关于膳食的英文文献论文

你可以从以下几点着手：一．餐桌礼仪概述 1. 餐桌礼仪在中西方文化发展中的地位与作用。 二. 各国间不同的饮食文化 1. 我国饮食文化的发展及餐桌礼仪的形成。 2. 英、法、美、意等国家的饮食文化发展及餐桌礼仪的形成。 3. 用我国的典型食品北京烤鸭与西方国家的火鸡进行对比从而进一步比较两者差异。 4. 从差异中寻求中西文化间的共同点。 5. 形成中西方文化差异的根源。 Table Manners The main difference between Chinese and W estern eating habits is that unlike the West, where everyone has their own plate of food, in China the dishes are placed on the table and everybody shares. If you are being treated by a Chinese host, be prepared for a ton of food. Chinese are very proud of their culture of food and will do their best to give you a taste of many different types of cuisine. Among friends, they will just order enough for the people there. If they are taking somebody out for dinner and the relationship is polite to semi-polite, then they will usually order one more dish than the number of guests ( people, five dishes). If it is a business dinner or a very formal occasion, there is likely to be a huge amount of food that will be impopssible to finish. A typical meal starts with garlic. These are followed by the main courses, hot meat and vegetable dishes. Finally a soup is brought out, which is followed by the starchy "staple"food, which is usually rice or noodles or sometimes dumplings. Many Chinese eat rice (or noodles or whatever) last, but if you like to have your rice together with other dishes, you should say so early on. One thing to be aware of is that when eating with a Chinese host, you may find that the person is using their chopsticks to put food in your bowl or plate. This is a sign of politeness. The appropriate thing to do would be to eat the whatever-it-is and say how yummy it is. If you feel uncomfortable with this, you can just say a polite thank you and leave the food there, and maybe cover it up with a little rice when they are not looking. There is a certain amount of leniency involved when dealing with Westerners. So you won't be chastised. Eating No-no's Traditionally speaking, there are many taboos at Chinese tables, but these days not many people pay attention to them. However, there are a few things to keep in mind, especially if you are a guest at a private home. 1) Don't stick your chopsticks upright in the rice bowl. Instead,lay them on your dish. The reason for this is that when somebody dies, the shrine to them contains a bowl of sand or rice with two sticks of incense stuck upright in it. So if you stick your chopsticks in the rice bowl, it looks like this shrine and is equivalent to wishing death upon a person at the table! 2) Make sure the spout of the teapot is not facing anyone. It is impolite to set the teapot down where the spout is facing towards somebody. The spout should always be directed to where nobody is sitting,usually just outward from the table. 3) Don't tap on your bowl with your chopsticks. Beggars tap on their bowls, so this is not polite. Also, in a restaurant, if the food is coming too slow people will tap their bowls. If you are in someone's home, it is like insulting the cook. Eat Local You can get expensive, delicious meals in any of the large hotels, but if you are looking for atmosphere, you have to go to a local joint. Not only is it cheaper, but you can get a good look at the locals and what normal people are like. And what the food lacks in presentation is made up for in the taste. Some restaurants have English menus, but don't count on it. A good way to choose dishes is to look at what othes are eating and point at it for the waitress. The other option is to play "Myatery Dinner," where players randomly point at items in the menu and wait for the surprise dishes to come. Whoever orders the braised dog heart with scallions in shark vomit sauce wins! If you bring your Guide with you, however, you can use the food guide in the back of the book to choose some safe and delicious fare. Also, be sure to sample the local brew, Yanjing Beer. Drining Gan Bei!(cheers!) Alcohol is a big part of eating in Beijing. Especially when dining with Chinese hosts, you can expect the beer to flow freely and many beis to be gan-ed.(Gan Bei literally means "dry the glass")Besides beer, the official Chinese alcoholic beverage is bai jiu, high-proof Chinese liquor made from assorted grains. There are varying degrees of bai jiu, and some are quite good. The Beijing favorite is called Er Guo Tou, which is a whopping 56% alcohol. More expensive and less formidable are Maotai and Wuliangye, which go for about 300-400 yuan per bottle. In comparison, Er Guo Tou costs a modest 4or 5 yuan per ping(bottle). If you are not a drinker, or don't feel up to the challenge, just say "wo bu hui he jiu"(I don't drink). It is generally acceptable to use Coke or tea as an alcohol substitute.

