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money has no value in itself .you can't eat them ,drink them ,dress with them ,you can have your pocket full of money ,and be hungry ,thirsty ,freeze to death --if there was no food and drinks and clothes to get .money is far from the best on earth , not even the next it is very good for those who use them wisely .It says that you can buy everything for money but---but you can't .one can buy food but not appetite ,medicine but not health ,soft beds but not sleeps,knowledge but not intelligence, finery but not kingdness ,lustrue but not cheerfulness , fun nut not happiness ,gray fair but not honour ,quiet days but not peace .the shell of all things that money can buy ,but not the kernel,it is not buyable .给我加分，一个字一个字打上去的！钱本身没有任何益处，不能当饭吃，不能当水喝，也不能当衣服穿。就算你口袋里塞满了钞票，在没有食物、水、义务的情况下，还是会因为饥渴和寒冷而死。钱不是世界上最好的东西，甚至不是第二好的。但是，钱对于那些善于使用它的人们来说是很好的东西。有人说钱可以买到任何东西，但真的是这样吗？钱可以买到食物，但是买不到胃口；可以买到医疗，但是买不到健康；可以买到柔软舒适的床，但是买不到睡眠；可以买到知识，但买不到智力，可以买到珠宝首饰，但买不到善良好心；可以买到虚荣，但是买不到快乐；可以买到乐趣，但是买不到幸福；可以买到朋友，但是买不到友谊；可以买到仆人，但是买不到忠诚；可以买到灰色的头发，但是买不到尊重。任何事物的虚浮的外表都可以用钱买的到，但是却买不到这些事物的核心实质——这个是不可以用金钱买卖的
Money is anything that is generally accepted as payment for goods and services and repayment of debts.[1] The main uses of money are as a medium of exchange, a unit of account, and a store of value.[2] Some authors explicitly require money to be a standard of deferred payment.[3]The term "price system" is sometimes used to refer to methods using commodity valuation or money accounting word "money" is believed to originate from a temple of Hera Hera, located on Capitoline, one of Rome's seven hills. In the ancient world Hera was often associated with money. The temple of Juno Moneta at Rome was the place where the mint of Ancient Rome was located.[4]. The name "Juno" may derive from the Etruscan goddess Uni (which means "the one", "unique", "unit", "union", "united") and "Moneta" either from the Latin word "monere" (remind, warn, or instruct) or the Greek word "moneres" (alone, unique).Economic characteristicsMoney is generally considered to have the following characteristics, which are summed up in a rhyme found in older economics textbooks: "Money is a matter of functions four, a medium, a measure, a standard, a store." That is, money functions as a medium of exchange, a unit of account, a standard of deferred payment, and a store of value.[2][5][6]There have been many historical arguments regarding the combination of money's functions, some arguing that they need more separation and that a single unit is insufficient to deal with them all. One of these arguments is that the role of money as a medium of exchange is in conflict with its role as a store of value: its role as a store of value requires holding it without spending, whereas its role as a medium of exchange requires it to circulate.[6] Others argue that storing of value is just deferral of the exchange, but does not diminish the fact that money is a medium of exchange that can be transported both across space and time.[7] 'Financial capital' is a more general and inclusive term for all liquid instruments, whether or not they are a uniformly recognized of exchangeMain article: Medium of exchangeMoney is used as an intermediary for trade, in order to avoid the inefficiencies of a barter system, which are sometimes referred to as the 'double coincidence of wants problem'. Such usage is termed a medium of of accountMain article: Unit of accountA unit of account is a standard numerical unit of measurement of the market value of goods, services, and other transactions. Also known as a "measure" or "standard" of relative worth and deferred payment, a unit of account is a necessary prerequisite for the formulation of commercial agreements that involve into small units without destroying its value; precious metals can be coined from bars, or melted down into bars again. Fungible: that is, one unit or piece must be perceived as equivalent to any other, which is why diamonds, works of art or real estate are not suitable as money. A specific weight, or measure, or size to be verifiably countable. For instance, coins are often made with ridges around the edges, so that any removal of material from the coin (lowering its commodity value) will be easy to detect. Store of valueMain article: Store of valueTo act as a store of value, a commodity, a form of money, or financial capital must be able to be reliably saved, stored, and retrieved — and be predictably useful when it is so retrieved. Fiat currency like paper or electronic currency no longer backed by gold in most countries is not considered by some economists to be a store of liquidityMain article: Market liquidityLiquidity describes how easily an item can be traded for another item, or into the common currency within an economy. Money is the most liquid asset because it is universally recognised and accepted as the common currency. In this way, money gives consumers the freedom to trade goods and services easily without having to financial instruments are easily tradable and have low transaction costs. There should be no — or minimal — spread between the prices to buy and sell the instrument being used as of moneyIn economics, money is a broad term that refers to any financial instrument that can fulfill the functions of money (detailed above). Modern monetary theory distinguishes among different types of monetary aggregates, using a categorization system that focuses on the liquidity of the financial instrument used as moneyMain article: Commodity moneyCommodity money value comes from the commodity out of which it is made. The commodity itself constitutes the money, and the money is the commodity.[8] Examples of commodities that have been used as mediums of exchange include gold, silver, copper, rice, salt, peppercorns, large stones, decorated belts, shells, alcohol, cigarettes, cannabis, candy, barley, etc. These items were sometimes used in a metric of perceived value in conjunction to one another, in various commodity valuation or Price System economies. Use of commodity money is similar to barter, but a commodity money provides a simple and automatic unit of account for the commodity which is being used as moneyMain article: Representative moneyRepresentative money is money that consists of token coins, other physical tokens such as certificates, and even non-physical "digital certificates" (authenticated digital transactions) that can be reliably exchanged for a fixed quantity of a commodity such as gold, silver or potentially water, oil or food. Representative money thus stands in direct and fixed relation to the commodity which backs it, while not itself being composed of that money is any claim against a physical or legal person that can be used for the purchase of goods and services.[8] Credit money differs from commodity and fiat money in two ways: It is not payable on demand (although in the case of fiat money, "demand payment" is a purely symbolic act since all that can be demanded is other types of fiat currency) and there is some element of risk that the real value upon fulfillment of the claim will not be equal to real value expected at the time of purchase.[8]This risk comes about in two ways and affects both buyer and it is a claim and the claimant may default (not pay). High levels of default have destructive supply side effects. If manufacturers and service providers do not receive payment for the goods they produce, they will not have the resources to buy the labor and materials needed to produce new goods and services. This reduces supply, increases prices and raises unemployment, possibly triggering a period of stagflation. In extreme cases, widespread defaults can cause a lack of confidence in lending institutions and lead to economic depression. For example, abuse of credit arrangements is considered one of the significant causes of the Great Depression of the 1930s.[9]The second source of risk is time. Credit money is a promise of future payment. If the interest rate on the claim fails to compensate for the combined impact of the inflation (or deflation) rate and the time value of money, the seller will receive less real value than anticipated. If the interest rate on the claim overcompensates, the buyer will pay more than moneyMain article: Fiat moneyFiat money is any money whose value is determined by legal means. The terms fiat currency and fiat money relate to types of currency or money whose usefulness results not from any intrinsic value or guarantee that it can be converted into gold or another currency, but instead from a government's order (fiat) that it must be accepted as a means of payment.