发布时间：
对土木工程的发展起关键作用的，首先是作为工程物质基础的土木建筑材料，其次是随之发展起来的设计理论和施工技术。每当出现新的优良的建筑材料时，土木工程就 会有飞跃式的发展。 人们在早期只能依靠泥土、木料及其它天然材料从事营造活动，后来出现了砖和瓦这种人工建筑材料，使人类第一次冲破了天然建筑材料的束缚。中国在公元前十一世纪 的西周初期制造出瓦。最早的砖出现在公元前五世纪至公元前三世纪战国时的墓室中。砖和瓦具有比土更优越的力学性能，可以就地取材，而又易于加工制作。 砖和瓦的出现使人们开始广泛地、大量地修建房屋和城防工程等。由此土木工程技术得到了飞速的发展。直至18～19世纪，在长达两千多年时间里，砖和瓦一直是土木工程的重要建筑材料，为人类文明作出了伟大的贡献，甚至在目前还被广泛采用。 钢材的大量应用是土木工程的第二次飞跃。 十七世纪70年代开始使用生铁、十九世纪初开始使用熟铁建造桥梁和房屋，这是钢结构出现的前奏。 从十九世纪中叶开始，冶金业冶炼并轧制出抗拉和抗压强度都很高、延性好、质量均匀的建筑钢材，随后又生产出高强度钢丝、钢索 。于是适应发展需要的钢结构得到蓬勃发展。除应用原有的粱、拱结构外，新兴的桁架、框架、网架结构、悬索结构逐渐推广，出现了结构形式百花争艳的局面。 建筑物跨径从砖结构、石结构、木结构的几米、几十米发展到钢结构的百米、几百米，直到现代的千米以上。于是在大江、海峡上架起大桥，在地面上建造起摩天大楼和高耸铁塔，甚至在地面下铺设铁路，创造出前所未有的奇迹。 为适应钢结构工程发展的需要，在牛顿力学的基础上，材料力学、结构力学、工程结构设计理论等就应运而生。施工机械、施工技术和施工组织设计的理论也随之发展，土木工程从经验上升成为科学，在工程实践和基础理论方面都面貌一新，从而促成了土木工程更迅速的发展。 十九世纪20年代，波特兰水泥制成后，混凝土问世了。混凝土骨料可以就地取材，混凝土构件易于成型，但混凝土的抗拉强度很小，用途受到限制。 十九世纪中叶以后，钢铁产量激增，随之出现了钢筋混凝土这种新型的复合建筑材料，其中钢筋承担拉力，混凝土承担压力，发挥了各自的优点。 二十世纪初以来，钢筋混凝土广泛应用于土木工程的各个领域。 从三十年代开始，出现了预应力混凝土。预应力混凝土结构的抗裂性能、刚度和承载能力，大大高于钢筋混凝土结构，因而用途更为广阔。土木工程进入了钢筋混凝土和预应力混凝土占统治地位的历史时期。混凝土的出现给建筑物带来了新的经济、美观的工程结构形式，使土木工程产生了新的施工技术和工程结构设计理论。这是土木工程的又一次飞跃发展。 建造一项工程设施一般要经过勘察、设计和施工三个阶段，需要运用工程地质勘察、水文地质勘察、工程测量、土力学、工程力学、工程设计、建筑材料、建筑设备、工程机械、建筑经济等学科和施工技术、施工组织等领域的知识 ，以及电子计算机和力学测试等技术。因而土木工程是一门范围广阔的综合性学科。随着科学技术的进步和工程实践的发展，土木工程这个学科也已发展成为内涵广泛、门类众多、结构复杂的综合体系。 土木工程是伴随着人类社会的发展而发展起来的。它所建造的工程设施反映出各个历史时期社会经济、文化、科学、技术发展的面貌，因而土木工程也就成为社会历史发展的见证之一。 远古时代，人们就开始修筑简陋的房舍、道路、桥梁和沟澶，以满足简单的生活和生产需要。后来，人们为了适应战争、生产和生活以及宗教传播的需要，兴建了城池、运河、宫殿、寺庙以及其他各种建筑物。 许多著名的工程设施显示出人类在这个历史时期的创造力。例如，中国的长城、都江堰、大运河、赵州桥、应县木塔，埃及的金字塔，希腊的巴台农神庙，罗马的给水工程、科洛西姆圆形竞技场(罗马大斗兽场)，以及其他许多著名的教堂、宫殿等。 产业革命以后，特别是到了20世纪，一方面社会向土木工程提出了新的需求；另一方面，社会各个领域为土木工程的前进创造了良好的条件。因而这个时期的土木工程得到突飞猛进的发展。在世界各地出现了现代化规模宏大的工业厂房、摩天大厦，核电站、高速公路和铁路、大跨桥梁、大直径运输管道长隧道、大运河、大堤坝、大飞机场、大海港以及海洋工程等等。现代土木工程不断地为人类社会创造崭新的物质环境，成为人类社会现代文明的重要组成部分。 土木工程是具有很强的实践性的学科。在早期，土木工程是通过工程实践，总结成功的经验，尤其是吸取失败的教训发展起来的。从17世纪开始，以伽利略和牛顿为先导的近代力学同土木工程实践结合起来，逐渐形成材料力学、结构力学、流体力学、岩体力学，作为土木工程的基础理论的学科。这样土木工程才逐渐从经验发展成为科学。 在土木工程的发展过程中，工程实践经验常先行于理论，工程事故常显示出未能预见的新因素，触发新理论的研究和发展。至今不少工程问题的处理，在很大程度上仍然依靠实践经验。 土木工程技术的发展之所以主要凭借工程实践而不是凭借科学试验和理论研究，有两个原因：一是有些客观情况过于复杂，难以如实地进行室内实验或现场测试和理论分析。例如，地基基础、隧道及地下工程的受力和变形的状态及其随时间的变化，至今还需要参考工程经验进行分析判断。二是只有进行新的工程实践，才能揭示新的问题。例如，建造了高层建筑、高耸塔桅和大跨桥梁等，工程的抗风和抗震问题突出了，才能发展出这方面的新理论和技术。在土木工程的长期实践中，人们不仅对房屋建筑艺术给予很大注意，取得了卓越的成就；而且对其他工程设施，也通过选用不同的建筑材料，例如采用石料、钢材和钢筋混凝土，配合自然环境建造了许多在艺术上十分优美、功能上又十分良好的工程。古代中国的万里长城，现代世界上的许多电视塔和斜张桥，都是这方面的例子。Plays a key role in the development of civil engineering, is the first civil construction materials as the basis for engineering material, followed by the subsequent development of the design theory and construction technology. Whenever there is a fine new building materials, civil engineering will be a leap type can only rely on the early Earth, wood and other natural materials in the construction activities, and later appeared in brick and tile that artificial materials, so that the first human to break the shackles of natural building materials. Chinese in Eleventh Century BC in the early Western Zhou Dynasty created the tile. The first brick in the fifth Century BC to the third Century BC, the tomb of the Warring States period. Brick and tile has superior mechanical properties,soil can obtain raw material locally, and easy to of brick and tile so that people began to widely, a large number of housing construction and urban flood control engineering. This civil engineering technology has been rapid development. Until 18 ~ nineteenth Century, as long as two thousand years, brick and tile has been a major civil engineering construction materials, made a great contribution to the human civilization, and was also widely used in the large number of applications of steel products is the second leap in civil engineering. In seventeenth Century 70 time began using pig iron, the early nineteenth Century began to usewrought iron bridges and the construction of housing, which is a prelude to the emergence of the beginning of the mid nineteenth Century, the metallurgical industry smelting and rolling out high tensile and compressive strength, good ductility, uniformity of the quality of construction steel, then produce high-strength steel wire, steel wire. And meet the needs for development of steel structure has been booming. In addition to the application of the original beam, arch structure, the new truss, frame, grid structure, and gradually promote the suspension structure,the form of the structure of a hundred flowers contend in beauty the brick building long-span structure, stone structure, wood structure of a few meters, the development of tens of meters to 100 meters of steel structures, several hundred meters, 1000 meters until modern. So the bridge in the river, channel, since the construction of skyscrapersand high-rise tower on the ground, even in the laying of underground railway, to create ahitherto meet the development needs of the steel structure