商务英语论文3000字

论文 汗。。。

我倒是正好有以前的，可你给的分也太少了吧，那可是2000字，能高点分吗

Derivatives, as financial instruments, have gained an increasingly important role to the financial status of big companies around the globe. Their importance can be primarily illustrated by the huge development of the derivatives exchange markets in the most developed countries, with banks usually being at the centre of trading of these powerful financial tools. The very essence of their importance lies to the fact that companies can use them to reduce uncertainty or risk that stems from entrepreneurial activities. Financial managers use derivatives to understand the risks that their firms are exposed to daily and thus are able to pursue higher returns, given the fact that higher returns impose higher risks. The management of high risks enables companies to reduce the danger of financial losses and in the same time achieve higher returns. The extended use of derivatives can also attribute further benefits to the financial position of firms by improving several other corporate actions like cheaper borrowing, tax planning and ensuring safer loan payback. However, derivatives’ trading has been a cause for huge corporate losses for many companies, the financial management of which ignored the high risks involved in the use of those financial instruments. This essay will attempt to examine the ways in which companies can use derivatives to modify their financial derivative (or derivative security) can be defined as a tradable asset whose intrinsic value depends on or derives from the value of an underlying asset (like shares or bonds), a commodity (like oil or gold) or an abstract measure (like interest rates or indexes). This dependency of the derivatives’ value is the reason why they are also called contingent claims. This last definition of derivatives describes accurately their nature of being an exercisable right or obligation rather than a tradable good. This right or obligation is the exact legal contract that acquires value like a real asset, and therefore can be traded. People have implemented derivatives, as legal contracts, since ancient times, although their systematic use and trading began in the late nineteenth century. However, the past thirty years witnessed a massive growth in the volume of derivatives’ trading. Nowadays, derivative markets account for a significant amount of the world financial exchange system, and their types and use keeps developing and adapting to the different financial needs of the various industries. Common types of derivatives are options, futures, forwards, forward rate agreements and swaps, while other less common types are caps, floors, exotic options, Over-The Counter (OTCs) and exchange-traded derivatives. A brief description of the most common derivatives is given option is a contractual agreement that the gives the right and not the obligation in one party to buy or sell an underlying commodity or asset at a given price anytime during a pre-specified period of time. At the end of the pre-specified period this right can be exercised or not, according to the option’s holder needs, thus the name of the derivative. If an option gives the buyer the right to purchase an asset (a number of shares for example) at a given price during a time period, this option is called call option. By the end of the period the right expires and after that date the option loses its value. On the contrary, if a similar contract gives the buyer the right to sell an asset (at an agreed price and up to a given date), it is then called put option. Call and Put options enable their holders to make profits, reducing the uncertainty of the future value of the underlying asset because they can be tradable at any time before the expiry date. If the underlying asset is a share index like FTSE 100, S&P 500 etc. then the purchased right is called index are also contractual agreements between two parties to buy or sell an asset at a specific time and a pre-specified price. However, a future represents an obligation, not a right, to proceed in the specific transaction, thus neither of the two parties can back away once the agreement is made (or the future is purchased). Thus