有关饮食的外文论文文献综述

你可以从以下几点着手： 一．餐桌礼仪概述 1. 餐桌礼仪在中西方文化发展中的地位与作用. 二. 各国间不同的饮食文化 1. 我国饮食文化的发展及餐桌礼仪的形成. 2. 英、法、美、意等国家的饮食文化发展及餐桌礼仪的形成. 3. 用我国的典型食品北京烤鸭与西方国家的火鸡进行对比从而进一步比较两者差异. 4. 从差异中寻求中西文化间的共同点. 5. 形成中西方文化差异的根源. Table Manners The main difference between Chinese and W estern eating habits is that unlike the West, where everyone has their own plate of food, in China the dishes are placed on the table and everybody shares. If you are being treated by a Chinese host, be prepared for a ton of food. Chinese are very proud of their culture of food and will do their best to give you a taste of many different types of cuisine. Among friends, they will just order enough for the people there. If they are taking somebody out for dinner and the relationship is polite to semi-polite, then they will usually order one more dish than the number of guests ( people, five dishes). If it is a business dinner or a very formal occasion, there is likely to be a huge amount of food that will be impopssible to finish. A typical meal starts with garlic. These are followed by the main courses, hot meat and vegetable dishes. Finally a soup is brought out, which is followed by the starchy "staple"food, which is usually rice or noodles or sometimes dumplings. Many Chinese eat rice (or noodles or whatever) last, but if you like to have your rice together with other dishes, you should say so early on. One thing to be aware of is that when eating with a Chinese host, you may find that the person is using their chopsticks to put food in your bowl or plate. This is a sign of politeness. The appropriate thing to do would be to eat the whatever-it-is and say how yummy it is. If you feel uncomfortable with this, you can just say a polite thank you and leave the food there, and maybe cover it up with a little rice when they are not looking. There is a certain amount of leniency involved when dealing with Westerners. So you won't be chastised. Eating No-no's Traditionally speaking, there are many taboos at Chinese tables, but these days not many people pay attention to them. However, there are a few things to keep in mind, especially if you are a guest at a private home. 1) Don't stick your chopsticks upright in the rice bowl. Instead,lay them on your dish. The reason for this is that when somebody dies, the shrine to them contains a bowl of sand or rice with two sticks of incense stuck upright in it. So if you stick your chopsticks in the rice bowl, it looks like this shrine and is equivalent to wishing death upon a person at the table! 2) Make sure the spout of the teapot is not facing anyone. It is impolite to set the teapot down where the spout is facing towards somebody. The spout should always be directed to where nobody is sitting,usually just outward from the table. 3) Don't tap on your bowl with your chopsticks. Beggars tap on their bowls, so this is not polite. Also, in a restaurant, if the food is coming too slow people will tap their bowls. If you are in someone's home, it is like insulting the cook. Eat Local You can get expensive, delicious meals in any of the large hotels, but if you are looking for atmosphere, you have to go to a local joint. Not only is it cheaper, but you can get a good look at the locals and what normal people are like. And what the food lacks in presentation is made up for in the taste. Some restaurants have English menus, but don't count on it. A good way to choose dishes is to look at what othes are eating and point at it for the waitress. The other option is to play "Myatery Dinner," where players randomly point at items in the menu and wait for the surprise dishes to come. Whoever orders the braised dog heart with scallions in shark vomit sauce wins! If you bring your Guide with you, however, you can use the food guide in the back of the book to choose some safe and delicious fare. Also, be sure to sample the local brew, Yanjing Beer. Drining Gan Bei!(cheers!) Alcohol is a big part of eating in Beijing. Especially when dining with Chinese hosts, you can expect the beer to flow freely and many beis to be gan-ed.(Gan Bei literally means "dry the glass")Besides beer, the official Chinese alcoholic beverage is bai jiu, high-proof Chinese liquor made from assorted grains. There are varying degrees of bai jiu, and some are quite good. The Beijing favorite is called Er Guo Tou, which is a whopping 56% alcohol. More expensive and less formidable are Maotai and Wuliangye, which go for about 300-400 yuan per bottle. In comparison, Er Guo Tou costs a modest 4or 5 yuan per ping(bottle). If you are not a drinker, or don't feel up to the challenge, just say "wo bu hui he jiu"(I don't drink). It is generally acceptable to use Coke or tea as an alcohol substitute.