engineering, on the basis of Newton's mechanics, material mechanics, structural mechanics, structural engineering design theory would emerge as the times require. Theoretical design of machinery, construction technology and organization construction also development, civil engineering from the experience of rising to become science, both in engineering practice and theoretical basis for a new, which led tomore rapid development of civil nineteenth Century 20, Portland cement concrete was made. Concrete aggregate can obtain raw material locally, easy to concrete structures forming, but the tensile strength of concrete is very small, limited use. By the middle of the nineteenth Century, the surge in steel production,followed by a composite building material of this new type of reinforced concrete, which bear the tension steel, concrete bear the pressure, to play their respective advantages. Since the beginning of twentieth Century, each field of reinforced concrete is widely used in the beginning of the thirty's, the prestressed concrete. The crack resistance, stiffness and bearing capacity of prestressed concrete structure, much higher than the reinforced concrete structure, which uses broader. Civil engineering into the reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete dominant historical period. Concrete brings the structural form of new economic,aesthetic to the building, civil engineering so that a theory of new construction technology and engineering structure design. This is a leap in the development of civil project to build the facilities in general to go through investigation, design and construction in three stages, need to discipline the use of geological prospecting projects, hydro geological survey, engineering survey, soil mechanics, engineering mechanics, engineering design,building materials, construction equipment, engineering machinery, building the economy, and the construction technology, construction and other fields of knowledge, as well as the computer and mechanical testing technology. Civil engineering is therefore a broad range of integrated disciplines. With the development of science and technology development and engineering practice, the civil engineering disciplines have also been developed into a comprehensivesystem of broad connotation, category numerous, complicated engineering is accompanied by the development of human society and the development works in the construction of facilities reflect the face of social and economic development,technology, science, culture in every historical period, so the civil engineering has become one of the social and historical development of the ancient times, people began to build simple houses, roads, bridges and water channel, to meet the simple life and production needs. Later, people in order to adapt to the war, productionand dissemination of religious life and the need to build the city, canals,, palaces, temples and other well-known works shown in this historical period of human creativity. For example, Chinathe Great Wall, Dujiangyan, the Grande Canale, the Zhaozhou Bridge, the Yingxian Wood Tower, the Pyramid of Egypt, Greece's Parthenon, Rome's water supply project, Kolo Sim Arena(Rome Coliseum), and many other famous churches, the industrial revolution, especially in twentieth Century, on one hand, the society puts forward new requirements to the civil engineering; on the other hand, each field of the society to create good conditions for the advancement of civil engineering. Thus this period of civil engineering has make a spurt of progress of the rest of the world in the modern large-scale industrial plants, skyscrapers, nuclear power plants, highways and railways, long-span bridge, large diameter pipelines long tunnel, the Grande Canale, big dams, big airport, port and marine engineering etc.. Modern civil engineering to create a new physical environment for the human society, has become an important part of modern civilization of human engineering is a very practical subject. In the early days, through the civil engineering practice, summing up successful experience, especially draw lessons from the failure of developed. From the beginning of seventeenth Century, with Galileo and Newton as a combination of pilot with the mechanics of the modern civil engineering practice, gradually formed the mechanical material mechanics, structural mechanics, fluid mechanics, rock mass, as the basis of the theory of civil engineering discipline. This experience in civil engineering from the gradually developed into a the process of the development of civil engineering, engineering practice often first experience in theory, engineering accidents often show a new unforeseen factors, triggering a new theory of research and development. Yet many engineering problems, still rely on practical experience in the very great degree.
