毕业论文英语中西礼仪比较

跨文化交际中的中西礼貌原则对比研究论文

在学习、工作中，大家最不陌生的就是论文了吧，论文对于所有教育工作者，对于人类整体认识的提高有着重要的意义。那么，怎么去写论文呢？以下是我帮大家整理的跨文化交际中的中西礼貌原则对比研究论文，欢迎阅读与收藏。

论文摘要：礼貌原则是人们在社会言语交际中必须遵守的原则。然而中西方文化价值、自我观以及语言间接程度的差异导致了礼貌原则差异的存在，从而影响了跨文化交际的顺利进行。

论文关键词：礼貌原则 文化差异 跨文化交际

语言与文化密切相关，语言是文化的载体，同时也是文化的重要组成部分。人们在社会言语交际中，必须遵守一条原则——礼貌原则。礼貌是各社会、各群体共有的普遍现象，是人们交际活动的基本准则，是维系人际和谐的工具和手段，是实现人与人之间成功交际的基本条件，是人类文明进步的重要标志。但不同语言和文化的国度有不同的礼貌表达方式，深刻理解中西礼貌原则的差异及其渊源，有利于跨文化交际双方增进文化交流，提高跨文化交际能力，保证跨文化交际的顺利进行。

一、中西方礼貌原则概述美国语言学家

Grice(1967)提出了著名的言语交际中的会话合作原则(coopemtivenciple)。他认为在所有的语言交际中，说话人与听话人都有一种默契和合作，使整个谈话过程所说的话符合交谈的目标和方向。其内容体现为合作原则的四准则：量的准则、质的准则、关系准则和方式准则。英国语言学家IJeech于l983年在Gce的“合作原则”基础上，提出了另一条语用原则——礼貌原则。“礼貌原则”概括地说就是，在其他条件相同的情况下，把不礼貌信念的表达减弱到最低限度。具体包括六条准则：得体准则(1．actMa)【im)、慷慨准则(GeneIosh蜘m)、赞扬准则(AppmhtionMa)【im)、谦虚准则(哆Ma】【ill1)、一致准则(A脒IntMa】【irI1)和同情准则(lhyMaD【ilTI)。尽管IJeech提出的礼貌原则的各准则在不同程度上适用于各种文化，但是不同社会间的文化取向、价值观、思维方式不同，所以不同文化对各个准则的选取侧重会有所不同。顾日国先生根据汉语言文化中的礼貌特征，在Leech的理论框架基础上于l992年提出汉语礼貌五准则：贬己尊人准则、称呼准则、文雅准则、求同准则和德、言、行准则。

二、英汉礼貌原则对比分析

若将Leech的礼貌原则与顾日国的产生在中国文化基础上的礼貌准则相比较，我们便会发现二者的共性即是各个社会的普遍现象。在礼貌原则的指导下，不同文化背景的人们在社会人际交往中都努力变得更加礼貌起来，都渴求自己能够被别人接受。我们在承认礼貌普遍性的同时必须认识到其相对性，不同文化背景下的各个国家和民族，实现礼貌的方法以及在礼貌的判断标准上存在很大差异，这些差异是在社会、历史、人文、地理等多种因素的长期影响下逐步形成的。正是这些因素使得不同文化背景下的人们对礼貌原则的运用和侧重有所不同。

1．贬己尊人准则与谦虚准则

谦虚准则相当于汉语中贬己尊人准则的一部分，即以贬己来抬别人，指以尽量缩小对自己的标榜为准则。然而汉英礼貌原则由于产生于不同的文化背景，所以在跨文化语用研究中，对于同样的礼貌现象会存在不同的解释和反应。在汉语言文化中，贬己尊人准则是核心。在谈到自己或和自己有关的事的时候要“贬”要“谦”，而谈到听者或者和听者有关的事的时候就要“抬”要“尊”。“谦虚”是中国人的美德，但是中国人的“谦虚”与Leech提到的谦虚准则在本质上是不同的。汉语中经常听到“一点薄礼，略表心意，不成敬意”、“粗茶淡饭请海涵”、“鄙人拙见”、“不敢当”等类似的客套话，真正把对自身的贬损夸大到最大程度，以此来表示礼貌。西方社会的人们馈赠礼物时，会直接表达自己精心挑选的礼物得到对方喜欢、欣赏的希望，如“IthinkitUbeuset0y0u．”或“Ih0peyou’ulikeit．”出于礼貌，接受者会当场打开礼物表达自己的喜爱之心和感激之情。另外，中国人和西方人受到赞扬后的回应也存在很大差异。当受到称赞时，西方人会欣然接受，说“anky0u”，避免损害对方的积极面子，符合礼貌准则。中国人受到别人赞扬时，往往是否定对方的赞美之词，贬低自己，以示自谦。如“哪里，哪里”、“不敢当”、“我做的还不够好”等。而这种答辞在英美文化中却被看作是虚伪、缺乏自信的表现，使西方人感到自己的话被直言否决而认为对方不讲礼貌。因此如果按汉语思维习惯与西方人交流，则必定会造成交际失败。