美国的饮食文化论文

“你吃什么就成为什么样子。”营养专家经常使用这句话来倡导更好的饮食习惯，入嘴的东西确实成为我们身体的一部分。但我们也可以从另―个角度来看这句话，我们所吃的反映出我们自己――不论就人或文化而言。你想了解另一种文化吗？那么你应该去了解它的食物。以下是我整理的美国的饮食文化论文，欢迎阅读。

何谓“美式食物”？乍听之下你可能认为答案容易得很。对许多人而言，美式食物就是汉堡、热狗、炸鸡和比萨。如果你好吃甜食，你可能会想到苹果派或巧克力片饼干。美国人确实吃这些东西，但这些就是你在美国唯一找得到的食物吗？

除了感恩节火鸡以外，挺难找到典型的美国食物。美国是个移民之国，所以美国人吃的食物来自许多不同的国家，当人们移居美国，他们也将自己的烹饪方式一起带来。那也就是为什么在美国你几乎可以看到所有不同民族的食物。在某些时候，美国人把外国的食物视为最爱。美国人喜爱意大利的比萨，墨西哥的玉米饼和中国的春卷，但是这些东西的美国版味道却不太地道了！

和许多大国一样，美国被划分为数个区域，每个地区都以自己特有的食物种类为傲。走访美国南部享受乡村式的烹调：到路易斯安那州品尝辛辣的凯郡式料理：走一趟新英格兰试尝它美味的海鲜：再到中西部“美国的面包之乡”品尝可口的烘焙食品：乘船游览至西南部尝试一些好吃的墨西哥式德州小吃，最后到太平洋西北岸，啜饮极品咖啡，作为美食之旅的句点。

快节奏的生活使得美国人通常只能“很快地吃几口”。快餐店为赶时间的人提供各种食物，从炸鸡到炒饭，应有尽有。微波炉晚餐和实时餐点使得在家烧饭省事又快速。当然，最平常的美式快餐之一就是三明治。任何能夹在两片土司中间的东西，美国人就可以把它做成一份三明治，花生酱和果酱更是一直都深受美国人的喜爱。

忙碌的美国人也趋向于吃一大堆“垃圾食物”。炸薯片、糖果、汽水和其他甜食都颇受欢迎。许多人吃了太多这类不健康的零食，但是其他人则选择较健康的饮食习惯，有些人甚至选择“全天然”的食物，他们拒绝吃任何含有化学制品或添加物的食物。

美国文化是“你吃什么就成为什么样子”这句话的最佳写照。美国人代表了背景的广泛性和思维的多样性。在美国可享受到的各式食物正反映出个人品味的多样化。这食物可能是国际性也可能是地区性的；有时是快餐，有时也不见得；它可能是垃圾食物：也可能是天然食品。然而无论如何，它们都是美式的。

美国人吃汉堡包、热狗和其他简单、标志性的美食，典型的美国菜“粗犷实在”，食用新鲜的原材料，保持事物的原汁原味；但他们同时也喜爱许多其他国家的菜肴，拥有众多移民带来的各式菜品。于是，美国饮食恍如一个“大熔炉”，汇聚了世界多国的佳肴，并将之持续交融、美国化，形成当今的让人眼花缭乱、活力四射的美国饮食。以下，我们简要溯源一下它的历史。

16世纪以前，美洲印第安人作为美国的原住民并主要居民，他们的饮食就是美国饮食的代表。在这一阶段，他们奠定了美国主食的基础——玉米。但由于生活水平较低、疆域广袤、人口文化分散等原因的限制，美国饮食尚且处于讲究温饱的状态，未能形成全国性饮食和完善的美食体系。

而且，美国一直以来没有王室一说，王室烹饪有助于国家烹饪艺术的统一和进益，以至于美国缺少王室的这一对生活品质，这里强调饮食的驱动力，美食发展在历史进程中相较缓慢。

16世纪，墨西哥的西班牙人来到美国，他们并没有只把玉米当作一种好原料而用它做成什么别的东西；他们真正地做到了将他们的想法和印地安人的想法交融一起。如玉米卷烤肉，西班牙人带来猪肉；印地安人提供玉米卷。