摘要当变化形成一个延迟的较大的原因时，在架构上变动管理是一个项目管理的重要的方面和混乱， 广泛拥有人和建造者接受兑换影响难确定数量并且经常导致争论。变化管理体制的发展应该考虑工程的很多元素处理并且寄全部内部和外部影响工程改变的原素。这篇文章提出发展描述关键决定的一种综合的变化管理体制要求实现变化并且类比并行设计的反覆的循环和起因於未预料的变化的建设和他们的随后的影响。系统使一个基於模糊逻辑的变化预言模型用动态的系统动力学模型结合计画并且控制方法学(DPM) ,已经被发展关於建设性能评价变化的负面影响。被开发的系统在控制改变关於工程的脚本里以及在评价取决於有货的变化影响过程中可以被使用在工程的早期的讯息。版权所有。关键字∶ 变动管理； 模糊逻辑； 动态的计画变化在基建计画普通和可能对从不同的来源发生，透过各种各样的原因，在A的任何阶段工程，和可能有相当多的影响。准时基於，变化可能是预期或者紧急，前摄或者无功的，或者预固定性或者固定性后。 基於需要，变化可能选举或者被要求，可自由支配或者非可自由支配，或者优先或者规章。 基於影响，变化可能有利，中立或者破坏性。变动管理叙述全部影响工程改变的内部和外部原素。它寻找预报可能的变化； 鉴定的变化已经发生； 计画预防的影响； 并且同等穿过整个工程的变化 [1].不一致的管理零钱中，过程能导致这些结果的很多有效的破坏性.同时可能相对容易测量，当其它人更难确定的数量时。变动管理被认为为项目管理的组成部分。这篇文章礼物一个综合系统的发展因为改进变动管理。以后的章节评论工作关於这个题目做。
土力学学术论文篇二 土力学发展概况 摘 要：随着社会的高度现代化，土力学在工程上的应用范围越来越广，人类对土力学的研究也更加的深入。本文通过回顾土力学发展历程，分析当前土力学研究的缺陷，包括土力学经典理论的局限性，非饱和土力学研究的缺陷性，动荷载作用下土体研究的不成熟性。最后结合土力学研究的缺陷，对今后土力学的发展提出预测。 关键词：饱和土 非饱和土 动荷载 中图分类号：TU41 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1672-3791(2014)04(b)-0225-01 土力学是运用工程力学的理论和方法来研究土体力学性质的学科[1]。它在实际工程如地基、挡土墙、土工建筑物中都有重要的应用。研究土力学，对我们从事土木工程活动的人士来说具有重要意义。本文根据土力学发展历史，分析当前土力学研究缺陷，预测土力学未来的发展。 1 土力学的发展历程 土力学历史悠久，起源于人类生产生活所积累的经验，古时候人们用压实土料修筑堤坝防洪，用夯实土基兴修各类工程等均属于土力学的范畴。近代土力学的发展开始于1776年库仑土压力理论的提出[1]。此后，1856年法国科学家达西发表了著名的达西渗透定律，1857年英国科学家郎肯发表了郎肯土压力理论，这些理论促进了近代土力学的发展。1925年太沙基提出了有效应力原理及渗透固结理论，从此土力学成为一门独立的科学。1950年后人类在土的基本性质、测试手段、计算技术、加固方法等方面均有较大发展。1980年后，土力学出现了新的分支，如计算土力学[2]，海洋土力学等。 土力学自成立以来经历两个发展阶段。第一阶段即1925年―1960年的近代土力学阶段，这一阶段土力学都是以太沙基理论为基础而展开研究的，但由于该理论过于片面，土体性质过于复杂，导致很多问题无法深入研究。第二阶段即1960年后的现代土力学阶段，以罗斯科为代表的临界土力学创立，从此人类对土体本构关系的研究步入了新的境界。人们开始综合考虑研究土体受力后的应力、应变、强度、稳定性以及它们和时间之间的关系[3]。 2 土力学当前发展中存在的问题 纵观土力学的发展历程，虽然取得了很大的进步，但是仍然存在着不少问题。 土力学理论不够完备 土力学是一门以实验为基础的理论学科，但是由于土体性质复杂，到目前为止，仍处于半经验办理论的发展阶段，未能形成公认的基础理论。太沙基把土体的压密和渗透结合起来推导出的一维固结微分方程能很好的反映土体单向固结的机理，但是在多维固结问题上并不适用。比奥固结理论能解出孔压分布，给出位移场，获得土体应力应变非线性、弹塑性和骨架的流变情况，但是参数确定的偏差会导致工程计算结果和实际测量结果差别很大[1]。所以这些理论都有自身的局限性，不能符合一般土体受力状态下的性能。 解决非饱和土问题方法欠缺 传统土力学理论只适用于解决饱和土的问题，其规律也是根据饱和土试验得出。然而工程中遇到饱和土的情况十分罕见，即使是软土地区，其表层土也不会是饱和的。将处理饱和土的方法应用于非饱和土不是很妥当，因为土的特性随其含水量有很大的不同，如膨胀土遇水后体积会膨胀，而失陷性黄土遇水后体积会收缩，而且它们的强度也会因遇水而降低[3]。于是有人提出了非饱和土强度理论，这些理论都是以吸力及为计算依据，但是由于吸力测试技术不够成熟，存在很多问题，不能被广泛采纳。 动荷载作用下土体规律的研究还不成熟 研究动荷载作用尤其是循环动荷载作用下土的力学特性，在道路的建设和维护方面具有重要意义[4]。尽管国内外开展了不少这方面的研究，提出了相关理论，但是动荷载作用下土体的变形、强度、以及液化规律比静荷载作用更复杂、更难把握，所以相关研究结论适用条件和范围都很有限，理论就更不成熟了。 3 土力学发展方向预测 土力学是研究土体特性的学科，土是经过漫长的地壳运动而形成的，不同地域的土其成分有很大的差异，即使是同一地方的土因所处的地层不同性质而相差很大，而且土的构造和结构对土的性质也有至关重要的影响，因此土的特性很强。土有的时候是饱和的，有的时候是不饱和的，有时可以看成是连续的介质，有时又不能看成连续的介质，它具有弹性、粘性和塑性等性能，这些都说明了土体的性质十分复杂。因此研究土力学需要采用理论、试验相结合的方式。 土的微观和细观研究 土是由固、液、气三相组合而成，土颗粒之间固液气三相的相互作用决定了土的力学性质区别于其他一切材料。土体强度、变形的宏观规律是与其微观结构直接相关的，通过微观试验研究，以探究土的非线性、弹塑性、各向异性、流变性等问题，可以更清楚的认识宏观规律的机理，从而初步把握其宏观规律。因此，微观和宏观相结合有可能使土体力学特性的研究出现转机。 土体的原位试验和无损探测 室内试验和原位试验之间存在着不可忽视的差别，室内试验时，压缩模量是在无侧向变形条件下测出的，而土的初始应力状况与沉积条件有关;在完全相同的条件下测量土的沉降量，试验结果表明压缩模量越大的土，它的计算沉降和实测沉降相差越大[3]。现有原位实验方法如标准贯入试验，触探试验只能用于小型工程，钻孔取土愈深，土的结构破坏愈大，试验结果的可靠度也就越差。因此发展更加先进的测探技术，可以克服取土后土结构的巨大变化和应力状态的改变，能大大提高试验结果的精确性。 非饱和土的研究 非饱和土力学理论之所以没能像饱和土力学理论一样同步发展，最主要的原因是影响非饱和土性质因素众多，关系复杂，它很难像饱和土那样找出应力应变之间一一对应的关系。此外非饱和土特性测试技术难度比饱和土大得多，这进一步制约了非饱和土理论的发展。由于非饱和土中存在气体，较之饱和土性质大有区别而且更加的复杂，研究非饱和土中固、液、气之间的相互影响关系成为解决非饱和土问题的重要出路。今后非饱和土的研究将着重于土体表面吸力的测定，土-水特征性能表征等方面。 4 结语 正如太沙基所说：土力学既是一门科学，又是一门艺术[1]。工程实践经验具有不可替代的重要意义。随着科技的进步，各种研究方法和手段不断进步，各种各样的工程勘察设备和试验设备得以研制，电子计算机的应用水平和实验测试技术的自动化程度不断提高，今后土力学的发展将呈现蓬勃的朝气。 参考文献 [1] 姜晨光.土力学与地基基础[M].北京：化学工业出版社，2013：8-12. [2] 蔡东，李国方.土力学的研究内容与学科发展[J].黑龙江水利科技，2008，36(2)：92. [3] 赵成刚，韦昌富，蔡国庆.土力学理论的发展和面临的挑战[J].岩土力学，2011，32(12)：3521-3522. [4] 焦贵德，赵淑萍，马巍.循环荷载下高温冻土的变形和强度特性[J].岩土工程学报，2013，35(8)：1553. 看了“土力学学术论文”的人还看： 1. 发表学术论文的心得 2. 关于学术论文的格式范文 3. 关于圆的学术论文 4. 大学物理学术论文2500字 5. 建筑学术论文范文
PDF外文文献有，翻译没有，翻译得靠你自己了，如果需要回复邮箱地址即可，希望能满足你的需要，能帮到你，多多给点悬赏分吧，急用的话请多选赏点分吧，这样更多的知友才会及时帮到你，我找到也是很花时间的，直接百度私信或者Hi中留言贴出你需要的问题的链接地址及邮箱地址
毕业论文外文翻译：将外文参考文献翻译成中文版本。
翻译要求：
1、选定外文文献后先给指导老师看，得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。
2、选择外文翻译时一定选择外国作者写的文章，可从学校中知网或者外文数据库下载。
3、外文翻译字数要求3000字以上，从外文文章起始处开始翻译，不允许从文章中间部分开始翻译，翻译必须结束于文章的一个大段落。
参考文献是在学术研究过程中，对某一著作或论文的整体的参考或借鉴。征引过的文献在注释中已注明,不再出现于文后参考文献中。外文参考文献就是指论文是引用的文献原文是国外的，并非中国的。
原文就是指原作品,原件，即作者所写作品所用的语言。如莎士比亚的《罗密欧与朱丽叶》原文是英语。
译文就是翻译过来的文字，如在中国也可以找到莎士比亚《罗密欧与朱丽叶》的中文版本，这个中文版本就称为译文。
主要标准
翻译是语际交流过程中沟通不同语言的桥梁。一般来说，翻译的标准主要有两条：忠实和通顺。
忠实
是指忠实于原文所要传递的信息，也就是说，把原文的信息完整并且准确地表达出来，使译文读者得到的信息与原文读者得到的信息大致相同。
通顺
是指译文规范、明白易懂，没有文理不通、结构混乱、逻辑不清的现象。
实践产生理论，欧美许多国家的翻译理论是五花八门的。从大的方面来看，可以分为两大派：一派是翻译可能论，一派是翻译不可能论。其实，完完全全百分之百的可能是没有的，完完全全百分之百的不可能也是没有的。
世界上一切翻译活动都是在这两个极端之间进行的。欧洲许多著名的人物，比如马丁·路德、M.阿诺德、.纽曼、.波斯特加特、H.白洛克、.诺克斯、V.那巴可夫等等，都对翻译提出了自己的理论。据《开塞尔世界文学百科全书》的意见，这些理论中有些是刚愎自用的。
毕业论文是Graduation thesis 若要在论文里指论文就可以直接说thesis或者paper
A Thesis Submitted as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of B. A./B. S. in ***这是标准的学士学位毕业论文的说法，.代表文学学士，.代表理学学士，***处填上专业。
毕业论文的英文翻译是thesis，音标是英 [ˈθi:sɪs] 美 [ˈθisɪs] 。
n.论文，毕业论文;论点，论题;命题
1、There is no empirical evidence to support his thesis.
他的论文缺乏实验证据的支持。
2、How well does this thesis stand up to close examination?