[10] [11]Fiat money is created when a type of credit money (typically notes from a central bank, such as the Federal Reserve System in the .) is declared by a government act (fiat) to be acceptable and officially-recognized payment for all debts, both public and private. Fiat money may thus be symbolic of a commodity or a government promise, though not a completely specified amount of either of these. Fiat money is thus not technically fungible or tradable directly for fixed quantities of anything, except more of the same government's fiat money. Fiat moneys usually trade against each other in value in an international market, as with other goods. An exception to this is when currencies are locked to each other, as explained below. Many but not all fiat moneys are accepted on the international market as having value. Those that are trade indirectly against any internationally available goods and services [8]. Thus the number of . dollars or Japanese yen which are equivalent to each other, or to a gram of gold metal, are all market decisions which change from moment to moment on a daily basis. Occasionally, a country will peg the value of its fiat money to that of the fiat money of a larger economy: for example the Belize dollar trades in fixed proportion (at 2:1) to the . dollar, so there is no floating value ratio of the two money, if physically represented in the form of currency (paper or coins) can be easily damaged or destroyed. However, here fiat money has an advantage over representative or commodity money, in that the same laws that created the money can also define rules for its replacement in case of damage or destruction. For example, the . government will replace mutilated federal reserve notes (. fiat money) if at least half of the physical note can be reconstructed, or if it can be otherwise proven to have been destroyed.[12] By contrast, commodity money which has been destroyed or lost is supplyMain article: Money supplyThe money supply is the amount of money within a specific economy available for purchasing goods or services. The supply in the US is usually considered as four escalating categories M0, M1, M2 and M3. The categories grow in size with M3 representing all forms of money (including credit) and M0 being just base money (coins, bills, and central bank deposits). M0 is also money that can satisfy private banks' reserve requirements. In the US, the Federal Reserve is responsible for controlling the money supply, while in the Euro area the respective institution is the European Central Bank. Other central banks with significant impact on global finances are the Bank of Japan, People's Bank of China and the Bank of gold is used as money, the money supply can grow in either of two ways. First, the money supply can increase as the amount of gold increases by new gold mining at about 2% per year, but it can also increase more during periods of gold rushes and discoveries, such as when Columbus discovered the new world and brought gold back to Spain, or when gold was discovered in California in 1848. This kind of increase helps debtors, and causes inflation, as the value of gold goes down. Second, the money supply can increase when the value of gold goes up. This kind of increase in the value of gold helps savers and creditors and is called deflation, where items for sale are less expensive in terms of gold. Deflation was the more typical situation for over a century when gold and credit money backed by gold were used as money in the US from 1792 to policyMain article: Monetary policyMonetary policy is the process by which a government, central bank, or monetary authority manages the money supply to achieve specific goals. Usually the goal of monetary policy is to accommodate economic growth in an environment of stable prices. For example, it is clearly stated in the Federal Reserve Act that the Board of Governors and the Federal Open Market Committee should seek “to promote effectively the goals of maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates.”[13]A failed monetary policy can have significant detrimental effects on an economy and the society that depends on it. These include hyperinflation, stagflation, recession, high unemployment, shortages of imported goods, inability to export goods, and even total monetary collapse and the adoption of a much less efficient barter economy. This happened in Russia, for instance, after the fall of the Soviet and central banks have taken both regulatory and free market approaches to monetary policy. Some of the tools used to control the money supply include:changing the rate at which the government loans or borrows money currency purchases or sales increasing or lowering government borrowing increasing or lowering government spending manipulation of exchange rates raising or lowering bank reserve requirements regulation or prohibition of private currencies taxation or tax breaks on imports or exports of capital into a country For many years much of monetary policy was influenced by an economic theory known as monetarism. Monetarism is an economic theory which argues that management of the money supply should be the primary means of regulating economic activity. The stability of the demand for money prior to the 1980s was a key finding of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz[14] supported by the work of David Laidler[15], and many nature of the demand for money changed during the 1980s owing to technical, institutional, and legal factors and the influence of monetarism has since of money The use of barter like methods may date back to at least 100,000 years ago. Trading in red ochre is attested in Swaziland, shell jewellery in the form of strung beads also dates back to this period, and had the basic attributes needed of commodity money. To organize production and to distribute goods and services among their populations, before market economies existed, people relied on tradition, top-down command, or community Shekel referred to an ancient unit of weight and currency. The first usage of the term came from Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC. and referred to a specific mass of barley which related other values in a metric such as silver, bronze, copper etc. A barley/shekel was originally both a unit of currency and a unit of to Herodotus, and most modern scholars, the Lydians were the first people to introduce the use of gold and silver coin.[17] It is thought that these first stamped coins were minted around 650-600 BC.[18] A stater coin was made in the stater (trite) denomination. To complement the stater, fractions were made: the trite (third), the hekte (sixth), and so forth in lower name of Croesus of Lydia became synonymous with wealth in antiquity. Sardis was renowned as a beautiful city. Around 550 BC, Croesus contributed money for the construction of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient first banknotes were used in China in the 7th century, and the first in Europe issued by Stockholms Banco in the Western world, a prevalent term for coin-money has been specie, stemming from Latin in specie "in kind".[19]See also Numismatics portal Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Money Look up Money inWiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Money Category:Money Coin of account Counterfeit, for Counterfeiting of Money Credit money Currency market Economics Electronic money Federal Reserve Fractional reserve banking Full reserve banking Labor-time voucher Local Exchange Trading Systems Money creation non-market economics Numismatics — Collection and study of money Seignorage Standard of deferred payment World currency
The distribution of income in wages exist "income gap" phenomenon (due to the statistics annals of income gap is true, these gap and comprehensive display was not included in the us basically in front of about different income group distribution and gini coefficient of calculation and analysis, and so on, we the income gap, but not separate with statistical data of all aspects of income distribution for the analysis and conclusion mix together, here we call it "the statistics show", the income gap between). Salary income, income and illegal income is monopolistic income distribution gap caused by the main source. From the statistics, the income distribution gap with the lowest earners highest earners income gap, and every year is to expand the growth rate; The highest earners with minimum earners of consumer spending, in every consumer spending is growth expand, According to the distribution of income and wealth gini coefficient is with average annual growth rate to the few who are only in housing distribution, for example, to illustrate the existing "income gap". According to the city residents per household area statistics analysis, 1998, reflect the housing area differences in gini coefficient is relatively modest, the scope, But if the differential rents factors taken into consideration, the housing price calculated gini coefficient is very wide gap (see chart 2).Income distribution rules caused by income gap is not reasonable, even illegal, society has caused concern for society, the serious negative effect, measures should be taken to focus. Of course, the "income gap" has its reasonable factors and inevitable objective factors: one is the senior management personnel, mastering high-tech talent and capital are scarce elements in the market mechanism, basic regulatory function, human capital, technology, capital, the owner of the elements of the labor and investment by himself to get rich. The salary income