你都那么苗条了，不需要注意了，嘎嘎！！！

only found one. hope that works~American table manners[edit] Table Layout * Bread plates are to the left of the main plate, beverage glasses are to the right. * Salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon. Dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.[edit] General Behavior * Chew with your mouth closed. * Do not talk at an excessively loud volume. * Refrain from coughing, sneezing or blowing nose at the table. * Never tilt back your chair while at the table, or at any other time. * Do not make unbecoming noises while eating. * Do not play with food or table utensils. * Do not single out or chastise someone who has shown poor table manners. * Do not put your elbows on the table or slouch. * Always ask the host or hostess to be excused before leaving the table. * Do not stare at anyone while he or she is eating. * Never talk on your phone at the table. If urgent, ask host or hostess to be excused, and go outside. Apologize when returned.[edit] Utensils * Do not eat food with your fingers unless you are eating foods customarily eaten with fingers, such as bread, french fries, chicken wings, pizza, etc. * The fork may be used either in the American (use the fork in your left hand while cutting; switch to right hand to pick up and eat a piece) or the Continental (fork remains in the left hand) fashion -- either is now acceptable. (See Fork etiquette) * The fork is used to convey any solid food to the mouth. * The knife blade should be placed on the edge of your plate when not in use. The blade should always face inward. * When you have finished eating soup, the spoon should be placed to the side of the saucer, not left in the bowl. * Keep your napkin on your lap. At more formal occasions all diners will wait to place their napkins on their laps until the host or hostess places his or her napkin on his or her lap * When eating barbecue or some other messy foods such as cracked crab, a 'bib' napkin may be provided for and used by adults. Usually these foods are also eaten by hand, and wet wipes or paper napkins should be used to clean the hands. * When using paper napkins, never ball them up or allow stains to show. * Use your silverware from the outside moving inward toward the main plate. (Salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon. Dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.)[edit] Dining * A prayer or 'blessing' may be customary in some families, and the guests should join in even if they are not religious or do not follow the same religion. Most prayers are made by the host before the meal is eaten. Instead or in addition, a 'toast' may be offered [1]. * Do not start eating until (a) every person is served or (b) those who have not been served request that you begin without waiting. At more formal occasions all diners will wait to begin until the hostess or host lifts a fork or spoon. * When a dish is presented 'family style', the food is served to one's plate and then passed on to the next person. put the food on your left, take some and pass to the person next to you. * When serving, serve from the left and pick up the dish from the right. Beverages are both served and removed from the right. * Eat soup noiselessly and with the side of the spoon. * Tea or coffee should never be poured into the saucer to cool but should be sipped from the cup. Alternatively, ice may be used to cool either. * Seasoning ones meal prior to tasting can be considered rude and may insult the chef.[edit] At the end of the meal * It is acceptable in most places to not finish all of the food on your plate. * When finished with your meal, place your knife and fork with handles at the 4 o'clock position and the tines of the fork down to signal to the server you are done. * Except in a public restaurant, do not ask to take some of your uneaten food away from the meal after it ends, especially when having a formal dinner.[edit] British table manners * The fork is held in your left hand and the knife is held in your right. * You should hold your knife with the handle in your palm and your fork in the other hand with the prongs pointing downwards. * If you’re eating a dessert, your fork (if you have one) should be held in the left hand and the spoon in the right. * When eating soup, you should hold your spoon in your right hand and tip the bowl away from you, scooping the soup in movements away from yourself. * It is not acceptable to use your fingers at the table to eat or push food onto your fork. You may, however, eat some foods such as fruit, sandwiches, hamburgers, crisps, chips or pizza with your fingers. * If there are a number of knives or forks, then you should start from the outside set working your way in as each course is served. * Drinks should always be to the right of your plate with the bread roll to the left. * When eating bread rolls, break off a piece before buttering. Use your knife only to butter the bread, not to cut it. * You should not start eating before your host does or instructs you to do so. At larger meals, it is considered okay to start eating once others have been served. * When you’re finished, place your knife and fork together at five o’clock with your fork on the left (tines facing up) and knife on the right, with the knife blade facing in. This signals that you are finished. * Your napkin should never be screwed up. Nor should it be folded neatly as that would suggest that your host might plan to use it again without washing it - just leave is neatly but loosely. * Never blow your nose on your napkin. Place it on your lap and use it to dab your mouth if you make a mess. * It is considered rude to answer the telephone at the table. If you need to take an urgent call, excuse yourself and go outside. * Always ask for