这个命题经得起推敲吗？
3、He has finished his thesis.
他的论文完成了。
4、She's finished writing her thesis.
她那篇论文写出来了。
5、Please write an abstract of this article 〔 thesis 〕.
请写一份这本书〔这篇论文〕的摘要。
The article has a clear-cut thesis and arguments, but lacks reasoning.
文章论点、论据鲜明，但缺乏论证。
Abstract: In the modern construction of concrete plays an important role, but the concrete cracks are more common. This article analyzes the causes of concrete cracks is proposed measures to control and prevent the cracks, and curing of the concrete problems early. Key words: concrete crack; cracks; Cracks; conservation First, micro-cracks in concrete Cracks in reinforced concrete structures is to work with. Rather, the hardening process of concrete in the condensation, there exist micro-cracks, because the concrete in the cement and aggregate changes in temperature and humidity conditions to produce the volume of non-uniform deformation, and they bonded together and can not free-form deformation, so the formation of mutual restraint stress; Once the cement and aggregate constraint between the stress is greater than the bond strength and tensile strength of cement itself, will produce micro-cracks. Second, the causes of concrete cracks Concrete cracks are the result of the development of micro-cracks. Concrete cracks for many reasons, for its part, considered to be bound by the deformation of concrete due to tensile stress than the material's sake. 1. Optional inappropriate material defects and the formation of cracks. Expired cement, aggregate excess mud, with active SiO 2 , high alkali cement, limestone aggregate, cement hydration heat and so on. 2. Construction of mishandling the formation of defects and cracks. Plastic concrete sink, was the top bar of the resistance, the formation of cracks along the reinforcement; concrete vibration is not dense, there cellular, easy to form the starting point for a variety of stress fractures; concrete mixer, transit time is too long, so that water evaporation, causing low slump concrete pouring, making the concrete volume in the mesh irregular cracks; rapid drying of concrete made when the initial curing of concrete contact with the atmosphere in the irregular mesh surface cracks; early form removal, concrete not yet established sufficient strength to impose its own components in the actual gravity load, prone to all kinds of stress cracks. 3. Because of the force components, deformation and crack formation of defects. Center tension; center compression; bending; shear; by punching; beam concrete shrinkage and temperature deformation; plate of concrete shrinkage and temperature deformation; in reinforced concrete, the tensile stress is mainly borne by the reinforced concrete is exposed stress. In plain concrete or reinforced concrete on the edges if the tensile stress within the structure there shall be to rely on concrete to bear. General design requirements in both the tensile stress does not appear or appear only very small tensile stress. However, the maximum temperature of concrete in construction to the operation of the cooling period of steady temperature, often caused by a large concrete internal tensile stress. 4. Because of environmental factors affect the formation of defects and cracks. Mainly temperature and humidity changes, the brittleness of concrete and uneven, as well as unreasonable structure, failure of raw materials (such as alkali-aggregate reaction), template deformation, differential settlement of foundation. Concrete dissolution cycles many times by the freeze, the stress generated in the concrete, and promote the development of existing cracks, loose structure, surface cracks, surface spalling or overall collapse. Third, measures to control and prevent the cracks 1. Of cement, water, aggregate, admixtures, reinforcement materials, the improper selection of the formation of cracks on the entry of raw materials must be in accordance with national standards for strict inspection and acceptance of the approach to prevention, where the unqualified use of defective materials shall be , or reduce the level of test use; of these have occurred due to improper selection of materials defects or cracks in concrete produced must be observed in detail for the long term (due to some problems take a while to find), carefully identify its causes and Quality of the problem, study and formulate their treatment and reinforcement. This is because once occurred due to improper material selection, quality problems, often with the universal reason. 2. As long transport time of concrete mixing, pouring too fast, the vibration is not real, it is improper construction joint, move the template the formation of cracks and other reasons can follow the "concrete order" strict implementation of concrete mixing, transport, pouring, vibration pound set and the old concrete construction joint connection. Templates, and form removal, and conservation requirements to prevent, the occurrence of such cracks in the component have been, but also distinguish the type of component, component of the force characteristics of the site where the cracks and the extent of serious cracks were commonly used in concrete cracks reinforcement measures or by filling concrete, steel anchor reinforcement, and even stick steel reinforcement, prestressed reinforcement remedial measures. 3. Due to dry weather, the initial maintenance is not good, the early cold concrete and large changes in temperature and humidity of the cracks were used to enhance the natural hardening process of concrete Results conservation, conservation of heat storage, the use of air-entraining agent to uniform distribution of air bubbles inside the concrete, measures such as temperature expansion joint repair reserved. Severe cold components, some should be removed, some should be reinforced before being used. 4. Because the components have to withstand loads too wide cracks, reasonably designed to prevent the emergence of these cracks; cracks have been too broad component appears to be reinforced by strengthening measures. 5. The foundation of unequal settlement of large cracks too broad and reasonably in the design of the building when checking in the use phase of the settlement to prevent the emergence of these cracks, these cracks have occurred on the structure, to use ground-based control measures proper handling of the foundation, then building the structure reinforcement measures adopted to solve. 6. On the environmental conditions and changes in the use of the crack occurred, according to different properties to different control measures, such as: (1) the use of temperature and humidity changes during the formation of cracks, usually difficult to eradicate, to adopt the protection of reinforced concrete measures to reduce atmospheric humidity changes of the component is appropriate; (2) The cracks resulting from repeated freezing and thawing, in addition to defects and damage has been formed in part to be reinforced or reinforced, but should add insulation on the cold concrete measures; (3) The corrosive medium in the resulting defects and damage a large area, in addition to corrosion and damage should be removed by the site to be reinforced or reinforced, shall use the acid water glass slag cement concrete or concrete overlay to protect; (4) damage due to earthquake seismic structural measures should be adopted to prevent; have been generated by the earthquake damage is not severe earthquake damaged buildings may refer to repair and reinforcement of the solution to the problem. In addition, temperature control and improved from the constraints of the two aspects. Used to improve the aggregate gradation, with a dry hard concrete, mixed with mixture, add air-entraining agent or a plasticizing agent measures to reduce the amount of cement in concrete; water when mixing concrete or gravel with water cooling to reduce the concrete pouring temperature; hot days when the pouring of concrete pouring to reduce the thickness of heat by pouring level; in the concrete laying pipes, pass into the cold water temperature; set reasonable removal time, the surface heat when temperatures plunged to avoid dramatic concrete surface temperature gradient ; Construction of Concrete Blocks and long-term exposure to surface or thin-walled structure, insulation measures taken in the cold season. Measures to improve the constraints are: a reasonable parting block; to avoid excessive fluctuations basis; reasonable arrangements for the construction process, to avoid the excessive height and long-term exposure to the side. In addition, to improve the performance of concrete and improve the crack resistance, enhance conservation, to prevent surface shrinkage, in particular, to ensure the quality of concrete is very important to prevent fractures, special attention should be avoided through the cracks, appears to restore its structural integrity is difficulties, so the construction should be to prevent the occurrence of cracks in the main cross-cutting. Fourth, early curing of concrete Practice shows that cracks in concrete common, most of the surface cracks of different depth, mainly because of the temperature gradient caused by the sudden drop in temperature in cold areas are also easy to form cracks. Therefore, the concrete surface of the insulation to prevent early cracking is particularly important. From the viewpoint of thermal stress, thermal insulation should meet the following requirements: (1) prevent the concrete and the concrete surface temperature difference between inside and outside the gradient, to prevent surface cracks; (2) to prevent the concrete super cool, should try to try to make concrete the construction period of not less than the minimum temperature on the stability of the temperature of concrete used; (3) to prevent cold and old concrete to reduce the constraints between the new and old concrete. Early curing of concrete, the main purpose is to maintain proper temperature and humidity conditions in order to achieve the effect of two aspects, one of the concrete from adverse temperature and humidity deformation of the invasion, to prevent the harmful shrinkage and shrinkage. On the one hand to smooth the cement hydration in order to meet the design strength and crack resistance. V. Conclusion Cracks in concrete above the relationship between the various effects of the theory and practice discussed, although the academic cracks in the concrete and calculation methods are different theories, but for specific advice for prevention and improvement measures more unified, but in practice of effects are good, concrete construction depends on our seeing much comparison, more analysis after problems, and more sum up, with a variety of preventive treatment measures, concrete cracks are completely avoidable.
