桥”，在福建晋江，建成于宋绍兴二十二年，全长2070米，俗名“五里桥”，旧有“天下无桥长此桥”的传说。其次是表扬造桥人物的，如“绩麻桥”，在湖北孝感县，“世传居民女绩麻所建”；“夫妇桥”，即四川灌县竹索桥，清何先德造，未完，其妻续成之；“葛镜桥”，在贵州平越，明万历间葛镜建，“屡为水决，三建乃成，靡金巨万，悉罄家资”。 第二章是“纪事”，记载有关桥的流传下来的故事。如“万里桥”，在四川成都南门外，“昔孔明于此饯费聘吴，曰万里之行，始于此矣”。唐陆肱有《万里桥赋》，宋吕大防有《万里桥》诗，杜甫诗：“万里桥西宅，百花潭北庄”，唐张籍诗：“万里桥边多酒家，游人爱向谁家宿”；宋苏轼诗：“我欲归寻万里桥，水花风叶暮萧萧”，宋陆游诗：“雕鞍送客双流驿，银烛看花万里桥”。“马桥”，即“升仙桥”，在四川成都北，西汉司马相如不甘贫贱，立志做官，“尝题柱云，大丈夫不乘马车，不复过此桥”，唐岑参有《升仙桥》诗：“及乘马车，却从桥上归”，宋京镗有《马桥记》云：“兹建桥以马名，自是长卿之遗踪亦不泯矣。”“兰亭桥”，在浙江绍兴，“晋王右军修禊处，桥下细石浅濑（lài赖），水声昼夜不绝”。“洗耳桥”，在河南汝州，相传尧要将天下让给许由，许由自命清高，认为听了这话污了自己的耳朵，此桥所在“即许由洗耳处”。“虎渡桥”，在福建漳州，亦名江东桥，“江南桥梁，虎渡第一，昔欲修桥，有虎负子渡江，息于中流……乃因垒址为桥”。“宵市桥”，在江苏扬州，即“小市桥”，“相传隋炀帝时于此开夜市”。 第三章是“抒情”，通过桥名，来表达思想感情。如“销魂桥”，即“灞桥”，在陕西西安，“东汉人送客至此桥，折柳赠别”。因“取江淹别赋句，又呼为销魂桥”。唐王之涣诗：“杨柳东风树，青青夹御河。近来攀折苦，应为别离多。”明葛一龙词：“桥上飞花桥下水，断肠人是过桥人。”“思乡桥”，在河北丰润，“宋徽宗北辕过桥，驻马四顾，泫然曰，吾过此向大漠，安得似此水还乡矣……人乃谓思乡桥也”。“至喜桥”，在四川广安，“昔欧阳修自吴入蜀，喜路险至此始平”。“情尽桥”，在四川简阳，唐雍陶《题情尽桥》诗有序云：“阳安送客至情尽桥，问其故，左右曰送迎之地止此。”“忘恩桥”，在陕西西安，“中官初入选，进东华门，门内有桥曰皇恩桥……俗呼曰忘恩桥，以中官既富贵，必仇所生，盖耻之也”。 第四章是“写景”，美化桥身及四周景物。如“垂虹桥”，在江苏吴江，桥身环如半月，长若垂虹，宋王安石《垂虹桥》诗云：“颇夸九州物，壮丽无此敌。”“春波桥”，在浙江绍兴，贺知章诗云：“离别家乡岁月多，近来人事半消磨。惟有门前鉴湖水，春风不改旧时波。”故取此名桥。“海棠桥”，在湖北黄州，“宋时桥侧海棠丛开，秦观尝醉卧于此，明日题其柱”。“胭脂桥”，在江西饶州，鄱阳王萧俨生活奢华，宅中宫人，洗胭脂水流出，把桥下水都染红了，故名。“月样桥”，在山东青州，“采石凝结如天成”。“绿杨桥”，在湖北蕲水，“因东坡醉卧桥上，有‘解鞍欹枕绿杨桥’之句，遂名”。按苏轼《西江月》词自序云：“春夜行蕲水中……至一溪桥上，解鞍曲肱，醉卧少休，及觉已晓……书此语桥柱上”，即是桥也。 第五章是“神异”，把神仙和桥梁联系起来，大多与道教有关。如“圣女桥”，在陕西白水，传说为三神女一夜成之。“白鹤桥”，在江苏句容，“汉永元间茅氏兄弟三人，乘鹤至此，有白鹤桥，大茅君驾白鹤会群仙处”。“集仙桥”，在江西安福，“相传居人夜闻桥上仙乐缭绕，旦往视之，惟见书吕洞宾字于桥柱”。“乘鱼桥”，在江苏苏州，“昔琴高乘鲤升仙之地”。“照影桥”，在湖北石首，“相传有仙人于此照影”。 以上是单字和双字的桥名录。三字、四字或更多字的桥名，当然也有，但为数极少。三字桥名中著名的有二十四桥，在江苏扬州。唐杜牧诗：“二十四桥明月夜，玉人何处教吹箫”中的“二十四桥”，北宋沈括在《梦溪笔谈》中云是二十四座桥，并列举其名，但据南宋姜白石的《扬州慢》词：“二十四桥仍在，波心荡，冷月无声。念桥边红药，年年知为谁生。”则又似一座桥。后来清朝梁章巨在《浪迹丛谈》中更提到在孟毓森所居宅旁之桥上，有“二十四桥”的题名榜，可见“二十四”已成为一座桥的专名。不过这种用数目字当专名的桥，并无他例，有的只是以数为序而已，如杜甫诗“不识南塘路，今知第五桥”。四字或以上的如“旧浣花桥”、“杨柳河桥”、“德阳王桥”（以上均在成都）、“新学前桥”、“建富木桥”（以上均在南昌）、“新饭店石桥”（四川温江县）等等，有的是地名或人名关系，其余都是把单名或双名的桥加以解释，并非完整的专名。因此，中国桥名，基本上只有单名和双名两种，在《桥名录》中把这两种搜集齐全，所余就无几了。 但是，我国古桥并非个个都有专名。有的本来并无名称，后来有人随便叫它一下，逐渐也就成了名字，如“大桥”“小桥”“新桥”“旧桥”“长桥”“短桥”“南桥”“北桥”等等。这些“俗名”，时间一久，就成为“正名”了，如福州的“小桥”，因在“万寿桥”的大桥附近而得名，就此成为专名。有的“桥”，名气非常之大，但实际上并无此桥，如“陈桥”，在河南开封，宋赵匡胤“黄袍加身”处，实系“陈桥驿”，“唐为上元驿，朱全忠纵火，欲害李克用之所”，但更多的桥，却是不声不响地在那里服务，而它们的名字是早就湮没不彰了。可见，桥和桥名，都有幸与不幸，有的是有名无桥，有的是有桥无名。然而，虽是无名，难道就不是“英雄”! （选自1962年7月22日《光明日报》，有改动） 5．世界各地名桥 英国泰晤士河伦敦桥、意大利威尼斯里阿尔托桥、美国纽约布鲁克林大桥、英国伦敦塔桥、加拿大魁北克桥、澳大利亚悉尼海港大桥、美国旧金山金门大桥、土耳其博斯普鲁斯海峡大桥、英国恒比尔大吊桥、西班牙卢纳巴里奥斯桥。 一、关于桥的知识 1�梁桥：梁式又称梁柱式，是在水中立桥柱或桥墩，上搭横梁，连而成桥，有单跨多跨之分。 浮桥：用舟或其他浮体作中间桥脚的桥梁。 吊桥：古时设置在城壕上的桥，现在为悬索桥和斜拉桥的统称。 拱桥：用拱作为桥身主要承重结构的桥。 立交桥：线路(如公路、铁路等)交叉时，为保证交通互不干扰而建造的桥梁。在既有线路之上跨越者又称跨线桥，在地下穿过者又称地道桥。 2�我国古代桥梁的艺术风格，首先表现在造型上，如曲线的柔和多变；其次，我国古桥十分重视与环境的协调，由于桥的存在，又增加了环境的美；第三，我国古代桥梁的艺术风格还体现在附属建筑和石作雕刻上，许多古桥上都有桥屋、亭、阁、栏杆以及牌坊等。 二、桥话 1�桥与山水山水本来就是美丽的，桥在这样的天然图画中，真是相得益彰。杜甫诗“市桥官柳细，江路野梅香”，白居易诗“晴虹桥影出，秋雁橹声来”等，就描写了山光水色与桥共同构成的美景。 2�桥与园林园林里有山有水必有桥，亭台楼阁，小桥流水，互相映衬，缺一不可。欧阳修的“波光柳色碧溟，曲渚斜桥画舸通”这两句诗，就是对此的写照。 3�桥与文艺桥在水上山间，凌空越阻，千姿百态，普度众生，历来是文学和艺术中的绝好题材。著名的如苏州的枫桥，在诗歌中，除张继的《枫桥夜泊》诗外，还有杜牧的“长洲茂苑草萧萧，暮烟秋雨过枫桥”等。绘画中，张择端《清明上河图》里的“虹桥”，结构非常巧妙。戏剧里，光京剧里演出“桥戏”的就不少。最著名的是《长坂坡》，还有《断桥》《草桥惊梦》等。神话传说里“鹊桥”的故事源远流长，张果老倒骑驴过桥的故事也是妇孺皆知。 4�桥的历史故事建于1937年的钱塘江大桥是由中国人自己设计建造的第一座现代化大桥，这一点你也许知道；不过你可知道，这座大桥1937年9月26日通车，12月23日就被我方自行炸毁，为的是不让它为侵华日军服务! 三、古今中外形形色色的桥 1�中国古代桥梁之最 现存最古老的敞肩拱石桥是河北赵县赵州桥。隋朝开皇十五年至大业元年(595～605年)建。 现存最早的也是桥洞最多的联拱石桥是江苏苏州宝带桥。唐元和十一年(816年)始建。 苏州宝带桥 现存最早的十字桥是山西晋祠鱼沼飞梁，北宋崇宁元年(1102年)建。 最早的开关活动式大石桥是广州潮州广济桥。明宣德十年(1435年)建。 仅有的五亭桥位于江苏扬州瘦西湖。 扬州五亭桥 2�立交桥给城市增添了现代化气息。北京市兴建最早的道路立交桥是位于昌平路上的白浮桥、蓝靛厂路上的八里庄桥和车道沟桥三座跨路、跨河立交，均建成于1966年。1974年在城区建成第一座苜蓿叶形互通式立交复兴门桥。 四元桥位于首都机场高速公路、京顺路与四环路交叉处，是四层全互通式大型立交桥，共有大小桥梁26座，总长度2�6公里，是全国最大的城市立交桥。玉蜓桥位于南二环路与东浦路交叉处，是三层互通式蜻蜓型立交桥。 北京玉蜓桥 3�建造海底隧道耗资巨大，施工期长，因而人们更多地选择了跨海大桥。目前，世界上较大的跨海大桥已达三十多座。位于波斯湾上的巴林—沙特阿拉伯跨海大桥全长25公里，是当今世界上最长的跨海大桥。 厦门跨海公路大桥 意大利墨西拿大桥把状似皮靴的本土与状似足球的西西里岛连为一体。土耳其伊斯坦布尔市博斯普鲁斯海峡大桥，跨度虽然只有1560米，但它却是一座架在欧、亚两大洲上的洲际桥梁。