后来，清教徒大批移民美国，带来了“为活而吃”的精神特质，追求实用简朴，不讲究食物口味。他们认为人吃东西并消化掉以便再活一天，除了虚荣心，没有哪个思维健全的人会讨论某种食品的味道。他们的对饮食的价值观严重阻碍了烹饪艺术的发展。

17到18世纪，欧洲移民大量涌入美国，奠定了传统美国菜的基础——英国菜。美国烹饪始自英国，因为大部分美国人是英国移民的后裔。当然，美国菜有自己的特色，因为美国国土大，气候好，食物种类繁多，交通运输方便，冷藏设备优良，厨师、家庭主妇可随意选择食物，同时他们在烹饪仪器时很讲究营养。美国人的习惯是早餐喜食各种水果和略有咸味的.甜点心，对沙拉很感兴趣。美国人做菜喜欢用水果作辅料，如菠萝鸡腿、苹果烤鸭等，对铁扒一类的菜肴也很喜欢。炸制类的菜品也是常吃。

而后，其他移民开始到来。非洲人被贩卖至美国，对美国烹饪产生了重大影响，他们把一些新奇的食物原料和调味品带到了美国菜桌上——羊角豆、山药、花生等。而且他们还发挥聪明才智把奴隶主嫌弃的“猪下水”变得可口，增加了美国饮食的可选菜品。

19世纪下半叶，中国和意大利移民到来了，开启了美国饮食历史上最重要的“移植”阶段。中国食物随着在西部修建铁路的中国移民而来，或更恰当的说，是随着那些给筑路工人做饭的人来的。各种崭新的美国化中国食物兴起，如“炒杂碎”、炸蛋卷、馄饨汤、炒饭、鸡丝炒面和小排骨等。可惜中国食物始终不是美国最普及的食物，因为虽然大多数美国人吃它，可他们通常不在家里尝试自己做。然而，美国化中国食物确实起到异常重要的作用：它开阔了几乎每个20世纪的美国人对令人垂涎三尺、异国情调的亚洲食物的眼界和品尝，为许多亚洲美食融入我们民众的饮食习惯铺平了道路。

美国化意大利食物堪称美国餐馆文化的主导者，广受欢迎；而且它的真正胜利是在美国的家庭里。比萨饼、卤汁面条、蕃茄沙司烙通心粉、肉丸子、帕尔马干酪小牛肉，无论是冷冻，或登门送食，或自家制作，都在美国日常饮食中起着无比重要的作用。此外，它成功证明了来源于另一个国家的食物非但可在美国成为换口味的有趣享受，还能牢固地成为美国主流饮食的组成部分。

20世纪随后的其他年代，美国迎来了多种移民群体，更多的异族美食纳入了美国饮食中，例如，美国人赞美法国人对待食物的方式，把它作为美国饮食的基石；让丹麦糕点在美国早餐中占有牢固的地位。

以上只是美国饮食发展历史的主流，还不是全貌。对美国而言，多元性的人为因素为饮食发展带来了关键性的影响。早期的美国饮食，由于历史与文化的长度及深度不够，美国的立国精神及民风偏向保守朴实以及美国没有宫廷皇室的推动与鼓励，导致饮食发展缓慢，但在19世纪以后，丰富的移民史已经让美国成为了世界上最具饮食折中主义的地方之一。现在的美国，饮食包含万象，世界各国美食的都是它的菜单，而且它还一直随心所欲的对事物进行“嫁接”，不断创造出世人前所未见的新菜品。