钢筋混凝土 素混凝土是由水泥、水、细骨料、粗骨料（碎石或；卵石）、空气，通常还有其他外加剂等经过凝固硬化而成。将可塑的混凝土拌合物注入到模板内，并将其捣实，然后进行养护，以加速水泥与水的水化反应，最后获得硬化的混凝土。其最终制成品具有较高的抗压强度和较低的抗拉强度。其抗拉强度约为抗压强度的十分之一。因此，截面的受拉区必须配置抗拉钢筋和抗剪钢筋以增加钢筋混凝土构件中较弱的受拉区的强度。 由于钢筋混凝土截面在均质性上与标准的木材或钢的截面存在着差异，因此，需要对结构设计的基本原理进行修改。将钢筋混凝土这种非均质截面的两种组成部分按一定比例适当布置，可以最好的利用这两种材料。这一要求是可以达到的。因混凝土由配料搅拌成湿拌合物，经过振捣并凝固硬化，可以做成任何一种需要的形状。如果拌制混凝土的各种材料配合比恰当，则混凝土制成品的强度较高，经久耐用，配置钢筋后，可以作为任何结构体系的主要构件。 浇筑混凝土所需要的技术取决于即将浇筑的构件类型，诸如：柱、梁、墙、板、基础，大体积混凝土水坝或者继续延长已浇筑完毕并且已经凝固的混凝土等。对于梁、柱、墙等构件，当模板清理干净后应该在其上涂油，钢筋表面的锈及其他有害物质也应该被清除干净。浇筑基础前，应将坑底土夯实并用水浸湿6英寸，以免土壤从新浇的混凝土中吸收水分。一般情况下，除使用混凝土泵浇筑外，混凝土都应在水平方向分层浇筑，并使用插入式或表面式高频电动振捣器捣实。必须记住，过分的振捣将导致骨料离析和混凝土泌浆等现象，因而是有害的。 水泥的水化作用发生在有水分存在，而且气温在50°F以上的条件下。为了保证水泥的水化作用得以进行，必须具备上述条件。如果干燥过快则会出现表面裂缝，这将有损与混凝土的强度，同时也会影响到水泥水化作用的充分进行。 设计钢筋混凝土构件时显然需要处理大量的参数，诸如宽度、高度等几何尺寸，配筋的面积，钢筋的应变和混凝土的应变，钢筋的应力等等。因此，在选择混凝土截面时需要进行试算并作调整，根据施工现场条件、混凝土原材料的供应情况、业主提出的特殊要求、对建筑和净空高度的要求、所用的设计规范以及建筑物周围环境条件等最后确定截面。钢筋混凝土通常是现场浇注的合成材料，它与在工厂中制造的标准的钢结构梁、柱等不同，因此对于上面所提到的一系列因素必须予以考虑。 对结构体系的各个部位均需选定试算截面并进行验算，以确定该截面的名义强度是否足以承受所作用的计算荷载。由于经常需要进行多次试算，才能求出所需的 3 截面，因此设计时第一次采用的数值将导致一系列的试算与调整工作。 选择混凝土截面时，采用试算与调整过程可以使复核与设计结合在一起。因此，当试算截面选定后，每次设计都是对截面进行复核。手册、图表和微型计算机以及专用程序的使用，使这种设计方法更为简捷有效，而传统的方法则是把钢筋混凝土的复核与单纯的设计分别进行处理。 土方工程 由于和土木工程中任何其他工种的施工方法与费用相比较，土方挖运的施工方法与费用的变化都要快得多，因此对于有事业心的人来说，土方工程是一个可以大有作为的领域。在1935年，目前采用的利用轮胎式机械设备进行土方挖运的方法大多数还没有出现。那是大部分土方是采用窄轨铁路运输，在这目前来说是很少采用的。当时主要的开挖方式是使用正铲、反铲、拉铲或抓斗等挖土机，尽管这些机械目前仍然在广泛应用，但是它们只不过是目前所采用的许多方法中的一小部分。因此，一个工程师为了使自己在土方挖运设备方面的知识跟得上时代的发展，他应当花费一些时间去研究现代的机械。一般说来，有关挖土机、装载机和运输机械的唯一可靠而又最新的资料可以从制造厂商处获得。 土方工程或土方挖运工程指的是把地表面过高处的土壤挖去（挖方），并把它倾卸到地表面过低的其他地方（填方）。为了降低土方工程费用，填方量应该等于挖方量，而且挖方地点应该尽可能靠近土方量相等的填方地点，以减少运输量和填方的二次搬运。土方设计这项工作落到了从事道路设计的工程师的身上，因为土方工程的设计比其他任何工作更能决定工程造价是否低廉。根据现有的地图和标高，道路工程师应在设计绘图室中的工作也并不是徒劳的。它将帮助他在最短的时间内获得最好的方案。 费用最低的运土方法是用同一台机械直接挖方取土并且卸土作为填方。这并不是经常可以做到的，但是如果能够做到则是很理想的，因为这样做既快捷又省钱。拉铲挖土机。推土机和正铲挖土机都能做到这点。拉铲挖土机的工作半径最大。推土机所推运的图的数量最多，只是运输距离很短。拉铲挖土机的缺点是只能挖比它本身低的土，不能施加压力挖入压实的土壤内，不能在陡坡上挖土，而且挖。卸都不准确。 正铲挖土机介于推土机和拉铲挖土机的之间，其作用半径大于推土机，但小于拉铲挖土机。正铲挖土机能挖取竖直陡峭的工作面，这种方式对推土机司机来说是危险的，而对拉铲挖土机则是不可能的。每种机械设备应该进行最适合它的性能的作业。正铲挖土机不能挖比其停机平面低很多的土，而深挖坚实的土壤时，反铲挖土机最适用，但其卸料半径比起装有正铲的同一挖土机的卸料半径则要小很多。在比较平坦的场地开挖，如果用拉铲或正铲挖土机运输距离太远时，则装有轮胎式的斗式铲运机就是比不可少的。它能在比较平的地面上挖较深的土（但只能挖机械本身下面的土），需要时可以将土运至几百米远，然后卸土并在卸土的过程中把土大致铲平。在挖掘硬土时，人们发现在开挖场地经常用一辆助推拖拉机（轮式或履带式），对返回挖土的铲运机进行助推这种施工方法是经济的。一旦铲运机装满，助推拖拉机就回到开挖的地点去帮助下一台铲运机。 斗式铲运机通常是功率非常大的机械，许多厂家制造的铲运机铲斗容量为8 m³，满载时可达10 m³。最大的自行式铲运机铲斗容量为19立方米（满载时为25 m³），由430马力的牵引发动机驱动。 翻斗机可能是使用最为普遍的轮胎式运输设备，因为它们还可以被用来送混凝土或者其他建筑材料。翻斗车的车斗位于大橡胶轮胎车轮前轴的上方，尽管铰接式翻斗车的卸料方向有很多种，但大多数车斗是向前翻转的。最小的翻斗车的容量大约为立方米，而最大的标准型翻斗车的容量大约为³。特殊型式的翻斗车包括容量为4 m³的自装式翻斗车，和容量约为 m³的铰接式翻斗车。必须记住翻斗车与自卸卡车之间的区别。翻斗车车斗向前倾翻而司机坐在后方卸载，因此有时被称为后卸卡车。 结构的安全度 规范的主要目的是提供一般性的设计原理和计算方法，以便验算结构的安全度。就目前的趋势而言，安全系数与所使用的材料性质及其组织情况无关，通常把它定义为发生破坏的条件与结构可预料的最不利的工作条件之比值。这个比值还与结构的破坏概率（危险率）成反比。 破坏不仅仅指结构的整体破坏，而且还指结构不能正常的使用，或者，用更为确切的话来说，把破坏看成是结构已经达到不能继续承担其设计荷载的“极限状态”。通常有两种类型的极限状态，即： （1）强度极限状态，它相当于结构能够达到的最大承载能力。其例子包括结构的局部屈曲和整体不稳定性；某此界面失效，随后结构转变为机构；疲劳破坏；引起结构几何形状显著变化的弹性变形或塑性变形或徐变；结构对交变荷载、火灾和爆炸的敏感性。 （2）使用极限状态，它对应着结构的使用功能和耐久性。器例子包括结构失稳之前的过大变形和位移；早期开裂或过大的裂缝；较大的振动和腐蚀。 根据不同的安全度条件，可以把结构验算所采用的计算方法分成： （1）确定性的方法，在这种方法中，把主要参数看作非随机参数。 （2）概率方法，在这种方法中，主要参数被认为是随机参数。此外，根据安全系数的不同用途，可以把结构的计算方法分为： （1）容许应力法，在这种方法中，把结构承受最大荷载时计算得到的应力与经过按规定的安全系数进行折减后的材料强度作比较。 （2）极限状态法，在这种方法中，结构的工作状态是以其最大强度为依据来衡量的。由理论分析确定的这一最大强度应不小于结构承受计算荷载所算得的强度（极限状态）。计算荷载等于分别乘以荷载系数的活载与恒载之和。 把对应于不乘以荷载系数的活载和恒载的工作（使用）条件的应力与规定值（使用极限状态）相比较。根据前两种方法和后两种方法的四种可能组合，我们可以得到一些实用的计算方法。通常采用下面两种计算方法： 确定性的方法，这种方法采用容许应力。 概率方法，这种方法采用极限状态。 至少在理论上，概率法的主要优点是可以科学的考虑所有随机安全系数，然后将这些随机安全系数组合成确定的安全系数。概率法取决于： Reinforced Concrete Plain concrete is formed from a hardened mixture of cement ,water ,fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel),air, and often other admixtures. The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. The finished product has high compressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to compensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete element. It is this deviation in the composition of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of 答题实属不易，请楼主谅解，求采纳~
在构成的结构光线中，力量的提高通常公平地可能被期望是小的当抑制是普遍只有由专栏提供的时候,是通常公平有柔性。
Traditional Construction ProceduresAs mentioned before, construction under the traditional construction procedure is performed by contractors. While they would like to satisfy the owner and the building designers, contractors have the main objective of making a profit. Hence, their initial task is to prepare a bid price based on an accurate estimate of construction costs. This requires development of a concept for performance of the work and a construction time schedule. After a contract has been awarded, contractors must furnish and pay for all materials, equipment, power, labor, and supervision required for construction. The owner compensates the contractors for construction costs and general contractor assumes overall responsibility for construction of a building. The contractor engages subcontractors who take responsibility for the work of the various trades required for construction. For example, a plumbing contractor installs the plumbing, an electrical contractor installs the electrical system, and an elevator contractor installs elevators. Their contracts are with the general contractor, and they are paid by the general , in addition to a general contractor, the owner contracts separately with specialty contractors, such as