去百度搜索，需要什么语言直接在线翻译就OK啦
土木工程的英文是Civil Engineering ,直译是民用工程，它是建造各种工程的统称。它既指建设的对象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程设施，也指应用的材料设备和进行的勘测，设计施工，保养，维修等专业技术。土木工程随着人类社会的进步而发展，至今已经演变成为大型综合性的学科，它已经出许多分支，如：建筑工程，铁路工程，道路工程，桥梁工程，特种工程结构，给水排水工程，港口工程，水利工程，环境工程等学科。土木工程共有六个专业：建筑学，城市规划，土木工程，建筑环境与设备工程，给水排水工程和道路桥梁工程。土木工程作为一个重要的基础学科，有其重要的属性：综合性，社会性，实践性，统一性。土木工程为国民经济的发展和人民生活的改善提供了重要的物质技术基础，对众多产业的振兴发挥了促进作用，工程建设是形成固定资产的基本生产过程，因此，建筑业和房地产成为许多国家和地区的经济支柱之一。.古代的土木工程有很长的时间跨度，大致从公元前500年新石器时代出现原始的土木工程活动到16世纪末意大利的文艺复兴，导致土木工程走上迅速发展的道路为止，前后经历了两千多年。在这段时间内，由于科学理论发展及其缓慢，土木工程也没有突破习惯的发展。从17世纪中页开始到20 世纪40年代第二次世界大战结束为止的300年间，国外的建筑取得了长足的进步。土木工程进入了定量分析阶段。一些理论的发展，新材料的出现，新工具的发明，都使土木工程科学日渐完善和成熟。到了近代，二战结束之后，许多国家经济起飞，现代科学日益进步，从而为进一步发展提供了强大的动力和物质基础。人们生活水平的不断提高，必然要求越来越舒适的居住环境，在这种情况下，建筑的发展直接推动了土木工程的发展。总的来说土木工程是一门古老的学科，它已经取得了巨大的成就，未来的土木工程将在人们的生活中占据更重要的地位。地球环境的日益恶化，人口的不断增加，人们为了争取生存，为了争取更舒适的生存环境，必将更加重视土木工程。在不久的将来，一些重大项目将会陆续兴建，插入云霄的摩天大楼，横跨大样的桥梁，更加方便的交通将不是梦想。科技的发展，以及地球不断恶化的环境必将促使土木工程向太空和海洋发展，为人类提供更广阔的生存空间。近年来，工程材料主要是钢筋，混凝土，木材和砖材，在未来，传统材料将得到改观，一些全新的更加适合建筑的材料将问世，尤其是化学合成材料将推动建筑走向更高点。同时，设计方法的精确化，设计工作的自动化，信息和智能话技术的全面引入，将会是人们有一个更加舒适的居住环境。一句话，理论的发展，新材料的出现，计算机的应用，高新技术的引入等都将使土木工程有一个新的飞跃.English is the Civil Engineering Civil Engineering, civil engineering is literally, it is the construction of the project collectively. It means building objects that the construction on the ground, underground, water works facilities, equipment and materials to use in surveying, design construction, maintenance, repair and other professional skills. Civil Engineering with the progress of the human society, has been transformed into large integrated disciplines, it has a number of branches, such as : construction, rail projects, road projects, bridge projects, special project structure, water drainage works, the port project, water, environmental engineering disciplines. A total of six professional Civil Engineering : architecture, urban planning, civil engineering, construction and environmental engineering equipment, water drainage works and road bridge project.Civil Engineering as an important foundation subjects, its important attribute : an integrated, social, practicality, uniformity. Civil Engineering for the development of the national economy and improve the living standards of the people provided important material and technological foundation for the revitalization of many industries played a catalytic role in the construction of fixed assets is a basic production process, the construction and real estate in many countries and regions become a pillar of the economyAncient Civil Engineering has a long time span, roughly 500 years before Christ from the original date in civil engineering activities to the 16 century Italian Renaissance, resulting in the rapid development of the Civil Engineering on the road today, and has experienced more than 2,000 years. During this period, due to the development of scientific theories and slow, there is no breakthrough in civil engineering practices.Century from 17 pages to 40 years in the 20th century end of the Second World War 300 years, foreign construction made great strides. Civil Engineering has entered a phase of quantitative analysis. Some theoretical development, the emergence of new materials, new tools of invention, the Civil Engineering Science is perfection and maturity. In modern times, after the end of World War II, many countries economic takeoff, the increasing advances of modern science, so as to provide a powerful impetus to further development and material basis. People's living conditions continue to improve, more and more comfortable living environment for the inevitable in the circumstances, the construction of development directly to the Civil Engineering development.