Diet idea the Europeans said that in the world has three big good food, in each edition has China and France, only then actually had different explanations about third, has said that was Italy, also had said that was countries' and so on Turkey, Tunisia or Morocco. Although reaches a stalemate, but everybody has a mutual recognition, the diet often can reflect the different nationality aspect and so on habits and customs and cultural thought differences. one time hosts the banquet in the Chinese restaurant, on the hotel vegetable very slowly, unconscious has passed for nearly two hours, but the vegetable has as if only then gotten up half. Is first time attends the Chinese meal banquet near a place woman, cannot bear asks me, your Chinese treats on these many vegetables? I said that must be many in China, usually is above 10. She is very surprised, including said that China's banquet too has been really rich, China's good food is very no wonder famous. But after a while, she also asks me, has a phenomenon to be very strange: The Chinese eats meal each time on that many vegetables, can be why long so thinly. But France enters the vegetable to be very each time few, but is why fatter than the Chinese? I am at a loss for words for a while, but thought that she asks how many truth a little, because that day shares a table several Chinese appear quite emaciated, but several French are all tall and sturdy. Thinks that spoke an own idea with her: China is a hospitable nationality, only then on a table vegetable had only then thought that has not neglected the visitor. Sometimes moreover the Chinese pays great attention the form, therefore in China's cooking, the vegetable style is ever changing, makes concrete is fastidious about the color fragrance to each vegetable matching. But European as if some, are inferior to China obviously actually in the vegetable variety change high and low free time, what but is fastidious is its nutrition matching and the protection. This is, the French diet idea important difference, how many also reflected the French chemical property standard difference. each people have the color which to color understanding oneself like, a country and the nationality are also same, likes to the different color being possible to reflect a national or the national esthetic appeal and the likes and dislikes tendency overall. has one time bumps into an EU commission's pair of professor husbands and wives, mentions China national dress which in the Shanghai APEC conference various countries' leader puts on, they said are attractive, but has a point to be not too clear, why do the Asian leaders mostly put on red, but the Western leader has chosen the blue color. I said that the color is leader designates. The Asian country has the same cultural context probably, red in the Chinese culture, is also possibly representing lucky, the wealth in the entire Asian culture and propitious pleasant, therefore the Asian leaders as if by prior agreement have chosen red. I ask in reply them, what does the blue color represent in the Western culture? They said the westerner to believe that the blue color represents is calm and is calm. thinks that I also said the East and West cultural difference was really too big, for example the dragon in China was nationality's symbol, but had one in Belgium's Mongolian Si Shize to hit the dragon festival, the dragon is regarded as the devil, has been massacred by fable in protection sacred · Michelle, therefore did specially hits the dragon festival to congratulate that eliminated the disaster shortcoming to thank Michelle. Professor husbands and wives also approves the East and West cultural difference hugeness, and approves the culture to need to exchange. in thinking mode West's cultural difference also displays in many aspects, but simple summarizes is not actually complex: Reflected that to the thinking mode in is abstract and the embodiment difference, reflected that to the life manner in as if may