electrical and mechanical contractors, who perform a substantial amount of the work require for a building. Such contractors are called prime contractors. Their work is scheduled and coordinated by the general contractor, but they are paid directly by the also, the owner may use the design-build method and award a contract to an organization for both the design and construction of a building. Such organizations are called design-build contractors. One variation of this type of contract is employed by developers of groups of one-family homes or low-rise apartment buildings. The homebuilder designs and constructs the dwellings, but the design is substantially completed before owners purchase the of the construction procedure often is difficult. Consequently, some owners seek assistance from an expert, called a professional construction manager, with extensive construction experience, who receives a fee. The construction manager negotiates with general contractors and helps select one to construct the building. Managers usually also supervise selection of subcontractors. During construction, they help control costs, expedite equipment and material deliveries, and keep the work on schedule. In some cases, instead, the owner may prefer o engage a construction program manager, to assist in administrating both design and contractors employ labor that may or may not be unionized. Unionized craftspeople are members of unions that are organized by construction trades, such as carpenter, plumber, and electrician unions, Union members will perform only the work assigned to their construction, all work should be inspected. For this purpose, the owner, often through the architect and consultants, engages inspectors. The field inspectors may be placed under the control of an owner’s representative, who may be titled clerk of the works, architect’s superintendent, engineer’s superintendent, or resident engineer. The inspectors have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets the requirements of the contract documents and is performed under safe conditions. Such inspections may be made at frequent addition, inspections also are made by representatives of one or more governmental agencies. They have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets legal requirements and have little or no concern with detailed conformance with the contract documents. Such legal inspections are made periodically or at the end of certain stages of construction. One agency that will make frequent inspections is the local or state building department, whichever has jurisdiction. The purpose of these inspections is to ensure conformance with the local or state building is a description of the basic traditional construction procedure for a multistory the award of a construction contract to a general contractor, the owner may ask the contractor to start a portion of the work before signing of the contract by giving the contractor a letter of intent or after signing of the contract by issuing a written notice to proceed. The contractor then obtains construction permits, as required, form governmental agencies, such as the local building, water, sewer, and highway general contractor plans and schedules construction operations in detail and mobilizes equipment and personnel for the project. Subcontractors are notified of the contract award and issued letters of intent or awarded subcontracts, then are given, at appropriate times, notices to construction starts, the general contractor orders a survey to be made of adjacent structures and terrain, both for the record and to become knowledgeable of local conditions. A survey is then made to lay out offices for the contractor are erected on or near the site. If desirable for safety reasons to protect passersby, the required to be removed from the site are demolished and the debris is carted , the site is prepared to receive the building. This work may involve grading the top surface to bring it to the proper elevations, excavating to required depths for basement and foundations, and shifting of utility piping. For deep excavations, earth sides are braced and the bottom is construction starts with the placement of foundations, on which the building rests. This is followed by the erection of load-bearing walls and structural framing. Depending on the height of the building, ladders, stairs, or elevators may be installed to enable construction personnel to travel from floor to floor eventually to the roof. Also, hoists may be installed to lift materials to upper levels. If needed, temporary flooring may be placed for use of the building rises, pipes, ducts, and electric conduit and wiring are installed. Then, permanent floors, exterior walls, and windows are constructed. At the appropriate time, permanent elevators are installed. If required, fireproofing is placed for steel framing. Next, fixed partitions are built and the roof and its covering are put is place,Finishing operations follow. There include installation of the following: ceilings; tile; wallboard; wall paneling; plumbing fixtures; heating furnaces; air-conditioning equipment; heating and cooling devices for rooms; escalators; floor coverings; window glass; movable partitions; doors; finishing hardware; electrical equipment and apparatus, including lighting fixtures, switches, transformers, and controls; and other items called for in the drawings and specifications. Field offices, fences, bridges, and other temporary construction must be removed from the site. Utilities, such as gas, electricity, and water, are hooked up to the building. The sit is landscaped and paved. Finally, the building interior is painted and owner’s representatives then give the building a final inspection. If they find that the structure conforms with the contract documents, the owner accepts the project and gives the general contractor final payment on issuance by the building department of a certificate of occupancy, which indicates that the completed building meets building-code requirements.