2．称呼上的差异

中国人“上下有异，长幼有序”的观念在称呼上体现得淋漓尽致。使用称呼语时应考虑听话人的职业职务、年龄、性别、谈话场合以及同谈话人的关系等因素。如“王主任”、“刘老师”、“张经理”、“李医生等。并且人们非常重视用自称和他称来体现礼貌。如他称：贵姓、高见、大作等；自称：鄙人、卑职、拙见等。而英美文化中的称谓模式主要是称谓词Mr．／Mrs．／Miss．／．+姓，如BiUG砒es，姓为Gates，名为BiU应称其为Mr．Gates。汉语文化中所讲究的“长幼尊卑贵贱”之分在家庭内部也有充分体现。在家庭成员中有叔、伯、姨、姑、兄、弟、姐、妹等表示辈分的称呼语。若直呼姓名则认为是不礼貌的甚至是冒犯的。在崇尚平等的西方文化中无论地位和职位高低，人们更愿意相互直呼其名，同辈的兄弟姐妹也不例外，这体现了朋友式的亲密关系。另外，汉语的称呼中经常出现“老”字，因为“老”是经验和知识的象征。“老司树’、“老爷爷”、“赵老”等称呼体现了对年长者的尊重。这在西方是无礼的，人们无法容忍。西方人害怕“老”，因为这意味着“孤独、痛苦、成为负担”。他们不愿意用“老”这个词，尤其是女性，最不愿意被问到的就是“H0woldarey0u?”

三、中西礼貌差异的渊源

在跨文化交际中，交际双方享有不同的文化系统和礼貌用语系统，由于文化障碍所导致的信息误解，使得交际中经常出现礼貌用语的语用失误。其根源在于不同的文化对于礼貌原则的理解和遵循程度是不同的主要表现在以下方面：

1．文化价值差异

中西方两种文化有着不同的礼貌评判标准。我国素有文明古国、礼仪之邦之称，长期以来提倡“礼”的精神思想。“礼”是中国古代哲学思想的·个重要组成部分。“谦虚”是中国人的美德，中国人的“谦虚”主要体现在“卑己尊人”上，这是在中国特定的文化环境下“礼”在交际中的具体体现，意味着贬低自己，抬高别人。汉文化重视谦逊准则，而西方文化则突出得体准则，认为欣然接受对方的赞扬可以避免损害对方的面子，是礼貌的。因此，西方人对恭维往往表现出高兴与感谢，采取一种迎合而非否定的方式，以免显露出与恭维者不一致，令人难堪。中国人则大都习惯否认，提倡“谦虚”和“卑己尊人”，但这种做法却会给西方人带来面子威胁。中国人使用语言进行交际更重要的是维系人际关系，形成和谐社会。而西方人注重的是利用语言来表现个体的存在和价值。

2．自我观差异

西方社会崇尚个人奋斗和个人价值，西方人所持有的是独立的自我观，这种自我观具有相对独立和固定的内核，因此，西方人在交际中注重个人隐私和独立，总是从个体主义立场出发，强调个人的面子。他们认为尊重个人的自由权利和独立是礼貌的，反之，则是不适合的，甚至被认为是粗鲁的。而中国人所持有的是依附性的自我观，这种自我观没有相对稳定的内核，他人和自我的关系相对不是那么清晰、分明，自我的内核依照自我和他人的关系而定，只有当自我被放在适当的社会关系中才会有意义，才会变得完整。汉文化人非常重视以及参与个体与团体的关系，注重集体荣誉感，在交际中，往往从集体主义文化观出发，强调群体的面子。因此，不断给宴请的客人夹菜以表示热情，叮嘱生病的朋友添加衣物、按时吃药以表示关心等等在汉语言文化中是礼貌的表现，但在英语文化中却被看作是侵犯个人自主的行为。

3．语言间接程度差异

在交际中人们并非总是在句法或词汇上直截了当地表明说话者的意图，而是让听话者去意会其深层的寓义即“言外之意”(i呷licatlⅡ℃)。语言使用中的这种“拐弯抹角”的现象就是语言的间接现象(indirecⅡess)，它普遍存在于语言中，具有共性，但每一种语言又有其独特的表达方式。一般说来，礼貌程度与话语的间接程度成正比，话语越间接，语气就越委婉，给听话人留的余地就越大。正如【eech所说，我们可以保持同一命题的内容，而只须增加这个命题言语行为的间接性，便可以使该命题越来越礼貌。但是我们不能一概以话语表达的间接程度来确定话语的礼貌程度，因为中西方在直率的概念上有一定的.差异。英语文化属于低语境文化，人们通常会直接、明确地陈述自己的观点。因此交际双方不论在批评、邀请、馈赠或拒绝时，一般都直截了当。他们的语言直接、直率、肯定。汉语言文化是高语境文化，人们往往使用间接的、隐含的语言来沟通。只有明确说话时的情景并借助肢体语言、空间语言以及上下文联系后，接受者才能弄清对方所要传达的信息、观点或意见。当中国人想说“不”而不表示“不”时，或受到赞誉却不直接接受时，西方人迷惑不解。正是这些不同文化背景下的语言间接程度的差异，增加了中西方人际交往的困难。

四、结语

礼貌是社会现象，具有普遍性，也是具有不同文化背景的人们在跨文化交际中不可回避的现实。礼貌又具有文化特征，不同文化对礼貌言语行为会采用不同的准则和策略，赋予礼貌不同的内涵。由于中西方两种文化的巨大差异，导致了中西方礼貌原则及策略的差异，对跨文化交际产生了一定影响。在跨文化交际中，我们应当重视并尊重这些差异，正确使用礼貌原则，掌握礼貌用语，避免语用失误，提高跨文化交际的能力，以保证跨文化交际顺利进行。

一、引言

语言与文化关系密切, 语言是文化的重要载体, 也是文化的重要组成部分。任何生活在两种不同文化中的人, 都会感到不同文化的人说话方式会有很大差别, 其中人文历史论文，语用方面的差别就很大。语用差别的制约因素也很多, 但何自然曾经指出:“英汉两种语言在语用方面所受到的制约有诸多不同, 其中最重要的是文化因素的制约。”因此, 文化的差异, 可以直接体现在语言的运用和理解上。