a holder of a future buys the obligation of the other party and not the right, as in options. However, futures are tradable derivatives and are exchanged in a regulated market, like options. This characteristic allows their holders to change their position, according to the change of the underlying asset value through time before the date of the contracted transaction. However, they are very standardised and so they might not be very attractive to companies with specific financial needs. A future having as underlying asset the short-term interest rate of a currency deposit in a foreign bank is called interest rate the other hand, forwards are similar agreements to futures in the sense that they both represent obligation of the contracted parts to proceed to a transaction of an agreed price at a specified date. However, forwards are not standardised contracts that can be traded in exchanges, but are tailored-to-need agreements for the specific clients and are usually available over-the-counter (for instance between a bank and the purchaser). Foreign exchange is the one of the most important underlying assets that forwards are used for, providing special trading markets for currencies. Fluctuating interest rates of different currencies create uncertainty for the future repayment of loans obtained with flexible rates. For this reason, forward rate agreements (FRAs) can be made between banks and companies, which assure that they will receive a premium from the banks if the floating rates associated with the re-payment of their loans exceeds a pre-specified amount. FRAs are also tradable, and usually are contracted for short time periods, varying from 3, 6 or 12 exact way in which loans are re-paid as related to floating interest rates created the need for swaps. Swaps are private contracts between companies to exchange interest payment obligations to banks. Under a swap arrangement, companies might be able to mutually devise loan repayments that are cheaper for both parts. Swaps, unlike FRAs, are commonly negotiated for longer periods and can be contracted and traded in similar ways to the above description of the most common derivatives, it is clear that companies have a powerful toolbox of financial instruments that can be implemented to improve their financial position. The most predominant objective of their use is the mitigation of uncertainty, with regards to future values of assets or commodities. This practice is known as hedging of risk. Hedging can be done with options. If for example a pharmaceutical company announces that in 6 months they might have a cure for cancer, the share price will go sky-high, however the financial managers might be concerned of a failure to meet this announcement. They can protect the financial position of the company by buying put options that can be exercised in case the company fails to discover the cure for cancer (and so its share will bottom down).Such options that are issued by the company itself are called warrants. Hedging with options or warrants can be used against numerous potential declines in the share price or the whole market. Thus hedging helps to protect companies against financial instability. Options can also be used in incentive payment schemes from companies to employees, who can be offered call options that can be exercised in the future when the corporate share will be higher. This offer provides a motivation to workers to push the share up by improving their working performance. Thus companies achieve with this indirect payment method increased productivity potential beneficial use of options is tax planning. Big multinational corporations can make use the of differences in tax legislation in the different countries they operate, and manage to reduce the whole payable tax or their cost of capital by trading options in different jurisdictions. Tax practitioners can design option trading in such ways that they achieve tax deductions without significant changes in the financial position of the corporation. Hedging can also take place with futures on underlying commodities. Many major producers are uncertain of the future price of commodities essential to their business and so they