permission from the host and excuse yourself if you need to leave the table. You should place your napkin on your seat until you return. * If you must leave the table or are resting, your fork should be at eight o’clock and your knife at four o’clock (with the blade inwards). Once an item of cutlery has been used, it should not touch the table again. * The food should be brought to your mouth on the fork; you should sit straight and not lean towards your plate. * Dishes should be served from the right, and taken away from the right. Unless the food is placed on your plate at the table, then it should arrive from the left. * Drinks should be served from the right. * Never lean across somebody else’s plate. If you need something to be passed, ask the person closest to it. If you have to pass something, only pass it if you are closest to it and pass it directly to them if you can. * Salt & pepper should be passed together. * Do not take food from a neighbour’s plate and don’t ask to do so. * You must not put your elbows on the table. * If pouring a drink for yourself, offer to pour a drink for your neighbours before serving yourself. * If extra food is on the table, ask others first if they would like it before taking it yourself. * When chewing food, close your mouth and only talk when you have swallowed it. * Swallow all food before eating more or having a drink. * Do not slurp your food or eat loudly. Burping or sneezing at the table should be avoided, too. * Never pick food out of your teeth with your fingernails. * Try to eat all the food you are served. * Glasses served in a wine glass or other stemmed-glass should be held at the stem. * Always remember “regular” manners. Remember to say "please" and "thank you".[edit] Chinese table mannersThese are mostly concerned with the use of chopsticks. Otherwise generally Chinese table manners are rather more informal, what would be considered rude in other cultures such as talking with the mouth full may be acceptable but better not to do so. * Chopsticks must always be held in the correct manner. It should be held between the thumb and fingers of the right hand, * Chopsticks are traditionally held in the right hand only, even by the left-handed. Although chopsticks may now be found in either hand, a few still consider left-handed chopstick use improper etiquette. One explanation for the treatment of such usage as improper is that this can symbolise argument, as the chopsticks may collide between the left-handed and right-handed user. * When communal chopsticks are supplied with shared plates of food, it is considered impolite to use your own chopsticks to pick up the food from the shared plate or eat using the communal chopsticks. An exception to this rule is made in intimate family dinners where family members may not mind the use of one's own chopsticks to transfer food. * It is considered impolite to use the blunt end of the chopsticks to transfer food from a common dish to your own plate or bowl. Use the communal chopsticks instead. * Never wave your chopsticks around as if they were an extension of your hand gestures, bang them like drumsticks, or use them to move bowls or plates. * Decide what to pick up before reaching with chopsticks. Do not hover around or poke looking for special ingredients. After you have picked up an item, do not put it back in the dish. * When picking up a piece of food, never use the tips of your chopsticks to poke through the food as if you were using a fork. Exceptions include tearing larger items apart such as vegetables. In informal use, small, difficult to pick-up items such as cherry tomatoes or fishballs may be stabbed but this use is frowned upon by traditionalists. * Chopsticks can be rested horizontally on one's plate or bowl to keep them off the table entirely. A chopstick rest can also be used to keep the points off the table. * Never stab chopsticks into a bowl of rice, leaving them standing upwards. Any stick-like object facing upward resembles the incense sticks that some Asians use as offerings to deceased family members. This is considered the ultimate faux pas on the dining table. * Chinese traditionally eat rice from a small bowl held in the left hand. The rice bowl is raised to the mouth and the rice pushed into the mouth using the chopsticks. Some Chinese find it offensive to scoop rice from the bowl using a spoon. If rice is served on a plate, as is more common in the West, it is acceptable and more practical to eat it with a fork or spoon. The thumb must always be above the edge of the bowl. * It is acceptable to transfer food to people who have a close relation with you (. parents, grandparents, children or significant others) if you notice they are having difficulty picking up the food. Also it is a sign of respect to pass food to the elderly first before the dinner starts (part of the Confucian tradition of respecting seniors). * Traditionally, it is polite for the youngest members of the table to address each and everyone of the elderly members of the table before a meal starts and literally tell them to "eat rice", which means "go ahead and start the meal", to show respect. * The host should always make sure the guests drinks are sufficiently full. One should not pour for ones self, but should (if thirsty) offer to pour for a neighbor. When your drink is being poured, you should say "thank you" and/or tap your fingers on the table to show appreciation. * When people wish to clink drinks together in the form of a cheer, it is important to observe that younger members should clink the edge of their drink below the edge of an elder to show respect. * When eating food that contains bones, it is customary that the bones be spit out onto the table to the right of the dining plate in a neat pile.