传统的施工程序众所周知，在传统的施工程序中进行施工的承包商。尽管他们想满足业主和建筑设计师的要求，但是最终还是以赚取利润为主要目标的。因此，他们最初的任务是对编写投标价格的建筑成本进行准确的估计。这就需要进行前期调查的工作并且做出施工时间表。等合约批出后，施工方必须提供所有材料并支付其费用，设备，电力，劳动力。业主此时需要进行必要的监督。一个总承包商承担一个建筑整体的责任。从事分包的承建商则需承担建造工程所需的各个工作。例如，管道承包商安装水管，电业承办商安装电气系统，电梯则由电梯承包商安装。他们与总承包商签订合同，费用由总承包商支付。有时候，除了一个总承包商，还有各种专业承包商，如电气和机械承包商，执行工作时需要与业主签订合同。这种承包商被称为间接承包商。他们的工作，由总承包商协调，但它们都是由业主直接联系。还有些时候，业主可以使用设计建造方法同时兼有设计和建筑施工单位的职能。这些单位被称为设计建造承包商。这方面的一个类型的合同聘用的变化是由一户住宅或低层住宅建筑群的开发。在房屋建筑设计和建造的住房，但设计之前需要由购买房屋的业主完成。施工过程管理往往是困难的。因此，一些业主会去寻求专家的协助，这些专家被称为专业施工经理，他们具有丰富的施工经验。施工经理与总承包商进行谈判，并选择其中一个项目。施工经理通常还监督分包商。在施工期间，它们有助于控制成本，加快运送设备和材料，并保持工作的进度。在依法行政，协助设计和建设的情况下，业主可以选择从事建筑项目经理。建筑承包商雇用的劳动力，一般有大工和小工。大工再建筑工程中从事技术活，如木工，管道工，工会成员和电工工会，小工则执行了分配给他们的工作。在施工期间，一切工作都要验收。因此，业主通过建筑师和监理经常进行督查。可能是名为工程员，建筑师或驻地工程师。作为业主的代表实地视察。核查人员必须确保工程符合合同文件的要求，并在安全的条件下进行的责任。这种检查可作出重复。此外，验收还是需要一个或多个政府机构的代表。他们必须确保工程符合法律要求，并负责检查与合同文件是否一致。这种视察一般定期或在某些阶段施工结束以后进行。地方或国家建设部门具有管辖权。这些检查的目的是确保符合当地或国家的建筑规范。以下是传统多层建筑施工的基本程序。建造开始后合同授予开发商，业主可要求开发商开始施工之前签约给或之后签约发出书面通知的同时另一部分工作继续进行。紧接着施工方根据需要获取建筑许可证，例如当地的建设，供水，污水处理，政府机构和公路部门。总承包商的计划和进度详细施工作业以及动员项目设备和人员。分包商得到通知后，做出签订合同的意向或授予分包合同书，然后给出在适当的时候进行通知。在施工前启动，总承包商要进行的一项调查就是邻近结构和地形，这些都要记录在案，并要熟悉当地情况。这项调查结束以后，随即进行布局建设。承建商的现场办事处都建在施工现场或附近。为了安全起见，必须从脚手架上移除的东西，产生的碎片都要运走。下一步，该网架是为建设工程准备的。这项工作为地下室开挖和基础开挖的深度，以及公用事业管道转移找到正确的标高。深挖掘，土方支撑，底部排出。建筑开始于基础上，然后是承重墙和结构框架的施工。梯子，楼梯，或电梯的安装，可让施工人员往返于各个楼层。此外，可安装卷扬机来运送材料。由于建筑高度的上升，管道，电力管道和线路安装以及永久地板，外墙，窗户和构造的影响。在适当的时候，永久的电梯安装。再需要的情况下可以安装防火卷帘。其次，屋顶等地方也需要安装。精加工工序安装有包括以下内容：天花板，瓷砖，墙板，墙壁镶板，水管装置，加热炉，空气调节设备，加热和冷却室装置;自动扶梯;地板，窗户玻璃;活动板，门;电气设备和仪器，包括照明灯具，开关，变压器，控制器，遵照项目的图纸和规格。外地办事处，围栏，桥梁和其他临时建筑，公共设备，如天然气，电力管道，水管，都连接到建筑上。最后，是建筑物内部的打扫和清洗。业主的代表，会给建设工程作最后检查。如果他们满意并认为符合合同文件，那么业主接受该项目，并交给总承包商的一个占用证书，这表明，总承包商已完成建设，建设部门再根据建筑规范的要求发放最后付款。
该计划包括六件两跨连续梁的断面图所示。 1 。考虑到预应力混凝土连续梁桥通过在桥梁工程中通常有不同的部分，因此，高度测试梁是50厘米和30厘米的中期支持和中跨部分，分别和线性变化本节之间的高度是通过中期支持和中跨一节。 设计混凝土配合比确定试验和错误。为了提高加工的混凝土，高效减水剂（高效减水剂）的使用，最后组合混凝土1: （水泥：水：砂：粗骨料：高效减水剂） 。钢纤维用于在本研究中有一个形状的连接端。基本材料特性混凝土见表1 。基本材料特性预应力肌腱和钢筋列于表2 。
Pick:There has been a low-cost building materials, widely used in transportation, civil paper, through the laboratory test of strength is studied and its influencing factors were analyzed, the ash rate of different age and sex is compaction compaction is shear and are crushed or original loose soil, adding lime and water, after mixing in the mixture compaction and the compressive strength, comply with the requirements of a experiment is formed from the pudong new area of Shanghai office excavation of a disturbance in clay, earth-gathering newly accumulation of approximately 10 meters away from the surface soil evenly, osteoporosis, soil structure, loose, texture, slightly satiny clod fragile, tangential show that: the dust ash rate of compaction, shear and has a significant impact on the compressibility, maintenance of the compaction of the shear and is very significant. Compressibility This is different than the optimum water content is dry density and its variation, and the dust of shear sex with curing results of plaster construction control is of practical significance, and proposes some Suggestions for design and : there, Ash rate, Age, The compaction, Shearing, Triaxial test
highlights calcareousness as a cheap materials widely used in transport, civil article first by laboratorial, qsdhmm - spodosol of strength and influencing factors, of ash from the calcareousness of mpacted and mpacted - spodosol of anti-shearing immediacyand in comminution or , , incompact ergineering, mixed into an appropriate amount of lime and water, after mixing the resulting mixture in compaction and keeping the compressive strength consistent with the requirements of a test used by the soil as taken from the Shanghai Pudong new area of Xiwang excavation of a disturbancy, opinins gaoliu a accumulational clay soil surface at about 10 metres distance, soil, soil imfusion uniormly, sub-manifold textureis incompact structure comfortable 滑腻 allelopathic, somewhat fragile, tangential clods of : Ash on the calcareousness of mpacted, anti-shearing immediacyand compactable has a significant impact on the conservation of age, mpacted - spodosol of anti-shearing and compactable effects very - spodosol was different than the optimal moisture content, calcareousness and curvel bulk density and the changing laws, as well as with calcareousness of anti-shearing in maiatenance age results on calcareousness and construction control have practical significance, and has put forward some proposals for construction and - spodosol; ash; age; mpacted; anti-shearing of sex; Triaxial tests