use futures to ensure their production costs against price rises. Thus, they are willing to pay a premium that will ensure them against price volatilities. Under the same rationale, large investors that hold big and diversified portfolios, which are sensitive to the overall movements of share indexes, might want to hedge with share index futures. In that way they can reduce their losses if the indexes derivatives that are contingent to interest rate payments can also be used to hedge risks that occur from floating rates. FRAs are specifically useful in this case since they assure their holders against interest rate falls. Slightly alternative interest rate hedging techniques are used in Caps and Floors. These hedging techniques are particularly useful to firms that need to eliminate or reduce their exposure to interest rate short-term fluctuations and thus they are willing to pay a risk that are associated with exchange rate volatility can also be hedged by using derivatives. Intra country economic transactions are priced according to the relative exchange rates of the currencies involved. For instance, an exported commodity that is priced one British pound in the UK does not have a steady value in Euros throughout time. This means that the same transaction can have different value, according to the level of the currency exchange rate. Multinational corporations and firms that are directly implicated to foreign trade (imports/exports) are exceptionally sensitive to volatile exchange rates and thus they are looking to employ derivatives that can help reduce this uncertainty. Futures can be used to ensure a currency transaction in the future, regardless of the exchange rate in that future time. Or when firms require greater flexibility they can use currency forwards that are not as standardised as futures and can also be individually tailored. Alternatively, firms can use currency options that not only allow them to hedge foreign exchange risk but also to make additional profits if the exchange rate is favourable. In conclusion, derivative securities have increased the capability of financial managers to improve the financial position of their firms and mitigate uncertainty regarding the future of the business and the financial markets. The importance of derivatives can nowadays be observed by the exploding evolution of derivative exchange markets in developed economies all over the world. Derivatives, that represent a contractual agreement towards either the right or the obligation of the contractors to proceed to a pre-specified transaction in the future, can take different forms and variations, according to the specific needs of the business. However, their most common function is to reduce the risk involved in future economic transactions, so that firms or institutions can be more secured against economic uncertainty that has noticeably has imposed immense costs on entrepreneurial activities in the past. This altering of the risk profile of corporate activity, also known as hedging, can sometimes also contribute to the simultaneous achievement of great profits, allocating even more importance to derivative instruments. Furthermore, derivatives can prove beneficial to companies when used in incentive payment schemes, tax planning or loan repayments. Following the increasing use of derivative instruments the last thirty years, it is certain that their corporate use will be even more augmented through the design and implementation of new , G. (2005), Handbook of corporate finance, Financial Times Prentice HallEales, B., A., (1995), Financial Risk Management, McGraw Hill: MaidenheadHull, J., C., (2000), Options futures and other derivatives, (5th edit.), Prentice Hall InternationalTaylor, F., (2000), Mastering derivatives markets, (2nd edit.), Financial Times Prentice HallWinston, D., (1995), Financial Derivatives, Chapman and Hall: London发不下了，邮箱上传中。。。