作为人类文明的标志, 礼貌是人类社会活动中的一条重要准绳, “是对交际行为的规范,是一种为进行得体交际的策略”。中西两种不同文化背景的人对礼貌的理解有所不同, 所遵循的礼貌准则也不一样。从语用角度讲，礼貌现象是语言运用的普遍现象, 礼貌研究是语用研究的重要内容。

二、文化差异

文化差异, 这里主要指跨语言、跨文化交际中出现的中英文化差异。这种差异的产生, 是由讲中英两种语言的人的民族心理、思辨和推理模式的不同而导致的。跨文化交际中出现的语言障碍常常会造成误解或冲突, 主要原因是交际双方受各自文化背景的影响而缺少一个共有的语用前提。例如, 我们汉语中的谦词, 是一些并无实际意义的客套话。当发言结束时,人们常说：“不妥之处, 请大家指正 ”,“欢迎在座诸位批评指正 ”,“抛砖引玉 ”等等。而讲英语的本族人在同样的场合不说这样的话, 也许他们会说一声 “I hope you all enjoy my talk”, 但最常用的结束语还是 “Thank you”。再如人文历史论文，在英国文化中, 男性在公众面前赞誉女性的美貌和服饰被认为是一种礼貌, 被恭维者会欣然接受，但在中国这种恭维被认为是轻佻无理。类似以上的中西文化差异会给讲中英不同语言的人传达错误的信息人文历史论文，影响到他们之间的交流。故要做到交际双方的正确、合理的交流, 了解各自的文化背景知识是至关重要的。

三、中英礼貌原则对比

Leech根据英语文化和语言的特点列举了六条礼貌原则:

1. 策略准则, 又称得体准则 (Tact maxim)“尽量减少他人付出的代价, 尽量增大对他人的益处。”

2. 慷慨准则, 又称宽宏准则 (Generosity maxim)“尽量减少对自己的益处, 尽量增大自己付出的代价。”

3. 赞扬准则 (Approbation maxim)“尽量缩小对他人的批评, 尽量增强对他人的赞扬。”

4. 谦虚准则 (Modesty maxim)“尽量缩小对自己的标榜, 尽量夸大对自己的批评。”

5. 赞同准则, 又称一致准则 (Agreement maxim)“尽量缩小与他人的不同意见, 尽量夸大与他人的相同意见。”

6. 同情准则(Sympathy maxim)“尽量缩小对他人的厌恶, 尽量扩大对他人的同情。”

顾曰国先生根据汉语言文化中的礼貌特征, 在 Leech 的理论框架的基础上研究汉语中的礼貌现象, 总结了汉语言文化有关的礼貌准则, 于1992年提出汉语礼貌五准则:

1. 贬己尊人准则: 指谓自己或与自己相关的事物时要“贬”、要“谦”, 指谓听者或与听者相关联的事物时要“抬”、要“尊”。

2. 称呼准则: 指人们出自礼貌, 在互相称呼时仍按“上下有义、贵贱有分、长幼有等”的传统来体现人际交往中的社会关系。称呼语的改变意味着人际关系的改变; 而出自礼貌, 人们不同的语言行为和所处的不同环境又会影响称呼语的改变。

3. 文雅准则: 出言高雅、文质彬彬往往被人认为是懂礼貌、有教养, 文雅准则的重要内容仍然是“先用雅语、禁用秽语; 多用委婉语, 少用直言”。

4. 求同准则: 这与“脸”、“面子”有关, 所谓求同, 就是注意人的身份和社会地位要保持相称, 说话双方力求和谐一致。

5. 德、言、行准则: 指在行为动机上尽量减少他人付出的代价, 尽量增大他人的益处; 在言辞上尽量夸大别人给自己的好处, 尽量说小自己付出的代价。

四、礼貌原则所体现的文化差异

1. 称呼语之不同

受社会结构、传统伦理及血缘、宗教社会因素的影响, 汉语的称呼系统远比英语国家复杂得多。在中国, 小孩一般不能直呼父母和长辈的名字, 学生不能直呼老师的名字,下属不能直呼上司的名字, 否则就会被认为没有礼貌。中国人不仅喜欢用表示血缘关系的名字去称呼家人和亲属, 还喜欢用这种称谓来称呼非家人和亲属朋友。比如, 称与自己祖辈年龄相仿的男性为爷爷、女性为奶奶; 称与自己父母年龄相仿的男性为叔叔或伯伯、女性为阿姨。这在英语国家是非常少见的。中国人的称呼语体现出尊老的传统习惯。人们一般称呼年老的人为 “老某”, 像 “老王”、“老李”等, 表示对对方的尊敬; 称呼一些德高望重的老前辈为 “某老”或 “某老先生”, 像称周树人为周老先生等。这里的 “老”, 没有丝毫贬义, 只有尊敬或推崇。但如果将此称呼用在英语国家则极不得体, 有冒犯之意。由此看来, 汉语称呼语可以用 “上下长幼尊卑”来概括。在英语国家, 由于其社会格局、文化取向、人际关系与中国截然不同, 所以对称呼语的使用和对其意义的解释也相差甚远, 具体表现在称呼时到底是直呼其名还是使用“头衔 + 姓”的方式。一般来说, 英国人同自己的上司说话也许需要用比较尊敬的语言, 但并不需要什么特殊的称呼, 不论对方年龄多大, 地位多高, 人们更愿意直呼其名, 这充分表示出平等的文化取向。