distribution within the system, because the average income, furthermore, it is the large gap system has its reasonable ingredient (., a part of the labor compensation system should be included in the system, belong to the reasonable and did not include income; the other part of the system of income and reasonable elements into income and unreasonable or legitimate income is two parts, the unreasonable, illegal income can be divided into the black gray income, income, etc.). Three is due to the surplus labor force in town, and ordinary neutralized low-income income increase. Positive and negative aspects of the role, also can make the urban income distribution gap. To produce "income gap of rational composition, should pass into the system to be solve, For other unreasonable, illegal income, should adopt limit, cancellation, even to industries unreasonable high income problem still outstanding. Because some monopoly industries, 1999, the big industry by sixteen, worker pay the highest level is the lowest 245 times, According to the classification of industry, the highest fine points of worker wage income is the lowest income 240 times of industry worker. In 1994, the monopoly industries and the whole social worker average wage worker of average wage multiples relation is between times to results, In 1999, rise to 138 and times, the gap between the expansion (see chart 3). Here, not including system, such as the income gap, and the system of income. The central and western part of the area and urban residents income level and the growth rate of workers in the rankings for the phenomenon of "low", between regions, including widening income gap, "low" phenomenon in henan province is outstanding, shanxi, hebei, worrying. The development of the western region and to the western economy and urban residents (including rural residents income growth to inject new vitality into the central region, but also cannot ignore, otherwise, will drag the economy is average or distribution of income gap, all is one kind of inequality. All of the socialist market economy and the labor value distribution and income distribution behaviorsOne is the salary pays not standard, Second is the salary is not standard, in the extraction efficiency, unplanned and link the base salary is popular; the extraction of Three is part of enterprise established compensatory endowment insurance exceed total wages standard of 4% higher income into cost, form, Four is enterprise management personnel, lack of arbitrary position reasonable consumption constraints, chi 5 is the institution of regulating income activities without rules, distribution, low and the whole structure is unreasonable income distributionOne is the salary structure unreasonable, within the system, the system of low wage labor remuneration, various projects, high salary; not 2 it is to press the income distribution of various factors, and the central about "to allow and encourage capital, technology and elements in income distribution gap" demands still. 1990-1999), urban per capita annual per capita income of the proportion of all income, not only from the relative decrease, but increased percentage points, although it can be attributed to some extent for recent salary welfare salary played a boycott of the proportion of the relative decrease, but also can see, urban residents by various factors are not true, other elements adjust need further increases in allocation proportion (here, we have the statistical data of the system of income, outside the unreasonable income, illegal income, and this will take into consideration as another problem solved).4 and different income group distribution form insufficient ideal, the proportion of low-income peopleIn every different income groups of distribution, the medium income and medium income group is relatively small, only the total , Due to the rapid increase of income level to other top earners minority groups in the relativity of income and low and medium downward, show the relative to income group total aggregate of a different income distribution structure, easy to cause the group of the income gap widening psychological unbalance (due to the group of internal income gaps and the lowest low-income earners, medium slant on earners, therefore, are low-income earners in the highest position. Psychologically, these low-income looked up, they saw a head top earners, and ignored between them and the highest earners between scale less visible, causing the transitional income group is a big contrast). Different income group is not reasonable distribution of our current problems to be solved in income distribution of primary contradictions 希望你能接纳
Money can buy a lot of things, for learning, living,. You can live comfortably, not for the life of brain trouble. The money is also bad. Easy to develop extravagant, wasteful, spending habits. So money can be good or bad有钱可以买到很多的物品，用来学习的，生活中使用的，。可以衣食无忧，不用为生活烦脑。有钱也有坏处。容易养成奢侈，大手大脚，乱花钱的习惯。所以有钱有好处也有坏处
Hong Lou Meng, sometimes translated as The Dream of the Red Chamber, the great classical Chinese novel written in the mid-eighteenth century during the reign of Emperor Chien-lung of the Ching Dynasty, has been widely popular throughout the last two hundred years and more. The four great houses of Chia, Shih, Wang and Hsueh described in this novel were typical basic political units of feudal society. Such families were linked with the court above and the local officials below to form a network of control with the feudal autocratic state power as its centre. The book depicts the inevitable doom of these families, riven as they are by fierce struggles among themselves and in society, focusing on the tragic love between Jia Baoyu and Lin Daiyu and also provides a panorama of the lives of people of various levels in the degenerating is the only one novel so brilliantly integrated with these that readers are fascinated and moved by it. With superb artistry the author presents a panoramic genre-painting, a whole gallery of highly individual yet typical characters. Through detailed descriptions of their daily life he succeeds in depicting their different idiosyncrasies, thoughts and feelings. In the use of dialogue too he shows outstanding skill, putting such distinctive speech into each character's mouth that the reader feels as if he can see and hear the speaker. The Ching Dynasty (1644-1911) was the last feudal dynasty in China. The Chien-lung era (1736-95) was the turning point towards the decline of the Ching Dynasty. Crisis-riven feudalism was already on its last legs. The whole fabric of Chinese feudal society was tottering on the verge of final collapse. This was the period in which Tsao Hsueh-chin the author of A Dream of Red Mansions lived. Tsao Hsueh-chin died in the twenty-eighth year of Chien-lung (1763).
这不是我原创的~但希望可以一点帮助~2002年10月，南开大学外国语学院和《中国翻译》编辑部联合举办“全国《红楼梦》翻译研讨会”，这是专就一部文学经典的翻译举行的学术会议。大会收到数量较多的论文，这里汇集的是其中的一部分，凑成一个集子，以资纪念。同时，借此机会与学者们互通信息，交流经验，共同推动《红楼梦》的翻译研究。在世界文学史上，有因对具体作家的研究而发展成为一个专门学问的，如，将英国戏剧家莎士比亚研究称为“莎学”，将爱尔兰作家乔伊斯 (JamesJoyce)研究称为“乔学”。因对一本书的研究而发展成专门学问的不多，《红楼梦》是一个。这是文学史上一个特殊的现象。《红楼梦》于乾隆五十六(1791)年第一次刊印，至清朝末年，一些文人把对《红楼梦》的研读和评说称之为“红学”。此后的“红学”经历了一个曲折的发展过程，至于今，已成为一门显学，不仅在中国，在国外也受关注。《红楼梦》作为一部文学经典具有恒久的魅力，它在中国文化里产生、流传，在异域文化里也得到传播——主要通过它的译文得以实现。 目前，《红楼梦》已有十五六种文字的译本。就英语译本看，它的翻译经历了一个较长的历史。陈宏薇教授和江帆在她们合写的《难忘的历程》里说，自 1830年英国皇家学会会员戴维斯翻译《红楼梦》第三回片断开始， 160年来，先后产生了9种英译文。在霍克斯／闵福德和杨宪益夫女王的全译本之前的翻译都是节译，其中以王良志(1927)和王际真 (1929)的译本在推动《红楼梦》在西方流传方面影响较大。20世纪70年代，英国汉学家戴维·霍克斯(DavidHawkes)着手翻译《红楼梦》前80回，由英国企鹅出版公司出版，译文书名为 The StoryO／the Stone，分三卷，第一卷The Golden Days(1973)，包括前26回；第二卷The Crab—Flower Club(1977)，包括27 —53回；第三卷The Warning Voice(1980)，包括54—80回。后来约翰·闵福德(John Minford)继霍克斯翻译了《红楼梦》的后四十回，分两卷出版，第四卷TheDebto／Tears(1982)，包括81—98回；第五卷TheDreamer Wakes(1986)，包括99—120回。20世纪70年代后期，杨宪益(Yang Hsien-yi)和戴乃迭(Glad— ysYang)夫夕]也开始了翻译《红楼梦》的巨大工程，于1978— 1980年由外文出版社(北京)分三卷出版，译文书名为‘4 Dream o／ Red Mansions。《红楼梦》两个英文全译本的出版，不仅是中国和英语国家文化交流的大事，也是文学翻译的大事，它促进了中国古典小说的翻译进程。在此后不到十年的时间里，相继又出版了由詹纳(W．J。 P．Jenner)翻译的《西游记》(／ourneycOthe West，1982)，由沙博里 (SidneyShapiro)翻译的《水浒传》(Outlaws O／the Marsh，1988)，以及由罗伯茨(Moss Roberts)翻译的《三国演义》(Three King— doms，1994)。至此，中国四部古典文学名著的英文全译本已出齐。在推动中国古典文学名著英译并使其形成一个蓬勃发展的形势过程中，《红楼梦》的英译者们是有功劳的。随着《红楼梦》的翻译出版，出现了《红楼梦》翻译批评和研究的好形势。 自戴维·霍克斯于1973年出版第一卷The Golden Days以来，便有人开始写研究《红楼梦》翻译的文章。据不完全统计，到目前就霍克斯／闵福德译本和杨宪益／戴乃迭译本所写的散见于各地的研究文章，已有70余篇，加上这里收集的30几篇，足有100多篇。这期间也有关于《红楼梦》翻译研究的专著问世，如南开大学王宏印教授的《<红楼梦>诗词曲赋英译比较研究》，是《红楼梦》系统研究的一个良好开端。现在研究《红楼梦》翻译的人逐渐多起来，专家学者之外，也有青年教师和研究生。在这种形势下，探讨如何使《红楼梦》的翻译研究深入，也许能够使其成为一个专门的研究课题，为翻译作为一门学科的建设做贡献，这是很值得的。从这里收入的文章看，大体分二种类型。一种是宏观类型的研究，其研究方法突破了以往规定性的“标准一分析一结论”和文本“对等”的单一模式，回到历史和文化的背景中，研究《红楼梦》翻译和当时的历史、政治、文化和文学思潮的互动关系，·体现了以历史地描述和解释为主的科学研究的性质；这一类型里还有关于《红楼梦》翻译的体制、策略、翻译倾向和补偿策略等问题的研究，也是值得重视的问题。另一种是微观类型的研究，多涉及文化和语言层面的问题，以阐释批评的方式对译作和原作以及它们之间的关系进行评价，对译作进行审美的和其他方面的价值判断等。 这两种类型的研究各有自己的功能和价值。宏观方面的研究可以帮助我们认识不同文化之间的交流和理解是经过怎样一个过程实现的；微观方面的研究可以帮助我们思考如何翻译好，如何培养好的译者，以真正实现文化交流的目的。勒菲弗尔(Andr6 Lefe— vere)和巴斯奈特(Susan Bassneff)将这二者比喻为翻译大厦里的两栋房子，没有理由不让它们并肩而立。翻译研究的目的除了对翻译活动进行客观的和科学的描述和解释，还要通过研究翻译过程和翻译作品对翻译进行理论总结，以端正对翻译的认识，提高翻译质量，促进翻译事业的发展。著名红学家冯其庸说：《红楼梦》是一首无韵的《离骚》，也是一部“说”家之绝唱。 自从《红楼梦》问世以后，中国的古典小说再也没有超越它的作品出现了。《红楼梦》是一部“前不见古人，后不见来者”的千古绝唱!