浅析违反方式原则在商务英语中的运用*摘要:由于商务英语的特殊运用场合和特殊用途,其句法结构有其自身鲜明的特点。美国哲学家Grice提出的会话准则之一的方式准则,即用结构严谨,简练的语言来表达,但是在商务英语中却存在有一些看似违反这一准则的用语的使用。本文便是从这两点看似矛盾的地方着手考虑违反方式原则在商务英语中的语用分析。关键词:商务英语;方式原则;模糊化;语用功能引言随着国际贸易的飞速发展,国际商务活动已经成为各国商务经济的主体内容。作为国际商务交际中的语言载体,商务英语的使用变得越来越广泛,表达的正确与否在商务交际中起着举足轻重的作用,而语言表达质量也逐渐显得重要。商务英语被运用到商务活动的各个领域当中,从经济贸易活动到商务函件等文本书写,商务英语用语要求精准、严谨。很多传统语言学家指出在语言交际活动中要求说话人语言清楚准确,但是从商务英语交际实例中笔者总结发现在很多商务活动中,某一方为了达到目的,语言的表达却使用得含蓄模糊。从表面上看这与传统语用原则存在着矛盾。本文将从Grice提出的会话准则之一的方式准则出发,探讨这看似矛盾的二者在商务英语中的具体体现。一、方式原则美国哲学家保罗·格赖斯(Grice)在20世纪60年代后期提出了会话合作原则(Cooperative Principle),旨在解释会话含义。他提出自然语言有其独特的逻辑关系。会话的最高原则是合作,称为合作原则。该原则由四条准则组成———数量准则、质量准则、关联准则、方式准则(LogicandConversation 1975)。格赖斯认为在所有的语言交际活动中,说话人和听话人之间存在一种默契,一种双方都应遵守的原则。具体说就是每个参加交谈者在整个交谈过程中所说的话符合这一次交谈的目标或方向。方式准则要求说话人应避免晦涩的词语,避免歧义,说话要简要(避免赘述) ,要有条理。虽然会话参与者几乎总是遵守合作原则的,但并非严格遵守。由于种种原因,这些原则经常被违反,而对合作原则的违反则导致产生格赖斯所说的“会话含义”。也就是说,对任何一种合作原则的违反,都会使语言变得间接。当说话人公然不遵循某一条准则,即说话人知道自己违反了一条准则,同时还想让听话人知道他违反了一条准则,这时就会产生会话含义。而在商务英语中,由于商务活动具有较强的交际目的以及特定的交际对象,商务用语中往往会出现一些看似模糊,表意并不是很清楚的语言表达。表面上看这些语言表达违反了方式准则,但是却恰恰符合商务英语的一般特征。二、商务英语的一般特征英语作为商务交际,包括口头和书面表达的基本介质,从其表达方式上看它既具备英语表达的一般特征,也具备其自身的特点:用语专业准确化,用语得体简洁化,用语礼貌化。1.用语专业准确化商务英语相对于普通英语来说,在词汇上有其最大特点,即要求专业词汇的准确使用。而这些极具商业意义的词汇不论从意义还是用法上都与普通英语有着很大的区别。例如:一些缩略词EXW=ExWorks(工厂交货价), 4P代表produc,tprice, place, promotion,FAQ= FairAverage Quality (中等品、大陆货)。又如“duplicate/photocopy of original certificate oChina originGSP fromA issued by competentauthority.”(有官方机构出具的GSP产地证正本一式两份或正本影印件)中,常会有一些企业会将“duplicate”和“copy”的意思混为一谈,都认为表示副本。而在此时“duplicate”并不能简单理解为“copy”。“duplicate”译为复制的或两份(可为一正一副),但其本身并不等于“copy”(副本)。2.用语得体简洁化商务英语作为一种有特定使用场合的交际语言,使用者要求这些语言具有高效性,能在尽量简短的话语中表达所需要的信息。对于商务人员来说,时间是宝贵的资源。针对这样的特殊使用人群,语言表意需要清楚明晰,因此语言简洁避免冗繁和矫饰使之成为商务英语的一个重要特点。同时交易语言得体还可以为会话双方留下良好印象而打下基础,这对商务人员来说也是极其重要的。同时,商务用语的得体简洁化还体现在用语的朴实上,尽量避免使用陈旧过时的商业术语和套话。任何事情都需要适可而止,用语使用过分礼貌,显得做作。并且对于大多数将英语作为第二语言使用的人来说,过于陈旧的语言在一定程度上还影响了对会话意思的理解。例如,We are inreceipt of…(兹收到)→We have received…We beg (have) to acknowledge (兹收到)→Thank you for…Adverting to your favour (感谢贵方的来函)→Thankyou for your be advised that…(兹通知贵方)→(omitted)Expressmy heartfelt gratitude to you for (衷心感谢)→Thank you for…试比较下列两句:(1)Please be advised thatwe have received yourL/C.兹通知贵方,信用证已收到。(2)Your invoiceNo. 248 has been received.贵方信用证已收到。比较这两个句子,很明显, (1)句使用陈旧的商业术语,句子显得做作复杂,相对而言(2)句简洁明了,直抒主题,适合用于商业这样的特定场合。3.用语礼貌化礼貌是人类文明的标志,是人类活动的一条重要准绳。作为一种社会活动,语言活动也同样受到这条准绳的约束。礼貌是建立良好的人际关系和合作关系的前提。特别是商务活动只有建立在良好的关系基础之上才可能达成合作。如果在商务交际中缺乏稳定和谐的人际关系和合作关系,商务活动将很难进行。因此,在商务活动中,注意用语礼貌是商务活动顺利进行的重要保证。三、违反方式准则在用语礼貌化中的语用分析根据上述商务英语的一般特征,特别针对用语礼貌化的特点,对商务英语中所出现的违反方式准则的表达进行语用及功能分析并举例。1.词语的模糊化与不确定化由于客观事物本身就具有不确定性,有时候使用一些模糊词汇或表达反而更准确。特别是在商务谈判中,针对一些不能提供确定信息,但必须使合作达成的情况下,会经常使用一些模糊语言。虽然这样违反了会话方式原则中的要求避免使用晦涩语言,但却恰好提高了商务英语的客观准确性,保证了信息表达的真实性。例如:The sample is the nearest in size to the goods you need.形容词最高级在语义上更加模糊化。这里的“the nea-rest”并未指出具体有多么相似,但将理解和想象的空间交给顾客,既保证了自己在介绍产品时并未夸大其词,也更好地鼓动和吸引了顾客的购买欲。2.人称所指的不明确化人们在交际时,需要注意用语礼貌,让会话在和谐的气氛下进行,从而实现交际目的。但在国际交际中,当遇到一些对方存在明显错误而又不好直接指出时,通常都会采取一些表达,有意地让人称所指弱化,从而避免对方听到责怪的语言而让双方关系破裂的情况。例如:(1) If you had thought aboutyourneeds beforehand, thisproblem would never have arisen.(2) Problem of this type do notnormally occur if custom-ers’needs are sufficiently clear.试比较以上两个句子,虽然两句话表示同一个意思,但是在(1)中明显带有指责对方的含义,而(2)句使用“cus-tomers”,弱化人称所指,这样会让对方觉得这只是对方在说明一种普遍存在的情况,而并不是在对自己进行指责。3.否定内容的含蓄表达化悲观消极的语言表达常常会让人产生消极的心态。因此在商务活动中,我们要尽量避免这种消极现象的出现。而作为商务活动的语言支撑更是要注意到这点。即使在交际中出现悲观消极的情况,也总能找到一些含蓄的表达,甚至积极乐观的因素进行替换,保证整个商务交际能在一种积极、乐观的氛围中进行。例如:(1)Your orderwill be delayed for twoweeks. (Negative)(2) Your orderwill be shipped in twoweeks. (Positive)试比较上述两句, (1)句“delayed”一词带有否定,消极色彩。相对而言, (2)句中“shipped”在此则属于积极词汇。两个不同感情色彩的使用直接影响到听话者的心态,并对对方的办事效率产生不同的理解。4.所指内容的抽象化由于某些商业活动具有极强的目的性,它要求在交际过程中既要注意重要内容的保密性但又要达到商业目的。这时使用不确定的词汇和表达将具体内容抽象化则成为达到这一语用功能的最佳办法。例如:In order to start a concrete transaction between us, wetake pleasure inmaking you a special offer.一些关于价格的询盘,买方常会根据具体情况报虚盘。在上述句子中,采用“a special offer”而避免使用具体的数字。这样做既可以对价值较高的商业信息做到保密,又可以达到期望的商业目的。结语在世界经济迅速全球一体化的今天,国际商务活动对专业人才有了大量的需求。这些经贸人员不仅要掌握普通英语,更要对商务英语的特殊性有所掌握。熟悉这些特征及其语用功能对经贸人员准确有效地使用、翻译、交际以及促进国际贸易的发展起着很好的指导作用。参考文献:[1]Grice, PaulH. Logic and conversation[A]. Cole, P; eds. Syntax and Semantics 3: Speechacts[C].New York: AcademicPress, 1975.[2] Carston and Utterances: The Prag-matics ofExplicitCommunication[M] .Malden: BlackwellPublish-ing, 2002.[3]程迎春.商务英语词汇特点和学法探究[J].商场现代化, 2007, (4).[4]陈春燕,缪东玲.国际贸易实务[M].北京:电子工业出版社, 2007.[5]冯庆华.实用翻译教程[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社, 2002.[6]廖瑛.实用外贸英语电函[M].武汉:华中科技大学出版社, 2005.[7]梅桂能.当代外贸信函英语的礼貌原则[J].中国科技翻译, 2004, (2).