2. 贬己尊人与平等交往

“贬己尊人”是顾曰国效法Leech所提出的汉语言文化的一条礼貌准则。中国人喜欢贬低自己而抬高对方的身份。这从表面看和Leech的赞誉准则相似, 但在中国文化中, 这条准则对人们的影响却更加深远。在日常生活中, 如果受到别人的夸奖, 我们中国人总会谦虚的说“哪里, 哪里, 您过奖了”。精心为别人挑选好了礼品, 在赠送时还不忘说“没来得急挑选,随便买了一份。”而在西方国家, 人们追求交往中的平等, 在日常生活中喜欢将自己的情感、优点外露, 而不喜欢过分的谦虚, 对别人的夸奖也欣然接受, 并视这种赞誉是生活中必不可少的。在西方人的眼中, 中国式的自谦将被认为是一种虚伪的表现。因此我们进行涉外交往时要清醒的认识到这种礼貌用语的差异，在西方人面前要大方地接受他们的赞赏, 善于充分的表现自己, 并学会展现自己的才华和优秀的一面, 而不要随意的贬低自己和过分自谦。

3. 热情关心与个人隐私

汉英民族对隐私的理解存在着差异。中国人在日常交往中不太注意维护自己的隐私, 也不注意尊重他人的隐私。在中国文化中, 关心他人, 对别人热情一直被视为是对对方重视和显示诚心的一种表现。例如, 我们在宴请客人时, 要不断给客人加菜以显示热情; 两个人第一次见面就会热情询问对方年龄、收入、婚姻状况; 朋友见了面更是问长问短, 把家里和工作的事情都询问、关心一遍; 在西方, 人们的隐私意识较强。英语民族对 privacy 这个词的含义理解较广, 诸如家庭、财产、婚姻、朋友、经历、收入、年龄、住址、身体状况、独处或单独生活等等。当在英语民族面前谈到有关隐私问题时, 会被人认为你让他人丢面子, 你不懂礼貌。

总之, 礼貌原则是每个群体或社会所广泛使用的文明的手段, 但必须承认, 不同文化对礼貌行为有不同的要求, 不同文化赋予礼貌不同的内涵。若对这一点认识不足, 不同文化背景的人们在相互交往时,很容易因此而产生误会。总之, 人们只有充分认识了礼貌原则在以上诸多方面的差异, 才能尽量减少跨文化交际中可能出现的语用失误, 以达到更自然和谐的交际效果。

参考文献：

[1]Geoffrey N. Leech. Principles of Pragmatics[M]. New York: Longman Group Ltd , 1983.

[2]高一虹.语言文化的差异与超越[M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 2000.

[3]顾曰国.礼貌、语用与文化[J]. 外语教学与研究, 1992, 4.

[4]何自然.语用学与英语学习[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社,1999.

[5]刘润清.关于Leech 的礼貌原则[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 1997.

[6]刘翔.汉英礼貌用语的比较[J]. 成都教育学院学报, 2005, 11.

[7]邹永丽.中英礼貌用语之比较研究[J]. 赤峰学院学报, 2006, 5.