读过《红楼梦》的人大概都同意这个意见，甚至连读过《红楼梦》的外国人也持同样的看法。斯洛伐克翻译家玛丽纳·恰尔诺古尔斯卡(Marina Camogul3ka)就说：因为它是一部天才的小说、散文和诗的交响曲，它是一部集所有重要的中国文化之大成的百科全书，它是一部蕴涵重要的人生哲理和世界观的小说——而这样大师级的文学作品在世界上任何别的地方均不存在。《红楼梦》的译者以及未来的《红楼梦》译者们肩负着一个伟大而艰难的使命，即，通过译文让英语读者也能认识到“《红楼梦》是一部‘前不见古人，后不见来者’的千古绝唱”，是一部“在世界上任何别的地方均不存在”的作品。如果我们的译文不能达到这样的境界，那就辜负了这部伟大的作品。 钱谷融先生认为一切文学作品都应该是诗，都应该有诗的意味。他说李白、杜甫的诗篇是诗，曹雪芹的《红楼梦》以及鲁迅的《朝花夕拾》都是诗，研究文学不可忘记文学作品的本质是诗。他的这番话对于翻译的研究者和文学作品的译者有很深的启示：《红楼梦》里“诗的意味”是什么，它是以怎样的形式表现出来或隐含在内，翻译《红楼梦》时如何才能体验和再现它的“诗的意味”。这些涉及到文艺美学也涉及到翻译美学，是《红楼梦》的翻译和研究不可回避的问题。 《红楼梦》的翻译研究虽属个案研究，但在对两种语言、两种文学和文化的对比研究中可以汲取丰富的灵感和资源，用科学的方法加以梳理总结，可以使我们的翻译研究建立在语言、文学和文化对比研究的坚实的基础之上，在对比语言学、对比文化学、文艺美学和翻译诗学等方面有所发现，为翻译学的建设和翻译事业的发展做出自己的贡献In October 2002, Nankai University Foreign Languages Institute and "Chinese Translation" Editorial Department jointly organized the "National" Dream of Red Mansions "translation workshop," This is a classic on the translation of a literary conference held. The General Assembly received a large number of papers collected here are part of, to make up a collection, memento of the occasion. At the same time, and scholars to take this opportunity to share information, exchange experiences and jointly promote the "Dream of Red Mansions" of translation studies. In the history of world literature, a writer because of the specific research and the development of a specialized knowledge of, for example, the British dramatist Shakespeare referred to as the "school-sha", the Irish writer James Joyce (JamesJoyce) study known as "Joe Xue . " Because of a book devoted to research and develop into a little learning, "A Dream of Red Mansions" is a. This is a special literary phenomenon. "A Dream of Red Mansions" at 56 Qianlong (1791) published for the first time to the late Qing dynasty, a number of scholars to "A Dream of Red Mansions" and comment on the study called "A Dream of Red Mansions." Since then the "A Dream of Red Mansions" has gone through a tortuous development process, as this has become a significant study, not only in China, in other countries of concern. "A Dream of Red Mansions" as a literary classic with a long-lasting charm, which have a culture in China, spread in a foreign land has been the dissemination of culture - mainly through its President can be achieved. At present, the "Dream of Red Mansions" has been the translation of languages十五六. On the English translation, the translation of it has gone through a long history. And Professor Chen Hongwei Jiang Fan in their co-wrote the "unforgettable journey," said that since 1830 the Royal Society of translation Davis, "A Dream of Red Mansions" to fragment the third year, 160 years ago, has resulted in nine kinds of English translation . In the Hawkes / Min Yang Xianyi Ford and the Queen's husband before the whole translation of the translation section is translated, with Wang Chi (1927) and WANG Ji-Zhen (1929) in promoting the translation of "A Dream of Red Mansions" in the West affect the larger circulation. The 20th century, 70's, the United Kingdom戴维霍克斯sinologist (DavidHawkes) start of translation, "A Dream of Red Mansions" before the 80 back, from United Kingdom Penguin Books published the title of President for The StoryO / the Stone, in three volumes, the first volume of The Golden Days (1973), including the former 26 Back; II The Crab-Flower Club (1977), including back to 27 -53; III The Warning Voice (1980), including back to 54-80. Later, John Minford (John Minford) following the Hawkes translation of "A Dream of Red Mansions" after the 40 back, in two volumes published in Volume IV TheDebto / Tears (1982), including back to 81-98; TheDreamer V Wakes (1986), including back to 99-120. 70 In the late 20th century, Yang Yi (Yang Hsien-yi) and Gladys (Glad-ysYang) Fu Xi] also began the translation, "A Dream of Red Mansions," the great works, in 1978 - 1980 by Foreign Languages Press (Beijing) published in three volumes, entitled Mr'4 Dream o / Red Mansions. "A Dream of Red Mansions" two of the published English translation of the whole is not only a cultural exchange between China and the major English-speaking countries, but also a major event in literary translation, it has promoted the translation of classical Chinese novels process. Less than a decade in time, have also published by Jenner (. P. Jenner) translation of "Journey to the West" (/ ourneycOthe West, 1982), by the Shapiro-ri (SidneyShapiro) Translation " Outlaws of the Marsh "(Outlaws O / the Marsh, 1988), as well as Roberts (Moss Roberts) translation of the" Romance of the Three Kingdoms "(Three King-doms, 1994). So far, four classical Chinese Literature in English translation has been a homogeneous whole. In promoting the English translation of Chinese Classical Literature and make it into a dynamic growth process, "A Dream of Red Mansions" is the British translator who has the credit of. With the "Dream of Red Mansions" translated and published, there has been "A Dream of Red Mansions," the study of translation criticism and a good situation.戴维霍克斯since the publication of Volume I in 1973, since The Golden Days, people began to write research "A Dream of Red Mansions," the article translated. According to incomplete statistics, the current on the Hawkes / Minford translation and Yang Hsien-yi / Gladys written translation research scattered throughout the articles, there are more than 70 articles, together with the collection of 30 essays here, there are more than 100 feet articles. During this period there are on "A Dream of Red Mansions" Translation Studies monographs available, such as the Nankai University's Professor Wang Hongyin " Poetry A Comparative Study of the English translation of Qu Fu" and "A Dream of Red Mansions" System of a good start. Research is now "A Dream of Red Mansions" translation gradually grown, outside experts and scholars, there are young teachers and graduate students. Under such circumstances, to explore how to make the "A Dream of Red Mansions," the translation of research in depth, may be able to make it a special research topic for the translation as a discipline to contribute to the building, it is worth it. Income from here to see the article, generally divided into two types. One is the macro-type of research, the research methods of breaking through the previous "standard an analysis of a conclusion" and the text of "reciprocity" of single-mode and return to historical and cultural background, the study of "A Dream of Red Mansions" translation and the historical, political, cultural and literary interaction between ideas, reflects the historical description and interpretation of the nature of scientific research-based; this type there are still on "A Dream of Red Mansions" translation system, strategy, Translation compensation trends and issues such as research strategy, one that deserves attention. Another type of study is the micro-, multi-cultural and linguistic level, in order to explain the criticism of the way and the original translation as well as their evaluation of the relationship between, on the translation for aesthetic and other value judgments and so on. Both types of study have their own functions and values. Macro-studies can help us understand the exchange between different cultures and understanding how a process is achieved; micro research can help us to think about how good the translation, how to cultivate a good translator, so as to really achieve the purpose of cultural exchange . Lefebvre (Andr6 Lefe-vere) and Bassnett (Susan Bassneff) compared to the translation of these two buildings in the two houses, there is no reason not to allow them to stand shoulder to shoulder. The purpose of translation studies translation activities in addition to objective and scientific description and explanation, but also by studying the process of translation and translation work on the translation of theoretical summary to correct understanding of translation, translation quality, and promote the development of translation. Yong Feng红学家famous said: "A Dream of Red Mansions" is a non-rhyme of "Li Sao", is also a "say" home of farewell. Since the "Dream of Red Mansions" after launch, the Chinese classical novel does not go beyond it no longer works there. "A Dream of Red Mansions" is a "not before the ancients, the latter were not to" the eternal farewell! Read "A Dream of Red Mansions" who probably agree with this view, and even read the "Dream of Red Mansions" of foreigners, also holds the same view. Slovakia玛丽纳恰尔诺古尔斯卡translator (Marina Camogul3ka) said: because it is a genius of fiction, prose and poetry of the symphony, it is a collection of all the important of the Chinese culture Dacheng Encyclopedia, which is an important implication of the life philosophy and world view of the novel - and this master of literary works in the world do not exist in any other places. "A Dream of Red Mansions" and the future of the translator, "A Dream of Red Mansions" translators are responsible for a great and difficult mission, that is, through the President so that English readers will understand "" A Dream of Red Mansions "is a 'pre - not ancient, but not to those who, after 'the eternal farewell "is