美国的饮食文化论文

“你吃什么就成为什么样子。”营养专家经常使用这句话来倡导更好的饮食习惯，入嘴的东西确实成为我们身体的一部分。但我们也可以从另―个角度来看这句话，我们所吃的反映出我们自己――不论就人或文化而言。你想了解另一种文化吗？那么你应该去了解它的食物。以下是我整理的美国的饮食文化论文，欢迎阅读。

何谓“美式食物”？乍听之下你可能认为答案容易得很。对许多人而言，美式食物就是汉堡、热狗、炸鸡和比萨。如果你好吃甜食，你可能会想到苹果派或巧克力片饼干。美国人确实吃这些东西，但这些就是你在美国唯一找得到的食物吗？

除了感恩节火鸡以外，挺难找到典型的美国食物。美国是个移民之国，所以美国人吃的食物来自许多不同的国家，当人们移居美国，他们也将自己的烹饪方式一起带来。那也就是为什么在美国你几乎可以看到所有不同民族的食物。在某些时候，美国人把外国的食物视为最爱。美国人喜爱意大利的比萨，墨西哥的玉米饼和中国的春卷，但是这些东西的美国版味道却不太地道了！

和许多大国一样，美国被划分为数个区域，每个地区都以自己特有的食物种类为傲。走访美国南部享受乡村式的烹调：到路易斯安那州品尝辛辣的凯郡式料理：走一趟新英格兰试尝它美味的海鲜：再到中西部“美国的面包之乡”品尝可口的烘焙食品：乘船游览至西南部尝试一些好吃的墨西哥式德州小吃，最后到太平洋西北岸，啜饮极品咖啡，作为美食之旅的句点。

快节奏的生活使得美国人通常只能“很快地吃几口”。快餐店为赶时间的人提供各种食物，从炸鸡到炒饭，应有尽有。微波炉晚餐和实时餐点使得在家烧饭省事又快速。当然，最平常的美式快餐之一就是三明治。任何能夹在两片土司中间的东西，美国人就可以把它做成一份三明治，花生酱和果酱更是一直都深受美国人的喜爱。

忙碌的美国人也趋向于吃一大堆“垃圾食物”。炸薯片、糖果、汽水和其他甜食都颇受欢迎。许多人吃了太多这类不健康的零食，但是其他人则选择较健康的饮食习惯，有些人甚至选择“全天然”的食物，他们拒绝吃任何含有化学制品或添加物的食物。

美国文化是“你吃什么就成为什么样子”这句话的最佳写照。美国人代表了背景的广泛性和思维的多样性。在美国可享受到的各式食物正反映出个人品味的多样化。这食物可能是国际性也可能是地区性的；有时是快餐，有时也不见得；它可能是垃圾食物：也可能是天然食品。然而无论如何，它们都是美式的。

美国人吃汉堡包、热狗和其他简单、标志性的美食，典型的美国菜“粗犷实在”，食用新鲜的原材料，保持事物的原汁原味；但他们同时也喜爱许多其他国家的菜肴，拥有众多移民带来的各式菜品。于是，美国饮食恍如一个“大熔炉”，汇聚了世界多国的佳肴，并将之持续交融、美国化，形成当今的让人眼花缭乱、活力四射的美国饮食。以下，我们简要溯源一下它的历史。