外文翻译要求：（1）选定外文文献后先给指导老师看，得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。（2）选择外文翻译时一定选择外国作者写的文章，可从学校中知网或者外文数据库下载。（3）外文翻译字数要求3000字以上，从外文文章起始处开始翻译，不允许从文章中间部分开始翻译，翻译必须结束于文章的一个大段落。
毕业论文外文翻译：将外文参考文献翻译成中文版本。翻译要求：1、选定外文文献后先给指导老师看，得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。2、选择外文翻译时一定选择外国作者写的文章，可从学校中知网或者外文数据库下载。3、外文翻译字数要求3000字以上，从外文文章起始处开始翻译，不允许从文章中间部分开始翻译，翻译必须结束于文章的一个大段落。参考文献是在学术研究过程中,对某一著作或论文的整体的参考或借鉴.征引过的文献在注释中已注明,不再出现于文后参考文献中。外文参考文献就是指论文是引用的文献原文是国外的，并非中国的。 原文就是指原作品,原件，即作者所写作品所用的语言。如莎士比亚的《罗密欧与朱丽叶》原文是英语。译文就是翻译过来的文字，如在中国也可以找到莎士比亚《罗密欧与朱丽叶》的中文版本，这个中文版本就称为译文。扩展资料：外文翻译需要注意的问题1、外文文献的出处不要翻译成中文，且写在中文译文的右上角（不是放在页眉处）；会议要求：名称、地点、年份、卷（期），等 。2、作者姓名以及作者的工作单位也不用必须翻译。3、abstract翻译成“摘要”，不要翻译成“文章摘要”等其他词语。4、Key words翻译成“关键词” 。5、introduction 翻译成“引言”(不是导言)。6、各节的标号I、II等可以直接使用，不要再翻译成“第一部分”“第二部分”，等。 7、注意排版格式，都是单排版，行距1.25，字号小4号，等（按照格式要求）。8、里面的图可以拷贝粘贴，但要将图标、横纵指标的英文标注翻译成中文。 9、里面的公式、表不可以拷贝粘贴，要自己重新录入、重新画表格。
building types and designA building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in .As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities .Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used .Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well. Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center .In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms .Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done.An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” .attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas .the “day “rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms .the “services “comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms .It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible .it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on .There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare .翻译：建筑类型和设计建筑物与人们有着紧密的联系，他为人们提供必要的空间，用以工作和生活。根据适用类型不同，建筑物可以分为两类：工业建筑和民用建筑。工业建筑包括各个工厂或工业生产所使用建筑，民用建筑是指那些人们用以居住，就业，教育和其他社会活动的建筑场所。工业建筑的厂房可用于采矿业，冶金工业，机械制造，化学工业和纺织工业等各类领域的加工和制造。厂房可分为两种类型：单层的和多层的。工业建筑也属于建筑的一种。但是，工业建筑与民用建筑所用的材料和建筑方式不同。民用建筑按使用可分为两大类：住宅建筑和公共建筑。住宅建筑要适应家庭生活。每个单位应包括至少三个必要客房：起居室，厨房和厕所。公共建筑可在政治，文化活动，管理工作和其他服务，如学校，写字楼，公园，医院，商店，车站，剧院，体育馆，宾馆，展览馆，洗浴池，等等。他们都有着不同的职能，这反过来又需要不同的设计类型。房屋是用以住人的. 其基本功能是提供住房的内容，但今天人们需要更多的住房内容。一个家庭在进入一个新的社区后将知道，现有住房不仅要符合其安全，健康和舒适等标准。还要考虑其附近是否有相应的配套设施，如食品市场，学校，商店，图书馆，电影院，以及社区中心等。在60年代中期住房最重要的价值是足够大的空间和方便的出入交通。大多数家庭会首选约半英亩面积土地的家庭住宅，这样将提供足够的空间的用以业余活动。在高度工业化的国家，许多家庭的首选是那种尽可能远离市中心商业圈的住房，即使距离上班地点不得不有一段距离。相当多的家庭首选是郊区的住房，因为他们的主要目的是要远离噪音，拥挤和混乱。拥有方便的公共交通使得距离不再是一个决定性因素，因为大多数人都是开着自己的汽车去上班了。人们现在主要感兴趣的是户型，房间的大小和卧室的数目。在工程项目开始之前，要做好建筑设计和施工流程,让人提前知道该建筑建成后是什么样子以及下一步应该做什么。在建筑设计中要特别重视房间的布局，其目的是提供最大的便利与可能的用途。在一个住宅建筑设计中，布局可考虑以下三个方面： “白天” ， “夜晚”和“服务”。必须注意这些空间区域之间的连通交流。 “白天”房一般包括餐厅，起居室和厨房，但其他房间可能会增加，如书房，并有可能成为一个大厅。起居室通常是最大的，往往是一个餐厅，也或可能有厨房、凹室等。 “夜间”房间包括卧室、客房。“服务”用房间包括厨房，浴室，储藏室 ，和厕所等。厨房和储藏室需设置在一起，以方便其房间功能的使用。此外，还必须考虑各种客房的朝向问题，当然最好尽可能的将那些经常使用的房间朝南设置。然而，在考虑到周围的环境和地点、道路等多方面因素，往往很难达到最佳要求。在解决这些复杂的问题，还必须按照当地城市规划条例所涉及的对公共设施，人口密度，建筑物高度，绿化面积，建筑红线等的要求，还要考虑到有相邻建筑的情况，等等。尽管工业建筑需要符合当地城市规划条例但很少有标准化的工业楼宇。现代厂房建筑的趋势是轻质、通风。一般的钢筋混凝土结构或钢结构的工厂，可以得到一个“跌”型脊屋顶，把窗户开向北以便使分布均匀的自然采光不会直射进来造成刺眼。