a" in the world do not exist in any other places "works. Asked if we can not achieve such a state, then let this great work. Mr. Qian Gurong that all literary works should be poetry, poetry should have the means. He said that Li Bai, Du Fu's poetry is poetry, Cao Xueqin's "Dream of Red Mansions" and Lu Xun's "朝花夕拾" are poetry, literary studies should not forget that the essence of literature is poetry. Translation of his remarks for the researchers and the translator of literary works have a very deep inspiration: "A Dream of Red Mansions" in "means that poetry" is what kind of form it is manifested or implied, including, translation of "A Dream of Red Mansions" how to reproduce it in order to experience and the "means of poetry." These relate to literary aesthetics of translation also involves aesthetics, is "A Dream of Red Mansions" of the translation and study of the problem can not be avoided. "A Dream of Red Mansions", although the translation of research case studies, but in two languages, two types of Comparative Literature and cultural studies can learn a wealth of inspiration and resources to sort out the scientific method to sum up, you can make our translation Research based on language, literature and cultural comparative study on the solid foundation, in contrast to linguistics, comparative culture, literature and art aesthetics and poetics of translation has been found and so on, for the construction of translation studies and translation of the cause of the development of its own contribution to
可根据您自己的偏好来写。比如可以写一下其中的诗词，也可以结合当时的历史环境来讲述一下四大家族的兴衰，也可以根据人物名字来讲述一下其命运。仅供参考，祝您顺利。
可以研究的方向太多了建议看一些大家研究过的课题，这样可以参考一下，不会那么的难
摘要 在这工作，微孔性和化学制品surfaceof聚合物吸附的作用在酚吸附物产wereinvestigated。 四的质地参量聚合物树脂，即AB-8， D4006， NKA-II和 D16树脂，尽快分开地是measuredby 2010年。 这些聚合物树脂表面化学通过相反gaschromatography (IGC)和diffusereflectance红外傅立叶变换分光学(漂泊)是坚定的。 静态平衡吸附实验在聚合物树脂被执行获得酚theisotherms。 它显示NKA-II和AB-8树脂拥有了相对地高赌注表面andmicropore容量，而D4006 和D16树脂拥有了比较低赌注表面和微孔容量。 IGCexperiments的结果显露NKA-II树脂有吸附热力势的非凡高特定零件两个为极性丙酮andbenzene探针和因而非凡强的表面极性与其他聚合物树脂比较。 它也被发现等温线 ofphenol在NKA-II那高于在其他聚合物树脂由于它最强的表面极性和最大的微孔volumeamong四树脂。 这些实验性观察表明酚的吸附在聚合物树脂很大地依靠了得ontheir微孔性和表面化学。 高度发达的微孔性和强的表面极性在聚合物树脂将改进adsorptionof酚。 2004年Elsevier 。 版权所有。 主题词： 聚合物树脂; 酚; 多孔性; 表面化学; 相反气相色谱
石墨材料性能的各向异性继续吸引科学家和技术专家。，PX，PY每个碳原子轨道杂化，形成强烈的共价SP2的债券，从而上升到120°CCC认证键角和熟悉的鸡肉丝样层。其余PZ轨道上每三个相邻的碳碳重叠，形成一个带称为价带填充π轨道，并带一个空π*轨道，称为导带。虽然每个碳表格上的四个价电子的σ（单）的债券，第四电子一个π键与每个邻居之一和三分之一的石墨生产中碳 - 碳键的顺序，有三分之一的形式。与没有在c方向的化学键，平面的相互作用极其微弱。这包括充电和热载体的传播，从而导致平面的电气和热导率都超过103倍，比其在平面类似物。
各石墨材料的性质一直吸引着两个科学家和技术人员。这个年代,px,在每一个碳原子轨道py共价sp2杂化形成牢固的债券,给上升到120 C-C-C°角和熟悉债券类似铁丝织网层。其余pz轨道在每个碳与它的三个邻近碳形成一群充满π轨道,称为价带,一群空π*轨道,称为传导带。尽管三四个价电子在每个碳形成σ(单一)债券,第四个电子形式的三分之一π债券各邻国产生碳键序在石墨的三分之一。没有在c-direction化学键,土星交互极其脆弱。这包括传播的电荷和热的载体,它导致光学电和热导率,都是超过103次低于他们的平面核苷类似物
基本上没有完整的文章.但是我帮你找到了椰子的相关资料,你作文条件里要求的东西也都有介绍,你可以用自己的话组织一下,写成文章.材料已经具备,其实不难写,好好构思组织一下.材料如下:椰子为热带喜光作物，在高温、多雨、阳光充足和海风吹拂的条件下生长发育良好。要求年平均温度在椰子开花24-25℃以上，温差小，全年无霜，椰子才能正常开花结果，最适生长温度为26-27℃。一年中若有一个月的平均温度为18℃，其产量则明显下降，若平均温度低于15℃，就会引起落花、落果和叶片变黄。水分条件应为年降雨量1500-2000mm以上，而且分布均匀，但在地下水源较丰富或能进行灌溉的地区，年降雨量为600-800mm也能良好生长；干旱对椰子产量的影响长达2-3年，长期积水也会影响椰于的长势和产量。椰子适宜在低海拔地区生长，我国海南岛在海拔150-200m以下的地方才能生长发育良好。适宜的土壤是海淀冲积上和河岸冲积土，其次是砂壤土，再次是砾土，粘土最差。地下水位要求，排水不良的粘土和沼泽土不适宜种植。就土壤肥力来说，要求富含钾肥。土壤PH值可为，但以最为适宜。椰子具有较强的抗风能力，6-7级强风仅对其生长和产量有轻微的影响。8-9级台风能吹断少数叶片，并撕破小叶。10-12级以上强台风对椰子有严重的危害。条件适宜，椰子植后了年开始给实，15-18年为盛产期，单株结果40-80个，多者超过100个，经济寿命超过80年。椰树每年产生的叶片数，随树龄不同而异，盛产期前，有随树龄增加而增加的趋势，盛产期后略有降低，但仍可保持恒定。大致幼苗期年抽叶约3片，未结果幼树10-13片，幼龄结果树14-15片，成龄树12-13片。随着植株衰老，年产生叶片数相应减少。一年内，由于季节的变化，每月的抽叶数也有一定的变化。幼龄结果树每年抽出的花苞数较成年树少，前者平均为个后者为12个。一年中，抽苞数以5-6月为最多，11-12月最少。花苞抽出后经个月露出花序，称为开花，开花最多的7-9月，并且所开放的花苞中雌蕊最多，11月至次年3月最少。椰子自受精至果实发育成熟需12个月时间。[编辑本段]栽培技术繁殖：采用种子繁殖。完全成熟的椰子，只要有适当的温湿条件，两个多月的时间就开始发芽。海南普遍采用预备苗圃催芽法。选择半荫蔽、通风、排水良好的环境，清除杂草树根，耕深15-20厘米，开沟，宽度比果稍宽，将种果一个接一个的斜靠沟底45°角，埋土至果实的二分之一至三分之二。当芽长10-15厘米时，移芽到有适度荫蔽的苗圃中椰子，注意浇水、排水、除草和施肥。一般一年左右，苗高约1米便可出圃定植。管理：护苗、补苗栽后要加强管理，植后初期要适当遮荫，并要灌水保湿，缺株要及时补植。耕作、培土和间种1年耕作两次，即在11-12月结合施肥耕作1次，在8-9月再中耕1次。随着植株长大，树干茎部长出大量的气根，进行培土，加固树体。椰园可间作短期作物，如花生、豆类等。起到活覆盖和提高园内湿度的作用，利于幼树生长。椰子树需施全肥，以钾肥最多，其次为氮、磷和氯肥，但必须注意平衡施肥。椰树缺钾时，茎干细、叶短小，树冠中部叶片首先萎焉，上部叶片向下簇伸，低部叶片干枯， 下垂悬挂于树干；缺氮时，幼叶失绿，少光泽，老叶出现不同程度的老化，产量降低；缺磷时会引起根系发展不良和过腐；缺氯会影响椰果大小以及氮的吸收和植株对水分的利用。因此，施肥时要以有机肥为主，化肥为辅并施一些食盐。每年可在4-5月及11-12月施肥，在距离树基部米处开施肥沟，效果较好。若用撒施法，应全面除草松土后再施肥。[编辑本段]椰子品种椰子栽培历史悠久，在长期自然选择和人工选择中，形成许多类型和变种。近年来以栽培品种角度分析、鉴别认为有野生种和栽培种，栽培品种中又可分为高种、矮种和杂交种。 高种椰子品种介绍：该品种是目前世界上最大量种植的商品性椰子，植株高大粗状，树干围径90-120厘米，树高可达20多米，茎干基部膨大称"葫芦头"。树冠圆形、半圆形、Y形，由30-40片叶组成；叶长5-6米。结果迟，植后7-8年开花结果，经济寿命达60-80年，自然寿命长达100多年。雌雄同序，花期不同，先开雄花，后开雌花，异花授粉。所有植株均为杂合体。椰果较大，椰干品质率高。椰干产量吨/公顷。 1、 高种椰子根据叶片和果实颜色差异可分为：红椰、绿椰两种。 高种椰子以果实形状和体积又可分为：大圆果、中圆果、小圆果三个类型。 （1）大圆果：果实围径70-90厘米，果重公斤，椰子重公斤，椰水重公斤，椰壳重公斤，果实圆形、椭圆形、椭圆形。单株产量低。在高种中为数不多。 （2）中圆果：果实围径60-70厘米，果重公斤,椰肉重公斤,椰子重公斤，椰壳重公斤，果圆形、椭圆形。产量中等，在高种椰子中为数最多。 （3）小圆果：果实围径50-60厘米，果重公斤，椰肉重公斤,椰水重公斤,。果实圆形、椭圆形。产量高，为数少。 2、 高种椰子特殊类型： （1）雄性树（雌雄不育）又称超优势公树：其特征是椰叶不完全羽裂。4-5片小叶粘合在一起，小叶较宽7厘米左右（正常4-5厘米），叶片长度较短400厘米（正常450-500厘米），花序较短70-90厘米（正常110-120厘米），雄花数量多，雌花少或没有，发育不正常，植株不结果。 （2）雌性树（雄性不育）：花序较短40-80厘米，花轴较短17-25厘米（正常40厘米），花枝数量少15-17条（正常36-40条），花枝较短12-15厘米（正常36-40厘米），花枝上仅着生雌花，雄花极少或没有，植株结果，产量低，植株之间差异大。 （3）雌花行特多椰树：特征是花序上雌花特别多，每个花序雌花达104-214个，每个花枝雌7-12个，比正常高种椰子树多3-4倍。花枝和花序较短，雄花数量少，产量低。 （4）多层花苞椰树：佛焰花苞双层（正常单层），有的双层花苞一样长，有的一层长一层短，叶片和花序及花枝较短，单株差异较大。 （5）多层花苞椰树：佛焰花苞多层，花序较短，80厘米，花枝多层分枝（正常不分枝）。花序枯干之后不随叶片枯干脱落，树干上挂满残留花序，有的花序全是雄花，有的雌雄同序，产量低，罕见。 （6）早熟椰子：苗龄仅3-4个月就开花，苗高约40厘米，叶片约10片，全是船形叶（未羽裂）。从中心抽出花序，雌雄同序,雌、雄体积比正常小，开花后不久植株亡，不能繁殖后代。 （7）多胚椰苗：正常椰果只有一个胚发育成一株苗，但有的椰果二个胚以上发育成苗。双胚苗常见，4-6株苗少见，最多达20多株苗，罕见。高种椰子最高可达25米，矮种椰子最高只有15米左右。高种椰子的经济寿命比矮种椰子长得多：高种椰子经济寿命约80年，而矮种椰子只有20-40年左右。但矮种椰子结果早，产量高：矮种椰子只需3-4年方可开花结果，年产量约每棵80个左右，而高种椰子要6-8年才开花结果，年产量约每棵40-60个。杂交种椰子则吸收了高种、矮种椰子的优点，具有高度低、寿命长、产量高的特点。杂交椰子的年产量约每棵180-200个。此外，杂交椰子还具有很强的抗风、抗虫害的特点。[编辑本段]地理分布椰子为古老的栽培作物，原产地说法不一，有说产在南美洲，有说在亚洲热带岛屿，但大多数认为起源于马来群岛。现广泛分布于亚洲、非洲、大洋洲及美洲的热带滨海及内陆地区。主要分布在南北纬20°之间，尤以赤道滨海地区分布最多。其次在南北纬20°°范围内也有大面积分布。我国种植椰子已有2000多年的历史。现主要集中分布于海南各地，台湾南部、广东雷州半岛，云南西双版纳、德宏、保山、河口等地也有少量分布。[编辑本段]营养价值椰汁及椰肉含水量蛋白质、果糖、葡萄糖、蔗糖、脂肪、维生素B1、维生素E、维生素C、钾、钙、镁等。椰肉色白如玉，芳香滑脆；椰汁清凉甘甜。椰肉、椰汁是老少皆宜的美味佳果。[编辑本段]食疗作用椰子性味甘、平，入胃、脾、大肠经；果肉具有补虚强壮，益气祛风，消疳杀虫的功效，久食能令人面部润泽，益人气力及耐受饥饿，治小儿涤虫、姜片虫病；椰水具有滋补、清暑解渴的功效，主治暑热类渴，津液不足之口渴；椰子壳油治癣，疗杨梅疮。[编辑本段]饲用价值椰子作为饲料主要是椰肉榨油后剩下的椰子油饼。一般每个椰子能生产椰干，可榨油，同时可以获得椰子油饼。利用椰子油饼饲喂家畜，需逐渐添加于其日粮中，家畜习惯后十分喜食。奶牛的饲用量为每天，饲喂椰子油饼，可以提高奶牛的乳脂含量。在猪日粮中，以添加25％最好，此外，椰子树叶和椰干也为家畜喜食，但一般不做饲料利用。新鲜椰子水可以作为家畜人工授精稀释精液的一种成分。[编辑本段]药用价值以果肉汁和果壳入药。果实成熟时采集，随时取肉汁及果壳供用。椰子性味甘，平。功能与主治：果肉汁补虚，生津，利尿，杀虫，用于心脏病水肿，口干烦渴，姜片虫；果壳祛风，利湿，止痒，外用治体癣，脚癣。用法与用量：椰汁或椰肉适量；外用椰壳放炉上烧，用碗覆盖收集其蒸气，冷凝得馏油，加30％酒精混合后涂患处。备注：生长9个月的椰子，曾取汁试用于临床，紧急时作为静脉输液的代用品。中药化学成分：椰子含油35%-45%。油中含游离脂肪酸20%、羊油酸(caproic acid)2%、棕榈酸(palmitic acid)、羊脂酸(caprylic acid)9%、羊蜡酸(capric acid)、油酸(oleic acid)2%、月桂酸(lauric acid)；还含豆甾三烯醇(stignastatrienol)、豆甾醇(stig-masterol)、岩藻甾醇(fucosterol)、α-菠菜甾醇(α-spinasterol)及甾醇(sterol)。碳水化合物约15%，主要有水苏糖(stachyose)、蔗糖(sucrose)、葡萄糖(glucose)。蛋白质不到5%，其中包括清蛋白(albumin)、球蛋白(globulin)、醇溶蛋白(proamine)等。含维生素B1 173μg%、B5 103μg%、B2微量、α-生育酚(α-toco-pherol)700μg%、γ-生育酚γ-tocopherol)250μg%。维生素C的含量以未成熟果中较高。果核含甘露聚糖(mannan)。[编辑本段]椰子的应用树木本身是优良的园林树木，可作为行道树、风景树木以及反映热带亚热带风光的庭院树木等。椰子纤维：拥有多种用途，如可作衬垫填料、扫帚、毛刷及海上缆绳等。特别在园艺、绝缘、腐蚀控制和农业方面。由于它吸水能力超强，在防腐方面比塑料和铁丝更为有效，而且还能为蔬菜和树木提供生长环境，已经被美国、德国、日本和欧洲用于覆盖堤岸。椰木：质地坚硬，花纹美观可做家具和建筑材料。椰叶：可用于编织，制作日常生活用品，也是日常燃料。椰花苞：可割取椰花汁酿制椰花酒，或提炼椰汁糖等。椰壳：质地坚硬，冷热不变形，可制优质活性炭，或加工成椰雕、乐器等工艺品。椰肉：可制成椰干、椰奶粉、椰蛋白、椰子汁、椰蓉及无色椰子油等。椰子水：含有维生素B和C、激素、糖等成分，是天然的清凉饮料，也可用于加工其它食品。椰油：主要是工业用油，为制皂的优质原料，发泡力强可制高级香皂、牙膏。椰子的养生功效 椰子的用途广泛，素有“生命树”、“宝树”之称，其味甘性寒，含蛋白质、糖类、维生素C、钙、钾等。椰子的汁液多，营养丰富，可解渴祛暑、生津利尿、主治热病，其果肉有益气、祛风、驱毒、润颜的功效。成熟的椰果肉富含蛋白质、脂肪，常被制成罐头、椰干等。椰子汁虽含钾量高，但含镁量也高，可增加机体对钾的耐受性。用来治疗胃肠炎脱水均有效。 椰子的营养价值 椰子是棕榈科植物椰子树的果实，它的树为重要的热带木本油料作物。椰子，原产于亚洲东南部、中美洲，目前全球有80多个热带国家有种植，菲律宾、印度、马来西亚及斯里兰卡更是椰子的主要产区。我国南方的很多省份也有栽培，其中以海南省的椰子最为著名，椰子已成为海南的象征，海南岛更被誉为“椰岛”。 椰子长在其树叶的根部，一棵椰子树一般可以结十几串椰子，每串可挂果一、二十个。椰子果为核果，一般为椭圆形或卵状，有的呈三棱。未成熟的椰子为青绿色，成熟后呈暗褐棕色，一个成熟的中等大小的椰子果有1500———2000克。椰子外皮厚滑且软，可保护果实落地时不致于破碎，又可以防止水分的侵入。在吃椰子时，要先剥掉外皮，落出硬壳，硬壳上有几个白点，将其捅开，用吸管吸椰汁，之后再用刀刮取内侧的白色果肉，冷冻后吃味道更佳。而且食用椰子的学问也很多，如椰汁离开椰壳味道则变；上午倒出的椰汁较甜，下午较淡。新鲜的椰汁“清如水甜如蜜”，饮后清凉、甘甜、可口，风味独特，营养价值高，是解暑的最佳饮品。椰肉芳香滑脆，它除可作为水果食用以外，还可以做成菜肴或蜜饯：海南人常用海南优质糯米、天然椰肉及椰汁制成“椰子饭”，也称做“椰子船”。另外用椰子做成的菜肴还有：椰子炖鸡，琼州椰子盅等。 椰子的营养价值很高。我国的中医认为，椰肉味甘，性平，具有补益脾胃、杀虫消疳的功效；椰汁味甘，性温，有生津、利水等功能。现代医学研究表明，椰肉中含有蛋白质、碳水化合物；椰油中含有糖份、维生素 B1、维生素 B2、维生素 C等；椰汁含有的营养成分更多，如果糖、葡萄糖、蔗糖、蛋白质、脂肪、维生素 B、维生素 C以及钙、磷、铁等微量元素及矿物质。由此可以看出椰子是药食两用的佳品。当脾胃倦怠、食欲不振、四肢乏力、身体虚弱时，将椰肉切碎，并加入适量的鸡肉和糯米，蒸熟后饮食，效力更佳，因为鸡肉、糯米及椰肉三者皆滋补，用炖汤的方式处理，补益功效更加显著；椰子中加入冬瓜子可泻肺火；加性凉的雪肉或清补的黄耳可中和椰子的温燥；患寒咳时，也不妨吃些椰肉，能起到止咳、化痰的作用。体内热盛的人不宜吃椰子；如果您长期夜睡，爱吃煎炸食物，容易发脾气，口干舌燥的话，也要切记请勿多吃椰子。 椰子除了其果实有很大的作用外，其它部分的功用也不小：椰壳可以烧制活性炭或加工椰雕、乐器；椰干可加工成椰油；椰木质地坚硬，花纹美观，可做家具或建筑材料。椰子综合利用产品达360多种，在国外有“宝树”、“生命木”之称.[编辑本段]文献记载《海药本草》：“主消渴、吐血、水肿，去风热。”《本草求原》：“治夹阴风寒邪热。”《本草纲目》：“椰子瓤，甘，平，无毒，益气，治风，食之不饥，令人面泽。椰子浆，甘，温，无毒，止消渴，涂头，益发令黑，治吐血水肿，去风热。”《全国中草药汇编》：‘“补虚，生津，利尿，杀虫。主治心脏性水肿，口干烦渴，姜片。”宋·秦观。《醉乡春》：“社瓮酿微笑，阗缺椰瓢共舀。”宋·黄庭坚。《椰子》：“浆成乳酒醺人醉，肉载鹅肪上客盘。”民间传说：相传林邑王与越王有怨，使刺客乘其醉，取其首，悬于树，化为椰子，其核犹有两眼，故俗谓之越王头，而其浆犹如酒也。[编辑本段]后记椰子是热带地方之宝，脂肪和蛋白质含量特多。随手摘来树上熟的椰子，已能提供一份好的营养餐。人们对椰子最大的误会，莫过于以为它清润。其实椰肉性温，能补阳火，且能强身健体，最适合身体虚弱、四肢乏力、容易倦怠的人享用，尤其是椰子糯米炖鸡，效力特佳，因为椰肉、糯米和鸡肉皆滋补，以炖汤方式处理，补益功效更加显著。不过，依然是老话一句，体内热盛的人不宜常吃椰子。如果你长期夜睡，爱吃香口煎炸食物，容易发脾气、口干舌燥的话，就要切记勿多吃椰子。另外，一向被誉为清热清润的海底椰，其实一样性温带补。要是你真爱椰香，可选清凉消暑的椰青水，或者弄椰子甜品时，加入其它配料来平衡，例如用沙参、百合、石斛，可清热养阴；加冬瓜子可泻肺火；加性凉的雪耳或清补的黄耳又可中和椰子的温燥。前人相信椰子能驱虫，特别是姜片虫。不过，今时今日，这种天然杀虫剂相信没有多大市场，反而是患寒咳时，不妨吃些椰肉，能止咳化痰补火。如果你不晓得分辨何谓寒咳，忽略了本身体虚、喉痒、无痰等征状，碰巧又喝了白菜汤而寒上加寒、咳个不停的话，椰肉或椰子炖鸡可以有效地舒缓这些症状。 椰子综合利用产品达360多种，在国外有“宝树”、“生命木”之称。椰子如何剥壳？如果你买的是青椰子，一般是只喝椰子汁不吃椰肉，因为椰肉太嫩，吃起来口感不好。 椰子那层厚厚的壳，要用大刀（劈柴刀或大菜刀），顺着纤维一刀一刀砍下来，见着椰子上面有三个小孔，有两个长象一样的，有一个不一样的，把不一样的小孔表面用刀刮一下，然后拿吸管一插就行了，那水你就尽情喝吧。 如果你不想浪费椰肉，把椰子放在砧板上，拿刀背在椰子的硬壳上敲几下，裂开了，就用小刀起肉，不过一般椰子汁好喝的椰子肉就不好吃，椰子肉好吃的椰子汁就不好喝。 把外层的椰棕剥开,看见上面有品字形的地方,然后用筷子或小刀在其中两个位置戳穿,将里面的水倒清,这是极品,不要浪废;再用锤子敲开,或干脆将椰子敲在地上,直至裂开为止,用小刀小心的将椰子肉剥下来,就可以吃到美味的椰子肉了