16世纪以前，美洲印第安人作为美国的原住民并主要居民，他们的饮食就是美国饮食的代表。在这一阶段，他们奠定了美国主食的基础——玉米。但由于生活水平较低、疆域广袤、人口文化分散等原因的限制，美国饮食尚且处于讲究温饱的状态，未能形成全国性饮食和完善的美食体系。

而且，美国一直以来没有王室一说，王室烹饪有助于国家烹饪艺术的统一和进益，以至于美国缺少王室的这一对生活品质，这里强调饮食的驱动力，美食发展在历史进程中相较缓慢。

16世纪，墨西哥的西班牙人来到美国，他们并没有只把玉米当作一种好原料而用它做成什么别的东西；他们真正地做到了将他们的想法和印地安人的想法交融一起。如玉米卷烤肉，西班牙人带来猪肉；印地安人提供玉米卷。

后来，清教徒大批移民美国，带来了“为活而吃”的精神特质，追求实用简朴，不讲究食物口味。他们认为人吃东西并消化掉以便再活一天，除了虚荣心，没有哪个思维健全的人会讨论某种食品的味道。他们的对饮食的价值观严重阻碍了烹饪艺术的发展。

17到18世纪，欧洲移民大量涌入美国，奠定了传统美国菜的基础——英国菜。美国烹饪始自英国，因为大部分美国人是英国移民的后裔。当然，美国菜有自己的特色，因为美国国土大，气候好，食物种类繁多，交通运输方便，冷藏设备优良，厨师、家庭主妇可随意选择食物，同时他们在烹饪仪器时很讲究营养。美国人的习惯是早餐喜食各种水果和略有咸味的.甜点心，对沙拉很感兴趣。美国人做菜喜欢用水果作辅料，如菠萝鸡腿、苹果烤鸭等，对铁扒一类的菜肴也很喜欢。炸制类的菜品也是常吃。

而后，其他移民开始到来。非洲人被贩卖至美国，对美国烹饪产生了重大影响，他们把一些新奇的食物原料和调味品带到了美国菜桌上——羊角豆、山药、花生等。而且他们还发挥聪明才智把奴隶主嫌弃的“猪下水”变得可口，增加了美国饮食的可选菜品。

19世纪下半叶，中国和意大利移民到来了，开启了美国饮食历史上最重要的“移植”阶段。中国食物随着在西部修建铁路的中国移民而来，或更恰当的说，是随着那些给筑路工人做饭的人来的。各种崭新的美国化中国食物兴起，如“炒杂碎”、炸蛋卷、馄饨汤、炒饭、鸡丝炒面和小排骨等。可惜中国食物始终不是美国最普及的食物，因为虽然大多数美国人吃它，可他们通常不在家里尝试自己做。然而，美国化中国食物确实起到异常重要的作用：它开阔了几乎每个20世纪的美国人对令人垂涎三尺、异国情调的亚洲食物的眼界和品尝，为许多亚洲美食融入我们民众的饮食习惯铺平了道路。

美国化意大利食物堪称美国餐馆文化的主导者，广受欢迎；而且它的真正胜利是在美国的家庭里。比萨饼、卤汁面条、蕃茄沙司烙通心粉、肉丸子、帕尔马干酪小牛肉，无论是冷冻，或登门送食，或自家制作，都在美国日常饮食中起着无比重要的作用。此外，它成功证明了来源于另一个国家的食物非但可在美国成为换口味的有趣享受，还能牢固地成为美国主流饮食的组成部分。

20世纪随后的其他年代，美国迎来了多种移民群体，更多的异族美食纳入了美国饮食中，例如，美国人赞美法国人对待食物的方式，把它作为美国饮食的基石；让丹麦糕点在美国早餐中占有牢固的地位。

以上只是美国饮食发展历史的主流，还不是全貌。对美国而言，多元性的人为因素为饮食发展带来了关键性的影响。早期的美国饮食，由于历史与文化的长度及深度不够，美国的立国精神及民风偏向保守朴实以及美国没有宫廷皇室的推动与鼓励，导致饮食发展缓慢，但在19世纪以后，丰富的移民史已经让美国成为了世界上最具饮食折中主义的地方之一。现在的美国，饮食包含万象，世界各国美食的都是它的菜单，而且它还一直随心所欲的对事物进行“嫁接”，不断创造出世人前所未见的新菜品。