毕业论文是Graduation thesis 若要在论文里指论文就可以直接说thesis或者paper
毕业论文thesis[英][ˈθi:sɪs][美][ˈθisɪs]n.论文，毕业论文; 论点，论题; 命题; 复数：theses易混淆单词：THESIS例句:1.He completed his doctorate in 1999 with his thesis on the technical subject of structural design. 1999年，朱竞翔获得博士学位，博士论文写的是结构设计的技术问题。2.It is a beguilingly simple thesis, one particularly attractive to the western business executives who have joinedthe china gold rush. 但这是一个具有欺性的简单论点，对参与中国淘金浪潮的西方企业高管尤其有吸引力。3.We have a grand new thesis of the emerging markets. 我们现在得出了一套全新的新兴市场理论。4.The question now is whether the overstretch thesis was wrong or simply premature. 目前问题是，过度扩张说是错误命题还是只是言之过早。5.The thesis is that women still do so badly at work mainly because we are not ambitious enough. 书的主题是：女性的工作表现仍如此糟糕，主要是因为我们不够有雄心。同义词：dissertation[英][ˌdɪsəˈteɪʃn][美][ˌdɪsərˈteɪʃn]n.专题论文，学位论文; 学术演讲; essay[英][ˈeseɪ][美][ˈɛsˌe, ɛˈse]n.散文; 随笔，杂记文; 尝试，企图; 试验; vt.尝试; 试验; 经常说的：English dissertation(英语论文)Graduation thesis(毕业论文)
Geometric Design of HighwaysA Alignment DesignThe alignment of a road is shown on the plane view and is a series of straight lines called tangents connected by circular. In modern practice it is common to interpose transition or spiral curves between tangents and circular curves.Alignment must be consistent. Sudden changes from flat to sharp curves and long tangents followed by sharp curves must be avoided; otherwise, accident hazards will be created. Likewise, placing circular curves of different radii end to end (compound curves) or having a short tangent between two curves is poor practice unless suitable transitions between them are provided. Long, flat curves are preferable at all times, as they are pleasing in appearance and decrease possibility of future obsolescence. However, alignment without tangents is undesirable on two-lane roads because some drivers hesitate to pass on curves. Long, flat curves should be used for small changes in direction, as short curves appear as “kink”. Also horizontal and vertical alignment must be considered together, not separately. For example, a sharp horizontal curve beginning near a crest can create a serious accident hazard.A vehicle traveling in a curved path is subject to centrifugal force. This is balanced by an equal and opposite force developed through cannot exceed certain maximums, and these controls place limits on the sharpness of curves that can be used with a design speed.Usually the sharpness of a given circular curve is indicated by its radius. However, for alignment design, sharpness is commonly expressed in terms of degree of curve, which is the central angle subtended by a 100-ft length of curve. Degree of curve is inversely proportional to the radius.Tangent sections of highways carry normal cross slope; curved sections are superelevated. Provision must be made for gradual change from one to the other. This usually involves maintaining the center line of each individual roadway at profile grade while raising the outer edge and lowering the inner edge to produce the desired superelevation is attained some distance beyond the point of curve. If a vehicle travels at high speed on a carefully restricted path made up of tangents connected by sharp circular curve, riding is extremely uncomfortable. As the car approaches a curve, superelevation begins and the vehicle is tilted inward, but the passenger must remain vertical since there is on