文学方向的比较好写，教学法最好写，不过能学到东西麽？我这儿有些：语用预设在喜剧小品中的应用 The Application of Pragmatic Presupposition in Comic Sketches论旅游广告的人际功能 On Interpersonal Functions of Tourism Advertisements英语借词研究 A Survey of Loan Words in English科技英语的词汇及句法特征 Lexical and Syntactic Features of English for Science and Technology黑人英语的词汇及句法特征 Lexical and Syntactic Features of Black English Vernacular通俗科技语篇中的名物化研究 A Study on Nominalization in Popular Science Discourses主位及述位研究的进展及展望 The Progress of and Outlook for Theme and Rheme Research英语衔接机制研究 A Study of English Cohesive Devices 委婉语在跨文化交际中的应用 The Application of Euphemism in Cross-cultural Communication非言语交际中的身势语 Body Language in Nonverbal Communication论隐喻的衔接功能 On the Cohesive Functions of Metaphor《玻璃动物园》中阿曼达形象分析 《玻璃动物园》中阿曼达形象分析《欲望号街车》的主题探析 A Thematic Exploration of A Streetcar Named Desire迷失的自我：《小镇畸人》中的女性人物分析 Lost Selves: An Analysis of the Female Characters in Winesburg Ohio天堂梦醒：论《无名的裘德》中哈代的爱情婚姻观 No Dream in Heaven: A Study on Hardy’s View on Love and Marriage in Jude the Obscure “献给艾米丽一朵玫瑰花”中艾米丽形象分析 An Analysis of the Image of Emily in “A Rose for Emily" 海明威"白象似的群山"的象征主义 Symbolism in Ernest Hemingway’s “Hills Like White Elephants”论《拍卖第49匹》的追寻主题 On the Theme of Quest in The Crying of Lot 49 论《名利场》中的叙事艺术 On the Narrative Arts in Vanity Fair 《珍妮姑娘》中的道德观分析 An Analysis of the Morality in Jennie Gerhardt浅析《蝇王》中的宗教思想 On the Religious Thoughts in Lord of the Flies鬼怪、解构、历史：《宠儿》的后现代主义分析 Ghost, Deconstruction, and History: A Postmodern Analysis of Beloved典籍英译中的“归化”与“异化” Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Classics典籍翻译中译者的职责 Translator's Task in Chinese Classics Translation英语名词化结构在汉英法律翻译中的应用 On the Application of English Nominalization in Legal C-E Translation论汉英旅游资料翻译中的省译 On "Omission” in C-E Tourist Material Translation恭维言语行为之文化对比分析 The Comparison of Compliment in Cross-cultural CommunicationANTITHESES 的分类与汉译 The Classification and Chinese Translation of ANTITHESES浅谈对偶 A Brief Account on ANTITHESES跨文化交际中的语用失误研究 A Study of Pragmatic Failure in Intercultural Communication尊重，交流与沟通——多元文化语境下的翻译 Respect, Exchange and Communication: On Translation in Multi-Cultural Contexts英语幽默的语言特点及语用分析 On Language Features and Pragmatic Analysis of English Humor隐喻意识与英语词汇学习 Metaphor Awareness and English Vocabulary Learning网络环境中的英语教学模式研究 Research on the Patterns of English Teaching in Internet Environment网络语言的特征 The Characteristics of the Internet Language合作学习在初中英语阅读教学中运用 The Application of Cooperative Learning in Junior High School English Reading Teaching 关联理论在英语听力教学中的应用 The Application of Relevance Theory in English Listening Teaching高中生英语学习动机研究 A Study on English Learning Motivation among Senior High School Students 英汉完成体对比 A Comparison of Perfective Aspect in English and Chinese 影响英语阅读理解的因素及其对策 A Study of Factors Affecting English Reading and the Corresponding Strategies游戏在中学英语教学中的应用 Application of Games in English Teaching in Middle School跨文化语境下的英语教学 English Language Teaching in Cross-cultural Contexts
英语专业毕业论文提纲2007-09-30 11:26Acknowledgements Abstract (English） Abstract (Chinese) Introduction Chapter 1 Moby-Dick and Individuation Theory Background of Herman Melville and Moby-Dick Brief Introduction of . Jung’s Individuation Theory Chapter 2 Failed Individuation of Captain Ahab Ahab’s Wounded Pride Ahab’s Madness Failed Individuation of Ahab Chapter 3 Individuation of Ishmael Alienated Ishmael in the very Beginning Tendency of Ishmael’s Ego-Self Reunification Individuation Process of Ishmael Differences between Ishmael and Ahab Conclusion Works Cited其实很简单.就分三部分. 1. Introduction of African American Vernacular English介绍黑人英语 2. An analysis of African American Vernacular English分析黑人英语 你可就以下几点来分析. a. History and social context历史和社会背景 b. Phonological features语音特点 c. Grammatical features语法特点 d. Negation否定句式 e. Other grammatical characteristics其它语法特点 f. Lexical features词的特点 summary总结
去李阳英语网，哪儿里有参考资料！
我也选的翻译，这个还算好写的
有写好的，直接用
论英语语法与修辞语法和修辞既是相通的，又是有区别的。语法是语言的组织规律，讲的是语言的结构形式；因此语法学家研究的对象是语言本身规律的一部分，是研究如何造出合乎语法的句子。因为只有合乎语法规则的句子才具有可理解的性质，才有可能被用作表达思想的基本语言单位。修辞不同于语法，它是研究语言使用的规律，是和语言的使用目的和使用场合密切相关的。因此，修辞学研究的对象是如何在具体交际场合中取得最好的语言表达效果，即如何根据不同的对象和场合把话说好，把文章做好，以便更好地达到交际目的。但是，修辞和语法又密切相关，可以说，修辞知识是语法知识的延伸，前者是建筑在后者基础上。因为语法告诉我们，同一个意思可以有不同的合乎语法的表达方式，而修辞则告诉我们如何恰当地选用语法形式，以达到最好的语言表达效果。语法结构形式的选用，关系到使用领域（即语体）的问题。比如在学术论文中，不可用适合于口头的表达方式；在法律文书中，不可用形象生动的文学语言；对上级或者长辈讲话，用语不可太随便；跟朋友谈心，用语又不可太庄重。因此，一本好的语法书必然要涉及修辞问题。我们学习语法不能只重视分析语言的能力；更重要的是要培养自觉、恰当地运用语言的能力。从这个角度来看，语法必须结合修辞，语法书的编写不能局限于词法和句法而必须超越句法的范围，讲一点如何恰当地使用语法知识的规律。恰当地使用语法知识规律可以简单地归纳为以下内容：表达思想，分清主次；关系明确，避免歧义；言语简练，用词经济；句式多样，灵活交替。一、表达思想，分清主次 这是修辞的第一条要求。在使用语言进行交际时，总是要把主要的住处突出起来，以便引起对方的注意，能为对方所理解并把握住意义的重心。这就涉及语法中一系列强调手段的运用问题。这些强调手段包括后置和前置、主从句、分裂句、层进法等，只要用之得当，便可在组词成句中突出主要的信息，分清主要次要的意思。1、后置后置，作为一种突出主要思想的手段，是现代英语的词序特征。众所周知，英语在其长期发展中形成一种相对固定的词序。根据这种词序，句子的意义重心往往落在句子的尾部分，从而句尾成为一种受到强调的部位。根据这条原则，说话人要强调什么意思，便可让它出现在句尾，从而传递信息便主次分明了。在前面提到的句尾信息焦点和尾重原则就是采用的这一原理。对比下面两句话：The patient was taken good care of, and began to recover patient was taken good care of, and immediately began to recover.这两个句子的意思都是病人受到很好的照顾，很快开始康复。但第一句的意义重心是immediately, 强调了康复之快，而第二句的意义重心则在于“康复”而不强调“马上”。再如：Though we started off early, we were late for the last were late for the last bus, though we started off were late for the last bus. We started off early, though.以上三个句子所表达的意思是一致的，但所强调的重点是不一样的。第一句强调我们晚了，第二句强调我们的确出发不晚，第三句突出强调了出发得早然而却晚了这一惊讶。We had a long enough holiday on the had a holiday, long enough, on the beach.两个句子的意义差别不大，但第一句只是普通的句子，而第二句强调了long enough。2、主从结构在主从结构中（这里主要指主句与从句），主句通常携带主要的信息，从句表达次要的信息。因此，人们在交流思想时，可以把主要意思放在主句中表达，而把次要意思放在从句中。这也可以成为表达思想分清主次的手段。如：After I had visited this country, I was even more struck by its visited this country, I was even more struck by its my visit to this country, I was even more struck by its was even more struck by its beauty, after I had visited this country.以上四个句子意思上的差别是不大的，但所要表达的具体内涵和感情就有些差异了。第一句after从句是个时间状语从句，为了更加突出主要的意思，通常它放于主句的前面，从而突出主句的信息。第二句把时间状语从句改为了非限定分句，那就加重了它的从属地位，从而主句的意思也就更加突出。如果再把非限定分句改为介词词组，那末，主句的意思进一步得到突出。第四句把从句置于句末，根据末端中心的原则，从句的意义比在句首是加重了，它相当于一种补叙，为主句表达的思想内容提供某种比较重要的条件，意思相当于“只有当我参观了这个国家之后，才被这个国家的美更加深深地打动了。”在这样的结构中，有两条语法规则在交叉地起作用：主从结构的表意作用和词序的作用。正由于从属的意思能以各种方式增加其分量，使之能够对主句所表达的意思起一定的平衡作用，有时甚至起到修改和对抗作用，这种“主句＋从句”的结构往往可在修辞上取得幽默、讽刺或戏剧性等特殊效果，在阅读时您不妨仔细体味。如：We don’t bother much about dress and manners in England, because as a nation we don’t dress well and we’ve no manners.这句话是主句在前，从句在后。主句的意思是：在英国，我们不为衣着和礼貌而烦神，为什么不烦神呢？都穿得很好吗？都很讲礼貌吗？不是的。请看下文：因为，作为一个民族，我们穿得不好，而且不讲礼貌。这样一来，后置的原因状语分句便对主句的意思起抵消的作用，从而带有辛辣的讽刺味道。再如：Even though men may deny it, women may soon be able to compete with men in most sporting may soon be able to compete with men in most sporting events, though men may not deny(否定) may soon be able to compete with men in most sporting events, but men may deny it.第一句，主句位于从句之后，突出了主句的意思，对妇女在体育运动中不断提高的地位持肯定态度；第二句，从句位于主句之后，抵消了或削弱了主句的意思，但是主要意思还是认为妇女即将在大多数体育运动项目中与男子进行竞争，只是这种意思被后面的从句削弱了一；第三句是个并列句，其意义主要受着分句顺序的支配。这句话的主要意思是妈妇女能否在大多数体育运动项目中与男了相抗衡表示一种怀疑的态度。3、前置除采用后置和主从结构来突出主要思想外，语法还提供了第三种方法，这就是前置。由于句首也是一种引人注目的位置，如果把一个通常不出现在句首的成分前移至句首，这也会起强调作用，产生特殊的修辞效果。例如句子的宾语和补足语通常出现在谓语动词之后，如果由于某种原因，比如为了与上文相衔接，而把宾语或补语移至句首，这时，前置的宾语或补语就会特别引人注目。如：Mr White fried two small pieces of fish. One of these he fed to his cat. The other he ate himself. 怀特先生煎了两条鱼，一条喂了狗，另一条他自己吃了。It is important to prevent pollution. Equally important is to take measures to check the rise in prices. 阻止污染是非常重要的。同时同等重要的是采取措施核实价格是不能提高。有时状语的前置也能起强调作用。比如在否定结构中，否定词及其强调词通常是比较贴近谓语动词的。如：The manager will not in any case stand rudeness from his employees. 在这里，not in any case 是“决不”之意，位于句子当中，这是不受强调的位置。如果把这个结构移至句首并引起倒装：In no case will the manager stand rudeness from his employees.这时，状语in no case便处于突出的地位，受到了强调。当然，在这种结构中，句尾仍然起着信息中心的作用。4、分裂句语法向我们提供的另一强调手段是一种特殊的、专门突出主要意思的句子结构――分裂句（又称强调句型）。分裂句的基本结构是：It is/was＋中心成分＋that-分句在这种句式中，中心成分是最受强调的部位，它可以是一个句子中主语、宾语、状语和宾语补足语等。（本部分详细请参阅本章《强调部分》）During the summer vacation I worked in a hotel as a part-time job to make some money for education. 在暑假里，为了嫌点钱上学，我在一家旅馆找了份业余工作。这个句子可以改用分裂句式强调除谓语动词以外的任何成分。如：It was during the summer vacation that I worked in a hotel as a part-time job to make some money for was I that/who during the summer vacation worked in a hotel as a part-time job to make some money for was in a hotel during the summer vacation I worked as a part-time job to make some money for was as a part-time job that During the summer vacation I worked in a hotel to make some money for education.对于谓语及其后续成分突出出来就得采用另外一种分裂句：What-分句＋is＋不定式结构。如：What I did during the summer vacation was to work in a hotel as a part-time job to make some money for education.由此可见分裂句It is/was＋中心成分＋that-分句的主要强调重心不在句尾而在句中；分裂句What-分句＋is＋不定式结构的主要强调重心仍然在句尾。5、层进法还有一种强调的方法就是采用“层进法”，即在排列两个以上并列成分时，采取由次要到重要到最重要的排列方式，从而突出位于句尾的成分。如：Einstein was a fair violinist, a great mathematician, and a deeply philosophical (哲理的)man.爱因斯坦三重身份：他既是伟大的数学家，又是个懂得精深哲理的人，同时还是个业余小提琴手。