English is the Civil Engineering Civil Engineering, civil engineering is literally, it is the construction of the project collectively. It means building objects that the construction on the ground, underground, water works facilities, equipment and materials to use in surveying, design construction, maintenance, repair and other professional skills. Civil Engineering with the progress of the human society, has been transformed into large integrated disciplines, it has a number of branches, such as : construction, rail projects, road projects, bridge projects, special project structure, water drainage works, the port project, water, environmental engineering disciplines. A total of six professional Civil Engineering : architecture, urban planning, civil engineering, construction and environmental engineering equipment, water drainage works and road bridge Engineering as an important foundation subjects, its important attribute : an integrated, social, practicality, uniformity. Civil Engineering for the development of the national economy and improve the living standards of the people provided important material and technological foundation for the revitalization of many industries played a catalytic role in the construction of fixed assets is a basic production process, the construction and real estate in many countries and regions become a pillar of the economyAncient Civil Engineering has a long time span, roughly 500 years before Christ from the original date in civil engineering activities to the 16 century Italian Renaissance, resulting in the rapid development of the Civil Engineering on the road today, and has experienced more than 2,000 years. During this period, due to the development of scientific theories and slow, there is no breakthrough in civil engineering from 17 pages to 40 years in the 20th century end of the Second World War 300 years, foreign construction made great strides. Civil Engineering has entered a phase of quantitative analysis. Some theoretical development, the emergence of new materials, new tools of invention, the Civil Engineering Science is perfection and maturity. In modern times, after the end of World War II, many countries economic takeoff, the increasing advances of modern science, so as to provide a powerful impetus to further development and material basis. People's living conditions continue to improve, more and more comfortable living environment for the inevitable in the circumstances, the construction of development directly to the Civil Engineering development. 土木工程的英文是Civil Engineering ,直译是民用工程，它是建造各种工程的统称。它既指建设的对象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程设施，也指应用的材料设备和进行的勘测，设计施工，保养，维修等专业技术。土木工程随着人类社会的进步而发展，至今已经演变成为大型综合性的学科，它已经出许多分支，如：建筑工程，铁路工程，道路工程，桥梁工程，特种工程结构，给水排水工程，港口工程，水利工程，环境工程等学科。土木工程共有六个专业：建筑学，城市规划，土木工程，建筑环境与设备工程，给水排水工程和道路桥梁工程。土木工程作为一个重要的基础学科，有其重要的属性：综合性，社会性，实践性，统一性。土木工程为国民经济的发展和人民生活的改善提供了重要的物质技术基础，对众多产业的振兴发挥了促进作用，工程建设是形成固定资产的基本生产过程，因此，建筑业和房地产成为许多国家和地区的经济支柱之一。.古代的土木工程有很长的时间跨度，大致从公元前500年新石器时代出现原始的土木工程活动到16世纪末意大利的文艺复兴，导致土木工程走上迅速发展的道路为止，前后经历了两千多年。在这段时间内，由于科学理论发展及其缓慢，土木工程也没有突破习惯的发展。从17世纪中页开始到20 世纪40年代第二次世界大战结束为止的300年间，国外的建筑取得了长足的进步。土木工程进入了定量分析阶段。一些理论的发展，新材料的出现，新工具的发明，都使土木工程科学日渐完善和成熟。到了近代，二战结束之后，许多国家经济起飞，现代科学日益进步，从而为进一步发展提供了强大的动力和物质基础。人们生活水平的不断提高，必然要求越来越舒适的居住环境，在这种情况下，建筑的发展直接推动了土木工程的发展。总的来说土木工程是一门古老的学科，它已经取得了巨大的成就，未来的土木工程将在人们的生活中占据更重要的地位。地球环境的日益恶化，人口的不断增加，人们为了争取生存，为了争取更舒适的生存环境，必将更加重视土木工程。在不久的将来，一些重大项目将会陆续兴建，插入云霄的摩天大楼，横跨大样的桥梁，更加方便的交通将不是梦想。科技的发展，以及地球不断恶化的环境必将促使土木工程向太空和海洋发展，为人类提供更广阔的生存空间。近年来，工程材料主要是钢筋，混凝土，木材和砖材，在未来，传统材料将得到改观，一些全新的更加适合建筑的材料将问世，尤其是化学合成材料将推动建筑走向更高点。同时，设计方法的精确化，设计工作的自动化，信息和智能话技术的全面引入，将会是人们有一个更加舒适的居住环境。一句话，理论的发展，新材料的出现，计算机的应用，高新技术的引入等都将使土木工程有一个新的飞跃.
书店看下咯，这里不好找
先到百度文库，找一篇此类文档中文的，然后用有道翻译，或是谷歌在线翻译翻成英 文，然后把英文放上面，中文放下面。希望可以帮到你。 一，选题要新颖。这次我的论文的成功，和高分，得到导师的赞许，都是因为我论文的选题新颖所给我带来的好处。最好涉及护理新领域，以及新进展，这样会给人耳目一新的感觉。二，大量文献做基础仔细查阅和你论文题目和研究范围相关的文献，大量的文献查阅会你的论文写作铺垫，借鉴别人的思路，和好的语言。而且在写作过程不会觉得语言平乏，当然也要自己一定的语言功底做基矗三，一气呵成做好充分的准备，不要每天写一些，每天改一些，这样会打断自己的思路，影响文章的连贯。四，尽量采用多的专业术语可能口语化的表达会给人带来亲切感，但论文是比较专业的形式，是有可能做为文献来查阅和检索的，所以论文语言的专业化，术语化会提升自己论文的水平。五，用正规格式书写参考正规的论文文献，论文格式。不要因为格式问题，而影响到你论文的质量。六，最好在计算机上完成写作过程如果有条件最好利用电脑来完成写作过程，好处以下几点：1，节省时间，无论打字的速度慢到什么程度，肯定要比手写的快。2，方便，大量的文献放在手边，一个一个查阅是很不方便的，文献都是用数据库编辑，所以都是在电脑上完成。提前先在电脑上摘要出重点，写出提纲，随时翻阅，方便写作。3，修改编辑，在电脑随时对文章进行修改编辑都是非常的方便。4，随时存档，写一段，存一段，防止突然停电，或者电脑当机。本人就是吃了这个大亏，一个晚上的劳动，差点就全没了，幸亏男友是电脑高手，帮我找回。否则就恨着电脑，哭死算了。七，成稿打印好交给导师无论你的字写的多么优美，还是按照惯例来，打印出的文字显的正规，而且交流不存在任何的问题，不会让导师因为看不懂你的龙飞凤舞，而低估你的论文。而且干净整洁，女孩子不仅注意自己的形象问题，书面的东西也反映你的修养和气质。八，听取导师意见，仔细修改导师会给你一些关于你论文建设性的意见，仔细参考，认真修改。毕竟导师是发表过多篇论文，有颇多的经验。
外文论文翻译公司如下：
1、英辑（上海）文化传播有限公司
英辑（上海）文化传播有限公司拥有业内专业的外籍编辑团队、精通熟悉各领域专业知识的翻译师团队、以及亲切的客服编辑服务团队。
我们的论文编辑团队成员全部以英语为母语，且均有相关专业研究背景的编辑专家团队，1200+细分研究领域。
2、英联翻译
英联翻译在中国设立有56家分部及办事处，译员本地指派，满足本地化业务需求。随着公司的发展，我们还将在全球其它中心城市设立分公司，以进一步拓展服务范围。
英联翻译拥有资深庞大的翻译团队，由国家级译审、享受国务院特别津贴的技术专家、留学硕士、外籍顾问构成。
3、文腾翻译
文腾在过去的成长历程中不断积累，通过"协调不同的服务技能"和"有机结合多种技术流派"。 打开多种语言服务潜在市场大门的能力，终于赢得了最具核心竞争力著名翻译公司的称号。
4、意得辑
意得辑成立于2002年5月，主要为英文非母语的科研作者提供英文润色、学术翻译、SCI/EI/SSCI发表指导等服务。
意得辑拥有2000多名具有专业学科背景的资深英文母语编辑、翻译、发表专家团队。本着客户至上的原则，提供优质服务、准时返稿、完善的售后保障，让您拥有个性化、流畅的客户体验。
5、深圳欧得宝翻译有限公司
深圳市欧得宝翻译有限公司创立于2000年，是备受推崇的全球化与本地化翻译机构，以及apec和欧盟中心长期语言服务商。于2009年被评为华南地区规模大的翻译公司。
是一家同时成为国际译联（fit）、美国翻译协会（ata）、全球化与本地化协会（gala）及中国翻译协会（tac）等多家国内外权威机构会员的翻译公司。
参考资料来源：官网-英辑（上海）文化传播有限公司
参考资料来源：官网-英联翻译
参考资料来源：官网-文腾翻译
参考资料来源：官网-意得辑
参考资料来源：官网-深圳欧得宝翻译有限公司