Western novels in comparison First, Western novels in the history of the development of Western novels are based on myths and legends of its origin. In ancient times, science developed, out of fear of nature, the working people out of the imagination is the key to many of the world "God", describing the personification of God is a myth; who will describe the deified, that is legend. China opened the world's Pan story, the story of San Juan Five Emperors, the West Greek mythology, Roman mythology, Norse mythology, and so on are all typical works. East and West, the original novel, is closely linked with the history, as historical records complement the event. China Pre-Qin prose in the fable, the Han dynasty in the history books, biographies, the Wei and Jin Zhi, Zhi-person novel; the West of ancient Babylon, "the United States and Ji Jia disabilities epic", in ancient Greece, "Homer's epic," "Aesop's Fables "And so on, fall into this category, fiction, novels such novels have been about the characteristics of fiction, it is still not the literary creation, directly from the private collection record, so this type of fiction plot is relatively simple, writing rough comparison. Ban Gu said, "On the Street Lane words, hearsay are made of" is a novel kind of accurate assessment of the image. China's Tang Dynasty, the novel is only from history and literature become a creativity. Tang Dynasty culture has developed, the author's ideas are more open, the legend came into being at this time, Li Zhaowei "Liu Yi Chuan", Po Chu's "Everlasting Regret," Wolf's "Everlasting Regret Chuan" And so on, are made in accordance with the creation of the legend. For the fictional story of the Tang Dynasty more emphasis on imagination and literary talent, not just the history of the nature of things, but as the history of Zhi Zhi who is also the novel did not stop. The Legend of the Song Dynasty to the novel on a gradual decline, which followed the rise of this so that after processing will become a scholar so many novel and Romance novels such as "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", "Outlaws of the Marsh", "Journey to the West." The author of such novels is the use of private creative and re-created to describe the circumstances of the touching scenes of brilliant and vivid active in shaping the character known, there are obvious story-telling style of language. Here by the redevelopment, it will become an independent literary creation rather than things to come together with the civil process, the representative of this type is the "Golden Lotus", it was an open and ordinary life on the road, the reality is that literature has come a long way The development of the latter's "A Dream of Red Mansions" in ancient China Geng Shiba realism to the novels of the summit. "54" after the novelist began to learn from China's western fiction writing practices, and gradually out a new path. Western novels, is the "Renaissance" after the rapid development of mature. The development of the Middle Ages novel near-stagnation in the West, 14, the end of the century "Renaissance" to overthrow the literature of the Church of control, 15, appeared in the western end of the century to promote freedom of thought and the liberation of personality in order to describe the reality of life and portray characters from all walks of life for the content of the Humanist novels, is to tie in with this type of novel anti-feudal Europe at the time of arising at the same time it also set the novel in the West to human describing the tone of the main things. Jiaqiu Italy's "Decameron", Spain's Cervantes "Don Quixote" is the kind of representative works of fiction. The resulting novel is a classical, elegant favor of its national language to standardize the writing of this novel in 17th century France's most well-developed. As a note on behalf of Corneille's "Cid" neoclassical story of the rise of Western novels have been a language substantially improved. The beginning of the 18th century to promote popular science knowledge, enlightenment of the public consciousness for the purpose of the Enlightenment novels, of which there are relatively well-known German Goethe's "Faust", the United Kingdom Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and the Swift "Gulliver's Travels" and so on, this type of novel to the emergence of the bourgeois revolution at the time to mold public opinion. In the 19th century, romantic fiction, realistic novels and critical realism novel turn to occupy the leading position in the field of fiction. Romantic novels, such as France Victor Hugo's "Notre Dame de Paris", Goethe's "juvenile Witt of trouble" and so on, imaginative, unusual ideas, language and imaginative, strong feelings. Efforts to reflect the reality of the novel is the essence of life, and depict typical life of a typical phenomenon in the United Kingdom Dickens, France and Germany are of such novels as a representative of the writer. Critical realism novels exposed the efforts of the decadent feudal system and capitalist society, the dark, in-depth criticism of the reality of evil, France Balzac and Maupassant, the United Kingdom of Charlotte, Bronte,. Russia's Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, the United States of a large number of writers such as Mark Twain's works belong to this category. Value today, the three novels in the West is still the most important of the three types of literary fiction. East-West novel on the history of the development of more or less the case. Second, the characteristics of the novel in the West In addition to the basic characteristics of the novel, the story of the West also have their own characteristics are as follows: 1, the traditional Chinese novel attention to the characters, language and the details of the description, in contradiction to the conflict to display the images, but the character of a single, small changes in the absence of the main flu. Western novels are more people pay attention to the psychological description, stressed that mining figure in the subconscious mind, good at writing full, the changes in the strong sense of the main characters. Again, "coach Lin Feng Snow Mountain Temple" in the figure is only through dialogue and action leads to contradictions and conflicts, but Anna Karenina Wogui before a series of conflicts only with his description of the psychological will be able to express their clear; for poetry in Lin In the performance of her literary talent, and Paul with his inner monologue of the ideal; Zhang Zhong-Yong has only the character, but Jane Eyre's character is the brave, strong, warm, kind-hearted, and so many of the character and rubbing and Cheng's. In short, people in the area described in the West has its own unique features. 2, China compared with Western fiction novel plot twists and turns more and more complete story. Plot twists and turns, the story is complete fiction China's unique traditional arts. The Wei and Jin Zhi Zhi people on the novel twists and turns with vivid characteristics. Tang legend in the layout of many of the famous, magnificent anomaly, rigorous and clever, dramatic plot development. The contents of the Ming and Qing Dynasties novels scattered irregular, undulating waves, Cuoluoyouzhi, careful structure, an integral whole. "A Dream of Red Mansions", everywhere She Fu, Hui turning point, the story of Jia's best writing. Western plot in respect of the outstanding works, although there are many, but it can not be compared with the Chinese novel. 3, concise and lively Chinese language novel, rich in content and rich Western novels. Chinese folk artists absorbed the novel language, at the same time inherited the fine traditions of ancient prose, often a few words will be able to outline the incident or the people. Western novels in the author includes a broad range of knowledge, involve the community in many ways, so rich in content and rich people can gain knowledge in many areas. Engels said he was in Balzac's novel about 19th century France's domestic situation than he received any reports are more. Western novels have different characteristics, and also in the West different aesthetic concepts to a certain extent related. 4, Western novels have been the rule of the feudal culture of oppression destroyed. Chinese feudal culture makes the development of the novel is extremely difficult, Ming and Qing Dynasties more people to write stories for shame, so many great writers living, creating the conditions are not covered, many of the great works of authors who do not know. Western novels in the feudal culture makes almost the whole of the Middle Ages in the development of extremely slow, and many talented writers were forced to church services, wrote some of the religious nature of the article dry hole. Third, Western novels in the future prospects for the development of End of the Qing Dynasty, China and the West have begun to understand the other side of the system, the advantages of the novel in the West have been constantly learn from each other. Of course, due to historical reasons, the Chinese side of the draw a little more. To this day, the novelist in the West efforts are still two researchers in the novel's artistic charm, although the different languages of each other's appreciation of the arts to a certain extent, but the United States are interlinked. We have every reason to believe that in the near future, the novel art in the West will ultimately learn from each other and integrate, develop and reach new artistic heights. References: "Foreign Literature" Shanghai Translation Publishing House Zhou Xu Liang "Contemporary Literature election," Zhang Zhong, such as Beijing University Publishing House "Chinese literature history of the development of" Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House Liu Jie "Literary History of Europe" People's Literature Publishing House Yangzhou Han Wu Da-yuan Zhao Rui radish "Three high school language textbook used by the five dates of the" People's Education Press仅供参考，请自借鉴。希望对您有帮助。

This is one widely accepted way to place your silverware so that the waiter knows you are finished. It is polite to wait until everyone is served to start eating, unless everyone has their food except for one or two people and they suggest that everyone begin. It is polite to wait until everyone is finished eating before leaving the is not polite to burp at any time, and if you do, it is polite to excuse yourself ("Excuse me.").Chew with your mouth 't talk with food in your 't put your elbows on the table. When the situation is informal, Americans are generally relaxed about etiquette. If you should make a big mistake, most people probably won't even notice. So relax, and eat up!!