centrifugal force requiring compensation. When the vehicle reaches the curve, full centrifugal force develops at once, and pulls the rider outward from his vertical position. To achieve a position of equilibrium he must force his body far inward. As the remaining superelevation takes effect, further adjustment in position is required. This process is repeated in reverse order as the vehicle leaves the curve. When easement curves are introduced, the change in radius from infinity on the tangent to that of the circular curve is effected gradually so that centrifugal force also develops gradually. By careful application of superelevation along the spiral, a smooth and gradual application of centrifugal force can be had and the roughness avoided.Easement curves have been used by the railroads for many years, but their adoption by highway agencies has come only recently. This is understandable. Railroad trains must follow the precise alignment of the tracks, and the discomfort described here can be avoided only by adopting easement curves. On the other hand, the motor-vehicle operator is free to alter his lateral position on the road and can provide his own easement curves by steering into circular curves gradually. However, this weaving within a traffic lane (but sometimes into other lanes) is dangerous. Properly designed easement curves make weaving unnecessary. It is largely for safety reasons, then, that easement curves have been widely adopted by highway agencies.For the same radius circular curve, the addition of easement curves at the ends changes the location of the curve with relation to its tangents; hence the decision regarding their use should be made before the final location survey. They point of beginning of an ordinary circular curve is usually labeled the PC (point of curve) or BC (beginning of curve). Its end is marked the PT (point of tangent) or EC (end of curve). For curves that include easements, the common notation is, as stationing increases: TS (tangent to spiral), SC (spiral to circular curve), CS (circular curve to spiral), and ST (spiral go tangent).On two-lane pavements provision of a wilder roadway is advisable on sharp curves. This will allow for such factors as (1) the tendency for drivers to shy away from the pavement edge, (2) increased effective transverse vehicle width because the front and rear wheels do not track, and (3) added width because of the slanted position of the front of the vehicle to the roadway centerline. For 24-ft roadways, the added width is so small that it can be neglected. Only for 30mph design speeds and curves sharper than 22°does the added width reach 2 ft. For narrower pavements, however, widening assumes importance even on fairly flat curves. Recommended amounts of and procedures for curve widening are given in Geometric Design for Highways.B GradesThe vertical alignment of the roadway and its effect on the safe and economical operation of the motor vehicle constitute one of the most important features of road design. The vertical alignment, which consists of a series of straight lines connected by vertical parabolic or circular curves, is known as the “grade line.” When the grade line is increasing from the horizontal it is known as a “plus grade,” and when it is decreasing from the horizontal it is known as a “minus grade.” In analyzing grade and grade controls, the designer usually studies the effect of change in grade on the centerline profile.In the