understand is more practical for the westerner, but Chinese how many stresses some mental feeling. For instance compares French word and Chinese writing, this point is very obvious. The Chinese writing makes the word to pay great attention the image much, what but in the French more pays great attention to consider is the use value. Looks like in Chinese the name card, in the French translates literally is the card which the visit uses, but the aircraft carrier calls in the French to carry airplane's warship and so on, is embarks from the actual uses makes the word. But presses the glass plate which likely the picture uses, we are also the words which makes from its use value angle, but the French has been more direct-viewing, the literal translation is “places above the picture”. reflects to the drawing in is so. Everybody knew that the traditional Chinese painting greatly opens big he, splashes ink enjoyably the human body proportion which and optics principle is fastidious with the European oil painting and so on completely belongs to the technical category which two have nothing to do with one another, is as if very difficult to have the common language. Sometimes the European not too can understand that sometimes we too abstract art expression means that we also will think European's artistic skill too practical duty, deficient divine and wonderful spirit. Looked that sometimes in many European drawing history has been presented for the classics religious theme painting, the Chinese while sighs its technique practical exquisite, also will sigh with emotion European master the imagination the deficiency: In order to explain that the angel is flying, must give these lovable young and clevers to add on a pair of wing. But our ancestor has not also drawn several thousand years, how many white clouds adds on nearby these beautiful female celestial, they have not flown? Has the ideal condition, has the imagination space. this is the cultural difference. But, the difference brings not always the difference, it gave culture masters of art to leave behind the broad creation space exactly, if could find an accurate combining site, not only that will give two nationalities, will also give the entire world to bring one kind to have forgives the significance the harmony and beautiful, for instance Zhao Wuji's painting manifested the inexhaustible charm which the culture blended 饮食观念 欧洲人都说世界上有三大美食，每一个版本里都有中国和法国的，只有关于第三家却说法不一，有说是意大利的，也有说是土耳其、突尼斯或摩洛哥等国的。尽管相持不下，但大家都有个共识，饮食常能反映出不同民族的生活习惯和文化思维等方面的差异。 一次在中餐馆举行宴会，饭店菜上得很慢，不知不觉中过去了近两个小时，但菜似乎才上了一半。临座的一位女士是第一次参加中餐宴会，忍不住问我，你们中国人请客都上这么多菜吗？我说，在中国还要多，通常是10道以上。她很惊讶，连说中国的宴会实在太丰富了，难怪中国的美食很有名。但过了一会儿，她又问我，有个现象很奇怪：中国人吃饭每次都上那么多菜，可为什么都长得那么瘦。而法国入每次菜很少，但为什么都比中国人胖呢？ 我一时语塞，但又觉得她问得多少有点道理，因为那天同桌的几个中国人都显得比较瘦弱，而几个法国人个个人高马大。想了想，和她讲了自己的一点想法：中国是个好客的民族，只有上了一桌子菜才觉得没怠慢客人。另外中国人有时候更注重形式，所以在中国的烹调里，菜的样式千变万化，具体到每一道菜又非常讲究色香味的搭配。而欧洲人似乎更实际一些，在菜的花色变化上下的工夫显然不如中国，但讲究的是其营养的搭配和保护。这是中、法饮食观念的重要差异，多少也反映出了中法文化性格的不同。 对色彩的认识 每个人都有自己喜欢的颜色，一个国家和民族也一样，对不同颜色的喜好从整体上可以反映出一个民族或者国家的审美情趣与好恶倾向。 有一次碰到欧盟委员会的一对教授夫妇，谈起上海APEC会议上各国领导人穿的中国民族服装，他们都说非常好看，但有一点不太明白，为什么亚洲领导人大多穿红色，而西方领导人则多选择了蓝色。我说颜色都是领导人自己选定的。大概亚洲国家有着相同的文化背景，红色在中国文化里，也可能在整个亚洲文化中都代表着幸运、财富和吉祥如意，所以亚洲领导人都不约而同地选择了红色。我反问他们，蓝色在西方文化里代表什么?他们说西方人认为，蓝色代表冷静和沉着。 想了想，我又补充说东西方文化差异实在是太大了，比如说龙在中国是民族的象征，而在比利时的蒙斯市则有一个打龙节，龙被视作恶魔，被传说中的保护神圣·米歇尔杀掉了，因此特意搞打龙节来庆贺除灾弊感谢米歇尔。教授夫妇也非常认同东西方文化差异的巨大，并认可文化需要交流。 思维方式 中西方的文化差异还表现在诸多方面，但简单加以概括其实并不复杂：反映到思维方式上是抽象和具象的差别，反映到生活态度上则似乎可以理解为西方人更加实用，而中国人则多少更偏重一些精神感受。比如把法语单词和中文文字加以比较，这一点就很明显。中国文字造词多注重形象，而法文里更多地注重考虑的是实用价值。像中文里的名片，法文里直译就是访问用的卡片，而航空母舰在法文里叫载飞机的军舰等等，都是从实际用途出发来造词的。而像压照片用的玻璃板，我们也是从其使用价值角度来造的词，但法国人就更加直观了，直译就是“放在照片上面的”。 反映到绘画上更是如此。大家都知道中国画的大开大阖、泼墨写意和欧洲油画讲究的人体比例和光学原理等完全是属于两个风马牛不相及的技术范畴，似乎很难有共同语言。欧洲人有时不太能够理解我们过于抽象的艺术表现手法，我们有时也会认为欧洲人的艺术技巧过于写实本分，缺乏灵气。看多了欧洲绘画史上被奉为经典的宗教题材画作，中国人有时在感叹其技法写实细腻的同时，也会感慨欧洲大师们想象力的贫乏：为了说明天使在飞，就非得给那些可爱的小精灵们加上一双翅膀。而我们的祖先不也画了几千年了吗，在那些美丽的仙女旁边加上几朵白云，她们不就飞起来了吗?多有意境，多有想象空间啊。 这就是文化的差异。但是，差异带来的并不总是分歧，它恰恰给文化艺术大师们留下了广阔的创作空间，如能从中找到一个准确的结合点，那不仅会给两个民族，而且也会给整个世界带来一种更具包涵意义的和谐与美丽，比如赵无极的画作就体现出了文化交融的无尽魅力。