Chinese and Western cultural differences in the performance of every aspect of daily life from the greeting 、 term diet and cultural differences in the way of thinking in the abstract, such as differences everywhere, from the West focus on the following colors to express the difference between Chinese and Western cultural differences in areas such as a wedding set. First, in the West to express the color difference Different colors in different languages is not expressed in the same way. The representative of China in a sense, the West has a meaning that even the "color" to understand the meaning of the contrary. (A) red (red) Whether in China or in the English-speaking countries, often in red and festive celebrations or day-related. Calendar, red font used these days, therefore, red letter day: refers to the "Day" or "happy occasion." It also refers to the red "liabilities" or "loss" because people are always negative in red to register. So there are these phrases: red figure deficit in the red loss In common with the Chinese "red" words, translated into English, may not necessarily use the "red" for example: brown sugar brown sugar red wine red wine (B) yellow Yellow in English and Chinese in the extended meaning of the differences are considerable. In English, yellow can be said that the "timid, cowardly, despicable," meaning, for example: a yellow dog despicable, cowardly people a yellow livered coward Chinese yellow symbol of the term is sometimes vulgar, vulgar and obscene, indecent indecency means, such as yellow film, erotica, yellow CD, and so on. These in the name of "yellow" in English and "yellow" has nothing to do. However, in another English word blue is the color used to indicate the kind of meaning in Chinese, such as the blue jokes (dirty joke), blue films (yellow film). Second, the cultural differences in Western wedding First of all, in Western wedding culture and the first in the West in thinking about the differences: the Chinese people more conservative, like excitement, more old-fashioned thinking, so in the history of China for thousands of years the entire wedding customs did not change much. The thinking in the West is more open to the requirements of the wedding will be lower, they will be the climax of the wedding in the church: the sacred as the "wedding march" into the red carpet, Jiao Mei's father, the bride linked hands Rose walked slowly to the groom, the bride's father, daughter to the groom's hand on hand, her daughter's life will be entrusted to the groom, all eyes followed the couple, filled with well-being in their face. Second, the result of cultural differences wedding in the West because the West in a different religion. China is mainly Buddhist, but the West is mainly Christian. Therefore, the Western wedding is to be held in the church and the priest is Zhuhun Ren. China's traditional customs of the most important part of the Bai Tiandi is, the worship heaven and earth even after the ceremony has become.中西方文化差异表现在方方面面，从日常生活的打招呼用语、饮食文化等差异到思维方式等抽象方面的差异无所不在，下面着重从中西方颜色表达的差异，中西方婚礼文化差异等方面阐述。 一、中西方颜色表达的差异 不同颜色在不同语言中表达的方式并不一样。在中国代表一种意义，在西方又表示一种涵义，甚至对“颜色”的涵义理解恰恰相反。（一）red（红色）无论是在英语国家还是在中国，红色往往与庆祝活动或喜庆日子有关。日历中，这些日子常用红色字体，因此，red letter day：指的是“纪念日”或“喜庆的日子”。红色还指“负债”或“亏损”，因为人们总是用红笔登记负数。于是就有了这些词组：red figure赤字 in the red亏损汉语中常用的带“红”字的词语，翻译成英语，可不一定用“red”例如：红糖brown sugar 红酒red wine （二） yellow黄色在英语和汉语中的引申含义差别比较大。英语中，yellow可以表示“胆小、卑怯、卑鄙”的意思，例如：a yellow dog 可鄙的人，卑鄙的人a yellow livered 胆小鬼汉语中黄色一词有时象征低级趣味、色情庸俗、下流猥亵的意思，如黄色电影、黄色书刊、黄色光碟等等。这些名称中的“黄”与英语中的“yellow”无关。然而，英语中另一个颜色词blue却常用来表示汉语中这类意思，如blue jokes（下流的玩笑）， blue films（黄色电影）等。 二、中西方婚礼文化差异 首先，中西方婚礼文化差异首先和中西方人在思维方面的差异有关：中国人比较保守，喜欢热闹，思维较古板，所以在中国历史几千年的时间里整个婚礼的习俗并没有多大的变化。而西方人的思想则比较开放，对于婚礼的要求也比较低，他们婚礼的高潮则是在教堂中：随着神圣的《婚礼进行曲》步入鲜红的地毯，娇美的新娘挽着父亲手捧玫瑰慢慢向新郎走去，新娘的父亲将女儿的手放在新郎的手上，将女儿的一生托付给新郎，所有人的目光注视着这对新人，幸福洋溢在他们的脸上。其次，造成中西方婚礼文化差异的原因是中西方不同的宗教。中国是以佛教为主，而西方则是基督教为主的。所以西方的婚礼是在教堂中举行而主婚人则是神甫。中方的传统婚俗中的最重要环节就是拜天地，拜了天地以后就算是礼成了。