establishment of a grade, an ideal situation is one in which the cut is balanced against the fill without a great deal of borrow or an excess of cut to be wasted. All hauls should be downhill if possible and not too long. The grade should follow the general terrain and rise and fall in the direction of the existing drainage. In mountainous country the grade may be set to balance excavation against embankment as a clue toward least overall cost. In flat or prairie country it will be approximately parallel to the ground surface but sufficiently above it to allow surface drainage and, where necessary, to permit the wind to clear drifting snow. Where the road approaches or follows along streams, the height of the grade line may be dictated by the expected level of flood water. Under all conditions, smooth, flowing grade lines are preferable to choppy ones of many short straight sections connected with short vertical curves.Changes of grade from plus to minus should be placed in cuts, and changes from a minus grade to a plus grade should be placed in fills. This will generally give a good design, and many times it will avoid the appearance of building hills and producing depressions contrary to the general existing contours of the land. Other considerations for determining the grade line may be of more importance than the balancing of cuts and fills.Urban projects usually require a more detailed study of the controls and finer adjustment of elevations than do rural projects. It is often best to adjust the grade to meet existing conditions because of the additional expense of doing otherwise.In the analysis of grade and grade control, one of the most important considerations is the effect of grades on the operating costs of the motor vehicle. An increase in gasoline consumption and a reduction in speed are apparent when grades are increase in gasoline consumption and a reduction in speed is apparent when grades are increased. An economical approach would be to balance the added annual cost of grade reduction against the added annual cost of vehicle operation without grade reduction. An accurate solution to the problem depends on the knowledge of traffic volume and type, which can be obtained only by means of a traffic survey.While maximum grades vary a great deal in various states, AASHTO recommendations make maximum grades dependent on design speed and topography. Present practice limits grades to 5 percent of a design speed of 70 mph. For a design speed of 30 mph, maximum grades typically range from 7 to 12 percent, depending on topography.Wherever long sustained grades are used, the designer should not substantially exceed the critical length of grade without the provision of climbing lanes for slow-moving vehicles. Critical grade lengths vary from 1700 ft for a 3 percent grade to 500 ft for an 8 percent grade.Long sustained grades should be less than the maximum grade on any particular section of a highway. It is often preferred to break the long sustained uniform grade by placing steeper grades at the bottom and lightening the grade near the top of the ascent. Dips in the profile grade in which vehicles may be hidden from view should also be avoided.Maximum grade for highway is 9 percent. Standards setting minimum grades are of importance only when surface drainage is a problem as when water must be carried away in a gutter or roadside ditch. In such instances the AASHTO suggests a minimum of 0.35%.C Sight DistanceFor safe