在这三重身份中，哪一种最重要呢？当然，精通哲理最重要，数学家次之，会演奏小提琴又次之，所以按照a vilionist, a great mathematician, and a deeply philosophical man 这样的排列，是符合一般修辞原则的，即要求由次要到重要至最重要的排列。这是故意违反一般修辞原则，而把不太重要的意思放在最后最重要的位置上，从而达到讽刺、幽默的修效果。He referred his success to hard work, his parents and his teachers.一个人事业的成功，最重要因素本应为“埋头苦干”，可是现在却把“父母、老师”放在最重要的位置，这无疑就是一种人际交流的需要。层进法不仅适用于句子成分之间，而且适用于句子和句子、语段和语段、段落和段落之间。二、关系明确，避免歧义 修辞的另一条重要原则是要求表意明确，而不是模棱两可。一句话如果既可作这样解释，又可作那样解释，这就叫做歧义。引起歧义的原因是多种多样。其中重要的一种是句子成分之间的关系不明确，特别是照应关系、修饰关系、比较关系不明确往往引起歧义。照应必须有被照应的对象，修饰也必有被修饰的对象，如果这些关系搞不清，意思就含糊不明。因此，关系明确是避免歧义的重要方法。1、要处理好照应关系英语中代词照应是照应关系中最重要的。处理好照应关系是理解篇章的最基本的前提。如：? Since my grandfather was a doctor, it is not surprising that I have chosen that for a job.在这里that所指不明，不论是指doctor, 还是指my grandfather was doctor, 在本句中都讲不能。因此在这个句中，have chosen 的宾语以不用代词为宜：Since my grandfather was a doctor, it is not surprising that I have chosen medicine for my job.再如：? The players and umpires (裁判)know one another well and sometimes they call them by their first names.这个并列句后半部的they, them, their含义不明。如果是运动员对他们认识的裁判员有时直呼其名，可以说：Players who know umpires well sometimes call them by their first names.如果是裁判员对他们认识的运动员有时直呼其名，那就说：Knowing the players well, the umpires sometimes call them by their first 、要处理好修饰关系关于名词修饰语和状语(特别是副词)的位置问题分别相关章节，这里再从修辞角度作一些补充。状语的位置如果处理不当往往会引起歧义。如：? I have followed the advice sincerely given by the teacher.? The woman scolded the boy for playing with fire bitterly.上述诸句中，sincerely, bitterly 叫“偏斜修饰语”，因为它们在句中位置不正，以致sincerely既可理解为修饰follow, 也可理解为修饰given；bitterly 本应修饰scolded，但在句中却好象在修饰playing，从而产生了歧义。这些修饰语的位置应作如下调整：I have sincerely followed the advice given by the woman bitterly scolded the boy for playing with matches.再如：He sent us the full story of his rescue from Lake of the Ozarks(美国奥沙克湖).在这里from Lake of the Ozarks既可理解为修饰sent，也可理解修饰his rescue。根据“靠近”的原则，可将该句调整如下：He sent us from the Ozarks the full story of his 、要避免中途改变语态或主语在主动结构和被动结构的使用上，一般修辞原则是要保持前后一致。如果中途改变语态，则往往意义不明。如：? He left the examination after his answer had been checked.这句话，主句用了主动结构，从句忽然改为被动结构，这样一来，到底是谁“核对子答案”便不明确了。要改进这个句子，最好把前后的动词语态一致起来，从而主语也一致了：He left the exmination after he had checked his answer.再如：As the guests entered the church, proper seats were arranged by the ushers leading them.(迎客的人).这句话的毛病是中途改变主语，以致“座位指定给谁”，含义不明。应将前后主语一致起来，尽管语态有变，但不影响意义：As the guests entered the church, they were led to the proper seats by the 、要处理好比较关系比较关系也是一种修饰关系。比较结构如果不完整或不确切也会引出歧义。请观察：? He is as tall, if not taller, than his brother.在这句话中，比较结构不完全，因为不可能说He is as tall than his brother, 而只能说as tall as his brother。 所以这句话应该调整为：He is as tall as his brother, if not taller.或调整为：He is as tall as, if not taller than his brother.再如：Leonardo had one of the greatest, if not the greatest minds of all times.这个最高级结构也是不完全的，从而非常费解，因为在这里有两个名词词组“one of the greatest minds”和“the greatest mind”。应补足为：Leonardo had one of the greatest minds, if not the greatest mind, of all times.有时，比较结构不完全，导致表意不合逻辑。如：?Her salary was lower than a typist.怎么会一个人的薪水比打字员低呢？应该说成：Her salary was lower than that of a typist.或者：Her salary was lower than a typist’s.再如：?The food here costs no more than any other resaurant.这句话从字面上看可以理解为The food here costs no more than any other restaurant costs, 这样以来，就变成拿食品价格和其它饭店的相比了，显然不合逻辑。应该拿这里的食品价格和任何其它饭店的食品相比：The food here costs no more than (it does) at any other restaurant.由上述诸例可以看出，在使用比较结构时，必须把被比较的对象明确起来。如果被比较的对象不明确，那就意义含糊。如：?Claremont is farther from Los Angeles than Pomona.这句话的意思很含糊。到底是Claremont 距离Los Angeles 比Pomona 距离Los Angeles 远呢？还是Claremont距离Los Angeles 比Claremont距离Pomona远呢？如果是前一种意思，应该说成：Claremont is farther from Los Angeles than Pomona is.如果是后一种意思，则应该说：Claremont is farther from Los Angeles than it is from Pomona.有时，在比较结构中使用than any…不当，其表意不合逻辑。如：?For many years the Empire State building was taller than any building in New York.这句话不合逻辑，因为Empire State Building 坐落在纽约市。它怎能和包括它自己在内的纽约市建筑物相比呢？处理这类问题，只要在any之后加个other就可以了：From many years the Empire State Building was taller than any other building in New York.三、言语简练，用词经济 言语简练，用词经济是修辞的另一条重要原则。所谓“简练”就是不用多余的词，即在表情达意中每一个词都起到自己的表意作用，而没有冗长、累赘的现象。“简练”和“简短”是两个不同的概念。“简练”是修辞上的优点；“简短”有时是优点，但有时就不一定是优点。一个简短的句子或者一篇简短的文章有时铿锵有力，掷地有声，便有时也可能言之无物，读来无味；文章长而空固然不妙；而空也未尝足取。一个句子或者一篇文章可能比较长，但内容充实，组织严密，没有废话，没有败笔，照样可以算是“简练”。因此“简练”是修辞的一个努力方向，它和“简短”是有区别的。1、要避免冗赘尽管一个句子或者一篇文章并不一定是“越短越好”，但是小题而大作，短话而连篇，言之无物，总是要不得的。讲一句话，造一个句子，在能充分表达思想的前提下，用词应该十分经济，必须避免使用多余的词。如：Whenever anyone called for someone to help him do something, Jim was always the first to lend his help for the cause. 这个句子如果变为下面的句子就更加简练：Whenever anyone called for help, Jim was always the first to lend his help.这个句子即是“简练的”，又是“简短”的。在这里，这二者就一致起来了。2、要避免不必要的重复重复有时是修辞的需要，但是，不必要的重复往往会造成言语累赘，表达无力。语法为我们提供了避免重复的手段，这重要是省略和替代。一般原则是，在能充分表意的前提下，能省略的就应省略，能替代的就应替代。省略和替代不仅能够避免不必要的重复，而且可使主要的思想内容得到应有的突出。反之，如果该省略而不省略，该替代而不替代，反而会冲淡主要的内容，赞成烦冗无力的表达。如：My father planned (all these houses) and my brother built all these can (do the work well) and (he) should do the work well, but he won’t (do the work well).Mary is going to sweep the floor though Alice won’t (sweep the floor).以上各句中括号内为省略的部分。第一句中，省略了all these houses, 便突出了planned; 第二句省略了do the work well和he，突出了can, should和won’t; 同样地，第三句省略了sweep the floor, 便强调了Alice won’t。再如：Here is a white silk blouse and a pink one. (one替代silk blouse)He said he would tell me the news, but he didn’t do so. (do so替代tell me the news)We are told that he will come back tonight, and if so our meeting will be held tomorrow. (if so替代if he comes back tonight)在上述第一句中，用了名词替代词one, 不仅避免了silk blouse的重复，而且使pink的意义突出起来；第二句用do so替代tell me the news, 突出了didn’t 的意义；第三句用if so替代if he comes back tonight, 突出了其后主句的含义。 3、要避免拖沓现象句尾是传递最重要信息的位置。因此，通常不宜在句尾附加过多的补叙。如果在句尾加上长串的并不重要的细节，往往会出现拖沓现象。“拖沓句”也是累赘的一种表现。如：It was 7:15 on the morning of February 8, 2000, when I was walking along Park Road towards the east when an elderly amn came out of the park on the other side of the street. Then I saw a yellow car drive up Third Street and make a right turn into Park Road. The next moment the car hit the man while he was crossing the road. The man was badly hurt and he fell with a cry. The car didn’t stop but drove off at great speed which was heading west. I noticed the driver wa a young woman who pretended not to be noticing all of this and the plate number was AC 864. About two minutes later I stopped a car which was passing near here and took the old man to the nearest hospital where the old man could be taken good care of.在这篇短文中，似乎用了太多的定语从句，从而使读者的视线容易因为读这些长句子而转移对整个交通事故的描述。如若改成下面的短文，就会显得简洁明了。I was walking along Park Road towards the east on the morning of February 8, 2000 when an elderly man came out of the park on the other sde of the street. Then a yellow car drove up Third Street and made a right trun into Park Road. The next moment the car hit the man while he was crossing the road. He fell with a cry. The car didn’t stop but drove off at great speed heading west. I noticed the dirver was a young woman and the plate number was AC864. About two minutes later I stopped a passing car and took the old man to the nearest hospital where he was taken good care of.这样整篇短文中含有一个定语从句，两个并列句，一个时间状语从句，一个宾语从句，一个分词结构，四个并列谓语，调整了主要信息的位置，删除了多余的词，主句和从句的次序进行了调换，使句式错落有致、重点突出。四、句式多样，灵活交替 修辞的另一个要求是，言语要生动活泼，形式，最忌单调乏味，平淡无奇。避免单调可以通过各种不同的手段来实现。从语法角度看，多种句式的灵活交替是达到生动活泼，避免单调的重要方法。写一篇文，讲一段话，如果通篇用的都是简单句或者通篇都是很长很长的复杂句，往往会给人以句式单调的感觉。如下面一篇短文：My name is Li Hua. I was born in Dalian, Liaoning province in February 1977. I started school in 1984 at 7. I studied in Guangming Primary School from 1984 to 1990. After that I went to No. 62 Middle school of Dalian and graduated this summer. The main subjects I studied at school included Chinese, maths, English, physics, chemistry and like English and computer best. I am very good at them. Last year I won first prize in the school computer competition. In my spare time I enjoy listening to popular music and collecting stamps. My favourite sports are swimming in summer and skating in winter.上面的短文是对自己作的一个简介，内容很全面，但句式太单调，不活泼不生动，给人一种平淡之感。如果将这篇短文的句式进行调整，充分运用分词结构，使句式灵活多样，本短文将会变得活泼，读起来朗朗上口。修改如下：My name is Li Hua and I was born in Dalian, Liaoning province in February 1977. In 1984 when I was seven years old, I started school. From 1984 to 1990 I studied in Guangming Primary School. And after that I went to No. 62 Middle School of Dalian, where I graduated this summer. The main subjects I studied at school included Chinese, maths, English, physics, chemistry and computer. I like best English and compuer which I am very good at. Last year I won first prize in the school computer competition. In my spare time, what I enjoy doing is listening to music, collecting stamps, swimming and skakting, of which I love swimming and skating most.修改过的短文包括一个并列句，五个定语从句，一个分裂句，同时在上下文的衔接上注意了关联词的运用，从而使整个短文句式灵活多变，思路清晰，读起来朗朗上口。
语言既是人类社会进行交际的重要工具，又是文化的重要组成部分，语言和文化密不可分。下文是我为大家整理的关于英语语言文化方面论文的范文，欢迎大家阅读参考!
解读酒店英语中的语言文化
摘 要： 酒店服务人员应从与饭店英语相关的中西方文化知识出发，领会文化差异和语言差异，以矫正由于中西文化差异而带来的语言偏差，从而达到学习语言、吸收文化和服务客人的目的。
关键词： 酒店英语 语言文化 文化差异
一、引言
语言与文化密切相关，不同文化习惯的语言不可避免地会发生冲突，而跨文化语言沟通存在于涉外高星酒店服务的各个环节。因此，酒店英语不仅是语言知识的学习，而且是语言文化和交际技能的培训。语言的本质属性不是语言知识而是思维。当一个人不了解该语言所蕴涵的文化时，那必然会发生语用错误。
二、具有本质特性的酒店英语
酒店英语属旅游专业英语范畴，具有专业英语的针对性(pertinence)和服务英语的得体性(decency)。语言标准应为:明晰、通畅、表意得当。如：
Waiter:How would you like with your steak?Rare，medium or well-done?(请问您牛排要几成熟?三成，五成还是七成?)