隐喻的中西方文化差异Abstract: Metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a way of thinking, which is one of the basic methods for human survival and cognition. It is rooted in language, thought and culture. Through the analysis and comparison of the use and concept of metaphor in different countries, we find that its universality and commonality of the metaphor as a basic human cognitive activities. However, metaphor in different languages reflects a different way of thinking and behavior and different cultural patterns. Owing to the different two modes of thinking and culture, there are some differences in understanding and formation that can not be ignored. Therefore, this paper will discuss the questions : metaphor, cross-cultural differences, translation. 1. Preamble Metaphor is a common phenomenon, a large number of people use metaphor to express his feelings and ideas. British scientists rhetoric Richards (IARichards) once said, "We have day-to-day in almost every conversation in three sentences may be a metaphor." According to statistics, life around the use of 4,700,000 new metaphor, 2,140,000 stereotypes of metaphor. Research in recent years, there is a great metaphor. This article introduced in the definition of metaphor on the basis of summing up the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western metaphor, and that its culture, precisely because of the prevalence of metaphor, how to translate metaphor has become a very important issue in the latter part of the article is aimed at The translation of metaphor put forward a translation of the three strategies. This paper studies aimed at trying to comparative analysis of English and Chinese in a large number of day-to-day language of metaphor to express, find out the differences and similarities, in order to be able to accurately translate the article in good metaphor to explore a little. This article is about the metaphor from the point of view to explore the differences in the way Thinking allows us to a deeper understanding of language, culture, the relationship between thinking and can more clearly understand the different ethnic language, culture, way of thinking, and so on On the nature of translation. 2. Metaphors in Chinese and Western studies In 1980, Lakoff & Johnson (George Lakoff & Mark Johnson) made a "living metaphor" (Metaphors We Live By) of the book, a modern metaphor to open a new chapter in the school. Domestic academia on the "metaphor" This is also a review of the system, such as Lin Wu's book "Study abroad metaphor Looking at the" beam-setting "metaphor research," Li of China and India "The main subjects Metaphor" and so on. However, the Chinese metaphor for the academic study of rare. "Chinese scholars on the study of metaphor, I am afraid the real contribution should be through the metaphor of the Chinese characteristics of research and study, through the metaphor of the Chinese and other languages in the comparative study of metaphor, metaphor for the establishment of a more general theory of the strong, and even unique The basis. "Lin Wu in the book" metaphor of the basic research the status quo, and the focus of the trend "in the main text, put forward a model of cultural metaphors with the relationship:" The language of metaphor is the emergence of expression into the system, which not only reflects the psychological Structure, but also reflect the different cultural models also play a role. " metaphor in the relationship between Chinese and Western cultures relationship Correspond to (corresponding) refers to the relationship between the two languages, English and Chinese in the meaning and metaphor in the use of the same meaning in the culture and image, and so on and-one mapping. This is because the survival of mankind itself, as well as all the external conditions, including the geographical environment, climate change, and the whole of human society and cultural background are certain there is a common, which formed a common humanity of their own and the outside world on many issues. In the "angry" mood, the English are angry that physiological responses, such as: grind one's teeth. (Teeth), bare one's teeth. (Ziyaliezui) an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth), reflecting the Chinese culture on the basis of common experience. non-correspondence English-Chinese metaphor, after all, rooted in two different languages on the soil, resulting in very different cultural backgrounds, fully corresponds to the few metaphors, the vast majority do not have common cultural identity in order to form the corresponding non-(non-corresponding ) Relations. Non-relationship metaphor can be roughly divided into three categories: Vehicle counterpart, Yu Yi does not correspond to English and Chinese in some cases there is the same as a metaphor, but in their own language and culture in the meaning of the metaphor means is different, even different. Peacock in the Chinese culture is auspicious, a symbol of beauty, especially the Dai people to express jumped Pavaner desire to better their own. If the Chinese people will be likened to a peacock, it means that beautiful light. However, in English, peacock (Peacock) is a symbol of pride, often interpreted as arrogance, love to show off. For example, They were eager to take the young peacock down a peg. (They want to pressure a pressure that the arrogant young guy's momentum). counterpart Yu Yi, the vehicle does not correspond to English-Chinese two nations due to their differences, from different angles to look at things the same, it will be a different analogy. As a result both English and Chinese language there is a different vehicle, but Yu was referring to was basically the same as the meaning of the case, that is the same kind of non-correspondence. Such as: a person described as the hearts of anxious, restless, Chinese is "ants on the hot pan" and English is "a cat on the bricks". There are similar: To kick down the ladder. Guohechaiqiao. Yu Yu Yi and do not correspond to Some of the metaphors Yu-Yu has a meaning and it refers to the language and culture are closely related, in another culture often can not find corresponding Yu and Yu Yi, which resulted in a culture known as the default Phenomenon. For example: in English "my rib" I am referring to Yu's wife, it comes from the "Bible" story, that is, Adam (Adam)'s wife Eve (Eve) God is with a piece of Adam's rib made. The Chinese did not, "the Bible" cultural background, and there was no analogy with rib habit, so the formation of a corresponding gap. Similarly, "ugly duckling" (Ugly Duckling) refers to the metaphor will get ahead of Little, "early bird" refers to the diligent Yu, in the words into Chinese language, culture, as a result of the default, can not find a corresponding relationship between metaphor . Chinese and Western cultures in the common metaphor Metaphor and culture to a large extent, human beings have a common understanding, rooted in the people's own day-to-day experience. In this connection, often between different ethnic groups are the same. Both English and Chinese language in a lot of abstract thinking that the metaphorical expression is the same. For example: the human child in the period to form a position on the concept of input in that direction in the form of many of them easily understood, including the position expressed by metaphor, which has become a fixed pattern of thinking. For example: The term direction (up, down) to describe people's social status, physical, emotional, and other abstract concepts to the case when the good is up; Sad is down. We Chinese are also not difficult to find a similar sentence: "Gas Prices "," enhance the social status "and" vision "and" depressed. " Since the objective laws of nature with the relative unity of different cultures to understand the nature of the course is similar to the cognitive experience. in the metaphor of the