vehicle operation, highway must be designed to give drivers a sufficient distance or clear version ahead so that they can avoid unexpected obstacles and can pass slower vehicles without danger. Sight distance is the length of highway visible ahead to the driver of a vehicle. The concept of safe sight distance has two facets: “stopping” (or “no passing”) and “passing”.At times large objects may drop into a roadway and will do serious damage to a motor vehicle that strikes them. Again a car or truck may be forced to stop in the traffic lane in the path of following vehicles. In dither instance, proper design requires that such hazards become visible at distances great enough that drivers can stop before hitting them. Further more, it is unsafe to assume that one oncoming vehicle may avoid trouble by leaving the lane in which it is traveling, for this might result in loss of control or collision with another vehicle.Stopping sight distance is made up of two elements. The first is the distance traveled after the obstruction comes into view but before the driver applies his brakes. During this period of perception and reaction, the vehicle travels at its initial velocity. The second distance is consumed while the driver brakes the vehicle to a stop. The first of these two distances is dependent on the speed of the vehicle and the perception time and brake-reaction time of the operator. The second distance depends on the speed of the vehicle; the condition of brakes, times, and roadway surface; and the alignment and grade of the highway.On two-lane highways, opportunity to pass slow-moving vehicles must be provided at intervals. Otherwise capacity decreases and accidents increase as impatient drivers risk head-on collisions by passing when it is unsafe to do so. The minimum distance ahead that must be clear to permit safe passing is called the passing sight distance.In deciding whether or not to pass another vehicle, the driver must weigh the clear distance available to him against the distance required to carry out the sequence of events that make up the passing maneuver. Among the factors that will influence his decision are the degree of caution that he exercises and the accelerating ability of his vehicle. Because humans differ markedly, passing practices, which depend largely on human judgment and behavior rather than on the laws of mechanics, vary considerably among drivers. To establish design values for passing sight distances, engineers observed the passing practices of many drivers. Basic observations on which passing sight distance standards are based were made during the period 1938-1941. Assumed operating conditions are as follows:1. The overtaken vehicle travels at a uniform speed.2. The passing vehicle has reduced speed and trails the overtaken one as it enters the passing section.3. When the passing section is reached, the driver requires a short period of time to perceive the clear passing section and to react to start his maneuver.4. Passing is accomplished under what may be termed a delayed start and a hurried return in the face of opposing traffic. The passing vehicle accelerates during the maneuver and its average speed during occupancy of the left lane is 10 mph higher than that of the overtaken vehicle.5. When the passing vehicle returns to its lane there is a suitable clearance length between it and an oncoming vehicle in the other lane.The five distances, in sum, make up passing sight distance.