Guest:Rare，please.(三成。)
通常，rare是“稀少”的意思;medium是“中间”的意思;well-done是“干得好”的意思。而出现在服务员为客人点菜的流程中，它的意思就非常具有专业英语的针对性了。语言学家吕叔湘先生对言语得体有这样的描述:“此时此地此人说此事，这样的说法最好;对另外的人在另外的场合说的还是这件事，这样的说法就不一定最好，就应使用另一种说法。”请看下面这组酒店客人和服务员之间的对话:
Guest:Hi，waiter，you speak beautiful English.
Waiter: Thank you，sir. Welcome to Holiday Inn.
Waiter顺应英语习惯欣然接受，而非按中文习惯去拒绝，说“No，no，My English is not good.”以示谦虚，否则只会使顾客感到莫名其妙，不知所云。由此看出，服务语言的得体性在酒店英语的情境应用中显现得淋漓尽致。
三、文化差异(Cultural Difference)在酒店英语中的体现
文化影响着语言学习的思维方式，因此中英两种语言文化交汇时，必然会发生冲突。语言学家曾指出:“在与外族人交谈时，本族人对于他们在语音和语法方面的错误较宽容。与此相反，违反说话规则被认为是不够礼貌的。因为本族人不大可能认识到社会语言学的相对性。”这种情况又被称之为“社交语用失误”，它主要是指由于文化背景差异，交际时出现语用习惯错误。在酒店服务岗位的英语使用时，中英文化的差异将会给酒店服务中的语言交流带来不便。
(一)招呼(Greeting)用语
按照中国的文化习惯，问候和打招呼时，常爱涉及对方本身，询问的内容显得十分具体。中国人见面打招呼时最喜欢用的口头语如：
“吃饭了吗?”(Have you finished your dinner?)
“上哪儿去?”(Where have you been?)
如果将上面的招呼用语拿来用在老外身上，定会令他们感到丈二和尚摸不着头脑。例如:在酒店，初次见面对一位英美女客人说：“Did you have your lunch?”她会感到非常诧异。因为在他们的文化里，这样打招呼是暗示邀请的意思。这也是酒店英语服务中服务人员要引以为戒的。
与之不同，英语国家人打招呼，通常以天气(weather)、健康状况(health)、体育(sports)或兴趣爱好(interest/hobby)作为话题。如：
What a lovely day!(今天天气真好呀!)
I like hiking，and you?(我喜欢徒步旅行，你呢?)
(二)介绍(Introduction)用语
中国人小学第一节英语课便学了“What’s your name?”这句话。而这句话伴随许多人长大，考过了四、六级，TOEFL，IELTS，但对于它在何种情况下使用却鲜有解释。实际上，英语国家的人在第一次见面时一般先把自己的名字告诉对方，如“I am ...”，对方会自然地说出自己的姓名。因此“I’m ...”这里可以直接译成“请问贵姓?”。即使在填写表格、面谈等场合需要问及姓名时，一般也只说“Your name，please?”或“May I have your name?”如果使用“What’s your name?”会有一种被审问的感觉。一般只有海关人员、警察采用这种问讯句式。因此酒店员工在客人check-in(入住登记)或check-out(办理退房)的时候，一定要注意礼貌而得体的问询，以免冒犯客人。
(三)称赞(compliment)和接受赞扬
在人际交往中，谦虚和低调是中国人崇尚的表达方式，常会用“哪里哪里”、“不行，差远了”来回应别人的夸奖。而西方人则认为实话实说才能友好往来，而会欣然接受来自他人的赞扬。也常用赞美作为交谈的话题，如赞美对方出色的工作等。面对客人的赞美，员工的回答应是:“Thank you.”如：
Guest:You did a good job!
Waitress:Ah，thank you.
(四)关于隐私(privacy)
在中国，初次见面询问对方年龄、婚姻、收入是很自然随意的事情。而倾向自我、独立和自由的英语国家的人，会认为这些内容涉及个人隐私。如：
Are you married?(你结婚了吗?)
What’s your salary?(你的薪水是多少?)
以上内容涉及个人隐私，服务员切忌问及客人此类问题。因此，当酒店员工对入住客人的基本情况不甚了解时，“Is your husband/wife with you?”或“How many children do you have?”这样的问话是不得体的。
(五)搭配词语(phrase)表达
搭配词语指词与词的横向组合关系。搭配是民族文化中约定俗成的，不能用中文的搭配思维去套用到英语里面。在酒店用语中经常用到的如:“红茶”英语为“black tea”，而“black coffee”用汉语表示为“不加糖的咖啡”;“红酒”在英语中是“wine”(不是red wine);而white wine中文也不译成“白酒”。因此在搭配词语运用时，同样要注意词汇表达中的文化内涵。
四、尊重语言文化、提高饭店英语应用能力
世界各民族由于历史渊源、思想方式、生活习性、审美观念、价值理念、宗教信仰等不同，从而产生了文化上的差异。语用能力的提高离不开目标语国家的文化因素，因此要增强文化意识、主动自觉地吸收并融入他人文化环境中。
在培养文化意识(culture consciousness)，理解语言内涵的同时，还应注重不同的文化有着不同的语用原则，注重词汇文化差异、句法文化差异及日常习俗文化差异来强化文化意识，为提高正确语用能力奠定基础。不能视酒店英语为简单的口语交流，必须增强对英语文化背景知识的学习，要树立英汉语言差异意识，懂得英语在不同语境中的应用，即掌握一些文化语用知识。
五、结语
综上所述，酒店服务人员应改掉以往只重视语言本身而忽视语言文化的不合理做法，把文化因素纳入语言之中，用英语进行有效得体的交际。努力培养文化习得意识并使文化的规范与语言技能的培养同步进行。不仅注意语言形式的正确，还要重视语言运用是否恰当。既要有母语和英语两种语言的对比语言学修养，又要有两国比较文化背景学方面的知识，这才是成为国际化酒店具有跨文化意识人才的首要条件。
参考文献：
[1]Denney 著.梁晓波，王才美，刘亚琴译.现代美国饭店经营与管理[M].湖南科技出版社，2001.
[2]鲍伯・里宾斯基著.李正喜译.专业酒水[M].大连理工大学出版社，2002.
[3]许元娜.提高大学生英语学习能力的研究[J].齐齐哈尔医学院学报，2009.
[4]刘燕婷.旅游英语情景体验式教学初探[J].淮北职业技术学院学报，2009，(2).
浅析美式英语语言文化特点分析
摘要：美国文化是崇尚自由、平等和自我的文化，其包容性十分强，具有多元化的民族融合性。其核心文化特征是追求人人平等和自我价值的实现。这些文化特征在美式英语文化中有着深刻的体现。文章结合美国文化的产生背景对其语言分析特点进行分析探讨。
关键词：美式英语;语言文化;特点
引言
美国文化是一种非常独特的民族文化。从世界文化的区域和类型来说，美国文化属于西方文化范畴。但与其他西方文化相比，美国文化有着许多迥然不同的地方，它不但有别于与其有着亲缘关系的英国文化。而且有别于它的邻国加拿大和其他欧洲国家的文化。语言与文化的关系是水乳交融、不可分割的。
首先，语言体现了文化。一方面，语言是文化的一部分。根据文化的狭义定义，文化是从社会习得的知识。而语言则是人类对客观事实的认识和感受的反应，属于人类文化的一部分。另一方面，语言是文化的载体。因为语言是人类思维和交流的工具，也是人类形成思想的中介。本文试图从美国英语所反映的移民文化、价值观念、新文化等方面来分析美式英语语言文化的形成特点。
一、美式英语的形成背景
美国英语的形成与发展与美国的移民历史所带来的文化大融合有着密切关系。17世纪初，英国开始在北美进行殖民活动，在北美建立多个殖民地，而在殖民地的通用语言就是英语。之后不断有欧洲人移民到这片大陆上。自殖民地时期，美国英语就在多民族的接触与融合中从异族的语言文化中吸取营养，充实内涵，加快语言的多元化发展，形成美国英语的独特的融合特征。德语、法语、西班牙语、荷兰语和印第安语、黑人语言等移民群体的语言词汇不断渗透到美国人使用的英语里。
另一方面，美国政治、经济、人口结构和社会生活的特殊性，推动了作为社会交际工具的语言美国英语的独立与发展。在词汇、语音和语法结构等方面有别于英国英语的民族语言，美国英语的形成关键在于这个民族在新的社会和生活环境中不拘一格地创造和使用新词。而美国英语中丰富的新词都是出现在普通大众的言谈之中。
由于美国新社会特有的力量和群众性语言占据优势，因此，在美国，语言影响的流程是由下而上发展的。在美国英语中，最贴近生活和最能反映平民要求与社会生活特征的是俚语，俚语是美国英语词汇的主要来源之一。方言和俚语一样分布广泛，来自社会各个阶层，是美国民族语言的生命源泉，既有浓厚的民族文化内涵，又有丰富的表现力和多样性，大量的方言和俚语使得美国英语在较短的时间内区别于英国英语而成为美利坚民族的民族语言。
二、美式英语的语言文化特点
1、个体主义价值观及其在美国英语中的表现
美国文化以个体为本位，个人主义在美国发展到登峰造极的地步，是美国价值观的核心。它的主要内容是通过自力更生达到自我实现。与它联系最紧密的是自由平等竞争。机会均等和个人自由是实现自我价值的基本保障，而竞争是实现个人价值的根本途径。美国人在创造自己文化的同时，也创造了许多表现个人主义的词汇。最有代表性的如：self-absorption(自我专注)、self-limitation(自我制约)、self-cultivate(自我修养)、self-conquest(自我战胜)、self-admiration(自我赞赏)、self-control(自我控制)、self-dependence(自立)、self-reliance(自我依靠)、self-responsibility(自我负责)、self-advancement(自我发展)、self-salesmanship(自我宣传)、self-fulfilling(自我实现)、self-protection(自我保护)等。个体主义价值观特别重视对个人空间和私生活的保护和尊重。"privacy"(隐私)一词在美国人的意识中占有异常重要的位置。无论是在生活空间还是在情感处理上，哪怕是对一个未成年的孩子，都会尊重对方的选择和隐私。
2、美国英语与印第安文化
土著印第安人是美洲大陆最早的定居者，他们的祖先是具有亚洲蒙古人血统的游牧狩猎者，他们于后冰川时代跨过白令海峡来到北美大陆。从美国英语中可以找出许多反映印第安文化的词语。如山川、河流、湖泊等。美国英语吸收了约有2000个左右的印第安词语。
印第安人善于狩猎并拥有种植的技艺，因此很多动物和植物的名称都来自印第安语。如mose(麋)、pecan(美洲核桃)等。美国各州的名称，有一半是来自印第安语。如密苏里州(Missouri)、俄勒冈州(Oregon)、密西根州(Michigan)、马萨诸塞州(Massachusetts)、犹他州(Utah)等。另外，许多与印第安人的部落关系、生活方式、宗教习俗、农作物以及社会机构有关的词也来自印第安语。
3、美国英语使用的通俗化和标新立异的意识
美国人在词语的使用上有通俗化的特点，他们不喜欢咬文嚼字，说话力求形象、易懂。最能体现美国人用词通俗化的是美国俚语。美国俚语是平民百姓的语言，虽通俗形象不矫揉造作，但有些也难免流于粗俗，这些粗俗的俚语不宜登大雅之堂。但有时为了避免语言单调和落入俗套，上流人物甚至总统也敢离径叛道。贵为总统，出言粗俗，无非是想表明自己敢于向常规与正统挑战，在语言表达上突出自己的粗犷个性和创新意识。
汽车文化是美国社会的显著特点，美国人经常借用汽车的商标来比喻其他产品的质量和等级。如，美国Ford汽车公司曾生产一种滞销的Edsel牌汽车，于是，Edlse就常被用来比喻为"彻底失败的产品或人"。
结语
美国英语丰富多彩，反映了美国文化的千姿百态。而且，美国英语的每一个演变都有其社会背景和文化内涵，是与美国社会的发展齐头并进的。它们真实地反映了美国社会的发展历程，是美国各个历史时期社会活动和文化思潮的折射。在美国英语中，不仅蕴藏着美利坚民族特有的传统文化、价值观念和性格特征，而且也突出地体现了语言的时代特征。
参考文献
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