difference between Chinese and Western cultures As the English-Chinese geographical and cultural differences, living in two different cultures in practice there are a lot of differences, and different life experiences and let people understand the objective world, a different language carries different nationalities Cultural characteristics and cultural information. Understanding of metaphor is not out of socio-cultural backgrounds. For example, social and cultural impact of the color words is deep-rooted, some color words in different cultures in an entirely different meaning, has a distinctive feature of our national culture. Such as: English, said in green "inexperienced" and "shallow knowledge", such as: "a green hand", "I was very green when I started working there." The Chinese like to express the meaning of the word is "yellow" Such as: "Huangmaoyatou" and "flower girl". Cultural background knowledge is the metaphor to create a rich source of thinking, as the Eastern and Western cultures are different, metaphors in English and Chinese applications there are also significant differences. The metaphor of the cross-cultural differences between Chinese and Western influence Language is a cultural change in the development of the complex, subject to political, economic, historical, environmental and other factors. Chinese and Western styles are different, but in many ways to infiltrate interaction and integration, language differences and cultural metaphor for the inevitable impact is complex and diverse. metaphorical expression of cultural conflict Different nationalities in the world to observe a different perspective and ideas, different cultures there are a lot of conflict or inconsistency metaphor. If the animal metaphors, in English Long (dragon) is a kind of evil, will belch out smoke monster. "Bible", the dragon is the devil, is a symbol of evil and terror, there is a terrible vicious meaning. The Chinese dragon is in power, the auspicious symbol of Chinese traditional culture, the Chinese have "Wangzichenglong", "descendants of the Dragon." The same analogy in different cultures, different meaning, of two cultures "Dragon" to give a different connotation. differences in living conditions caused by differences in metaphor In English is a lot of metaphor and marine-related, such as: all at sea (at a loss what to do); drink like a fish (drinking cow); fish in the air (Shuizhonglaoyue); give up the ship (give up). In Chinese, there are a lot of the horse or cattle pose a metaphor, such as: "a willing ox" (a willing horse) Gan means to serve the community; "old ox" (a working horse) refers to the hard work; "bragging "(Talk horse), and so on. This is due to different geographical location and natural environment caused by different cultural metaphor. Britain is an island, ultimately, dependent on the sea, and China is a large agricultural country, farming culture deeply feudal society. different religious and cultural differences arising from the metaphor Religious culture of human culture is an important part of it by referring to the nation's religious beliefs, such as the formation of the sense of culture, "the Bible" in the story, with its language and meaning has become a feature of daily life in the West in terms of . For example, power of the keys (the keys to the kingdom of heaven; the rights of the Pope), in the right church, but in the wrong pew (in general is right, but not the details), and so on. Chinese culture and Buddhism, Taoism and more affected by the impact of Confucianism, the Chinese, there are a lot of related argot. "Jiehuaxianfo"; "临时抱佛脚"; "做一天和尚撞一天钟" and so on. It is due to the diversity of culture, resulting in the differences between English and Chinese metaphor. This difference to the cross-cultural communication has brought the impact. As a foreign language students, do not understand the difference between metaphor and language will make mistakes, sometimes mistakenly made good as pleasant, caused by either one or both of the conversation unpleasant; also sometimes mocked as a praise. When a native language other operators do not understand the language contained in the cultural differences, it is often difficult for such language to accurately convey the meaning of the understanding, difficulty to the cross-cultural exchange. 3. Metaphor of the three methods of translation The translation of metaphor not only accurately and effectively convey the original language, but also loyal, accessible, complete reproduction of the original language and cultural connotation and significance. But in the West because of cultural differences and different, so the translation of metaphor in English on the need to consider not only its literal sense, and so on, but also in the West should pay attention to their cultural differences. American Eugene Nida said: "Translation is the exchange between the two cultures. The real success of the translation, even more familiar with the two cultures is more important to master two languages. Because only in terms of its role in the culture In the background will only be meaningful. "Therefore, the translation of metaphor to combining Chinese and Western cultures, and cultural backgrounds to leave the translation, can not be achieved between the two languages of the real exchange. Literal Translation The so-called "literal" is asked in the language when conditions permit, in the translation to maintain the original content, but also to maintain the original form, in particular, to maintain the original metaphor, the image of the nation, and other local color. In the literal translation method to maintain the original expression of the culture and at the same time, target enriched the vocabulary and expression, such as: "a Pandora's box" (Pandora's Box); "chain reaction" (chain reaction). In the original text and asked the information contained in the same culture, we should adopt the literal translation method. (1) You are my sunshine, my only sunshine. : You are my sun, my only sunshine. In Chinese and English, the sun is warm, beautiful, in both languages, they disseminate information on culture are the same. As a rule, and asked in the original text in the form of grammatical structure, similar to the style or color on basically the same, the law should adopt the literal translation. (1) He is another Shylock. : He is also a Shylock. (Note: Shakespeare's Shylock is "The Merchant of Venice" in a very harsh mean business People. ) (2) To carry coals to Newcastle. : Coal to Newcastle. (Note: "Newcastle" is a British coal, coal is superfluous here.) 4. Conclusion Metaphor as a way to figures of speech or skills, a unique feature of grammar, which features make the sentence more flexible and constructive, but the United States. Is a metaphor to express more complex ideas and things, a powerful tool. Wherever and whenever people in their daily lives are often used metaphor. As Mr. Lin Zhuang said: "The metaphor is no longer expanding his knowledge and understanding of a passive process. To help us in the form of new knowledge, the metaphor has played an active role so that we can better a better understanding of the objective world." In English and Chinese Metaphorical significance of the difference is due to cultural differences between East and West, that mode of thinking, moral values and sense of difference. However, different cultural impact of what is the concept of metaphor, it is still a need to examine and address the problem. At the same time, in the metaphor of the process of translation must pay special attention to cultural differences. The best translation is to be able to accurately reflect the true meaning of the author, as well as its cultural and stylistic characteristics of the translation, that is, the translation of metaphor to make as much as possible the original language and to achieve the target language culture, and so on.