毕业论文的英文翻译是thesis，音标是英 [ˈθi:sɪs] 美 [ˈθisɪs] 。
n.论文，毕业论文;论点，论题;命题
1、There is no empirical evidence to support his thesis.
他的论文缺乏实验证据的支持。
2、How well does this thesis stand up to close examination?
这个命题经得起推敲吗？
3、He has finished his thesis.
他的论文完成了。
4、She's finished writing her thesis.
她那篇论文写出来了。
5、Please write an abstract of this article 〔 thesis 〕.
请写一份这本书〔这篇论文〕的摘要。
The article has a clear-cut thesis and arguments, but lacks reasoning.
文章论点、论据鲜明，但缺乏论证。
bridge [brɪdʒ]n. 桥, 桥梁; 舰桥; 桥楼; 驾驶台#桥牌v. 架桥于; 使渡过; 把...连结起来
门式起重机 gantry crane通用桥式起重机 general purpose overhead crane架桥机 bridge girder erection equipment公铁两用架铺机 highway and railway paver公路铁路提梁机 highway and railway gantry crane轮胎式龙门吊 rubber tyred gantry crane轮胎式运梁车 rubber tyred Beam Transport Car/rubber tyred flat bedPC运梁车 PC Beam Transport Car/flat bed船体运输车 shipyard transporter隧道施工设备 mechanized construction of tunnels 施工挂篮 hanging basket construction工程机械配件 engineering machinery accessories沥青拌合站配套件 parts and auxiliary equipment for bituminous concrete blending station稳定土拌合站 stabilized soil blending station
在20世纪，桥梁施工技术的发展，并刺激了 工业革命。在世纪之交，钢桥梁被铆接在一起，而不是螺栓;混凝土桥梁现浇，而不是预制;和大型桥梁成员 建于花边酒吧和小部分，而不是卷一张。塑料尚未发明。施工技术，如后张，泥浆墙，土壤冻结，和加筋土墙壁尚未设想。完成机械测量因为红外，光学技术仍然是75岁了。 大桥建设，是改变，因为新的千年的开始。新建筑 技术和新材料不断涌现。也有一些新的问题所面临的桥梁 建筑行业相对的研究需要与这些新技术和材料.大跨度桥梁 悬索桥 虽然悬索桥建设进行了适度的速度在整个20 世纪，数目空前的跨越的骄人记录长度是建立在 远东和丹麦。无论是明石海峡大桥在日本和大贝尔特海峡大桥 在丹麦人于1998年完成。明石海峡大桥是最大暂停 在世界上的桥梁，以跨度1991米，与大贝尔特海峡大桥是世界第二大， 以跨度1624米 虽然跨越长度增加了近五倍在本世纪， 他们可能已经达到其物理极限今天的材料。研究会 有必要制定新的，超高强度钢丝或碳纤维线要求 建立长期主要悬挂电缆，将有可能增加跨长度为 2000年以后米 当我们进入新千年，恢复和持续的维护现有的 悬索桥必须继续。最近康复措施主要 电缆和悬挂系统，这些桥梁已经发现退化 腐蚀和氢脆。需要进行研究以确定剩余 有用的使用寿命悬索桥电缆和可以采取何种措施来减缓或 停止退化进程。 交通新千年中的2 其他组成部分的大跨度桥梁，现有的和新的，革命性的正 技术向前发展。先进的生产技术甲板更强，更轻 甲板。正交异性和exodermic甲板正变得越来越流行的大跨度 结构作为一种手段，降低自重。轴承，联合系统，以及地震改造 部分正日益成为更加有效的大规模的测试设施 内置。
bridge在歌曲中称桥梁音乐或桥段。
一般来说，一首完整的流行歌曲采用的是“主歌1+副歌＋主歌2+副歌＋副歌”的结构。而有的时候，通常会在第一段副歌后面的某处（可能是紧接着第一段副歌的间奏后面，也有可能是在第二段和第三段副歌之间），会有一段与主歌和副歌都不相同的旋律，那就是“桥段”。
在电子音乐制作中，桥段进行时可能会拿掉大鼓并另外再增加一些渐强的声响，一个桥段可以凭借增加乐器配置或是转调来增添它的感染力。通常桥段不会安排超过八小节。
英文bridge的用法
1、bridge的基本意思是“桥”，引申可指“鼻梁；鼻梁架”，用于比喻意义指借以相互联系或接触的事物。是可数名词。
2、bridge还可作“桥牌”解，此时为不可数名词。
3、bridge用作专有名词时，不加定冠词。
4、bridge用作动词的意思是“架桥于…”，引申可作“越过”“渡过”解。
5、bridge是及物动词，接名词或代词作宾语。
6、bridge后接副词over表示“架桥于…；应付；克服”。