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论文题目： 浅析游戏教学法在中职英语课堂教学中的应用
摘要： 情感因素对语言学习有很大的影响。中职学生在英语学习方面普遍存在着基础薄弱、学习动机不强等学习焦虑方面的问题，英语课堂教学因此存在着互动消极、教学反馈少、效果差的情况。游戏教学法从理论和实际效用上对于改善这种情况都是很好的应用。
关键词： 游戏教学法;中职英语;课堂教学
英语是当今世界通用语言，我们在生活和工作中越来越多地接触、使用到英语，学好英语对于当代中职生的职业发展和个人素质的提高都是非常有益和必要的。
但是实际情况是，中职生的英语基础普遍薄弱，存在不同程度的英语学习焦虑，有的中职生，由于英语基础比较薄弱，对英语失去了兴趣，出现了对英语失去信心的现象，从而导致英语课堂教学开展困难，教学效果不理想。
一、中职英语课堂教学的现状
教师讲授为主，师生互动为辅，学生参与度低。中职英语教学课时有限，为了完成既定的教学内容，语言知识的讲解和练习占据了大多数的课堂教学时间。
师生间互动教学以教师提问，学生作答为主，学生间生生互动以课文对话的替换练习为主，形式内容单调。学生对此不感兴趣，形成了“老师讲，学生听”的单调局面。有时上课还有学生玩手机、睡觉等现象，课堂效果非常不好。
教材设定的情景互动内容趣味性弱，学生参与度低下。现行教材中设定的情景练习以生活类英语会话为主，如购物、就餐、问路、看病等，缺乏趣味性。中职学生处于爱玩爱闹的青春期，此类会话练习难以触动学生的兴奋点。
学生基础薄弱，有不同程度的英语学习焦虑。在开展课堂互动时，中职生往往沉默应对，或是消极敷衍，鹦鹉学舌，应付了事。即使教师积极地鼓励学生，这种正面的评价也很难得到学生自己的认同。
Haiti Earthquake of 2010 March 19, 2010 A delegation of experts on human rights in Haiti prepares to testify before the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights on March 23rd. The delegation will urge the Commission to formally investigate the human rights impact of post-earthquake aid in Haiti and guide donor States regarding their obligations when delivering assistance. — Institute for Justice & Democracy in Haiti March 19, 2010 In anticipation of the March 31 Donors' Conference on Haiti, over 300 NGOs from around the world sent a letter to donor states calling on them to embrace the human rights and dignity of all Haitians as the driving force behind international assistance in rebuilding Haiti. — Institute for Justice & Democracy in Haiti March 16, 2010 January’s earthquake has prompted hundreds of thousands of Haitians to leave Port-au-Prince, reversing a decades-long migration from the countryside. — NYT March 15, 2010 New Orleans Law School professor Jeanne M. Woods draws on the experience of Hurricane Katrina to advocate for a "human rights approach" to aid for Haiti, which would provide Haitians with control over their own destiny and long-term support for their basic needs. — Institute for Justice & Democracy in Haiti March 15, 2010 Successful and sustainable development projects require including the Haitian people themselves in the planning and execution. But as Loune Viaud of Partners in Health and Monika Kalra Varma of the RFK Center for Human Rights observe, "Those who have the greatest stake in rebuilding Haiti, Haitians themselves, don’t now and never have had a real seat at the table." — Institute for Justice & Democracy in Haiti March 12, 2010 Elderly Haitians find themselves distinctly vulnerable and emotionally burdened after January's earthquake. — NYT March 9, 2010 In the aftermath of the earthquake, Haiti faces the added challenge of the growing number of amputees and other disabled victims of the catastrophe. There is a pressing need for prostheses and a rehabilitation infrastructure before it's too late. — Institute for Justice & Democracy in Haiti Table of Contents Overview Relief Efforts Haitian Government Response Earthquakes in the Caribbean Social Conditions in Haiti Americans Accused of Child Trafficking How to Help Complete Coverage Overview Updated: Feb. 19, 2010 By THE NEW YORK TIMES A massive earthquake struck Haiti just before 5 p.m. on Jan. 12, about 10 miles southwest of Port-au-Prince, the country's capital. The quake was the worst in the region in more than 200 years. A study by the Inter-American Development Bank estimates that the cost could be between $7.2 billion to $13.2 billion, based on a death toll from 200,000 to 250,000.
隐喻的中西方文化差异Abstract: Metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a way of thinking, which is one of the basic methods for human survival and cognition. It is rooted in language, thought and culture. Through the analysis and comparison of the use and concept of metaphor in different countries, we find that its universality and commonality of the metaphor as a basic human cognitive activities. However, metaphor in different languages reflects a different way of thinking and behavior and different cultural patterns. Owing to the different two modes of thinking and culture, there are some differences in understanding and formation that can not be ignored. Therefore, this paper will discuss the questions above.Keywords: metaphor, cross-cultural differences, translation. 1. Preamble Metaphor is a common phenomenon, a large number of people use metaphor to express his feelings and ideas. British scientists rhetoric Richards (IARichards) once said, "We have day-to-day in almost every conversation in three sentences may be a metaphor." According to statistics, life around the use of 4,700,000 new metaphor, 2,140,000 stereotypes of metaphor. Research in recent years, there is a great metaphor. This article introduced in the definition of metaphor on the basis of summing up the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western metaphor, and that its culture, precisely because of the prevalence of metaphor, how to translate metaphor has become a very important issue in the latter part of the article is aimed at The translation of metaphor put forward a translation of the three strategies. This paper studies aimed at trying to comparative analysis of English and Chinese in a large number of day-to-day language of metaphor to express, find out the differences and similarities, in order to be able to accurately translate the article in good metaphor to explore a little. This article is about the metaphor from the point of view to explore the differences in the way Thinking allows us to a deeper understanding of language, culture, the relationship between thinking and can more clearly understand the different ethnic language, culture, way of thinking, and so on On the nature of translation. 2. Metaphors in Chinese and Western studies In 1980, Lakoff & Johnson (George Lakoff & Mark Johnson) made a "living metaphor" (Metaphors We Live By) of the book, a modern metaphor to open a new chapter in the school. Domestic academia on the "metaphor" This is also a review of the system, such as Lin Wu's book "Study abroad metaphor Looking at the" beam-setting "metaphor research," Li of China and India "The main subjects Metaphor" and so on. However, the Chinese metaphor for the academic study of rare. "Chinese scholars on the study of metaphor, I am afraid the real contribution should be through the metaphor of the Chinese characteristics of research and study, through the metaphor of the Chinese and other languages in the comparative study of metaphor, metaphor for the establishment of a more general theory of the strong, and even unique The basis. "Lin Wu in the book" metaphor of the basic research the status quo, and the focus of the trend "in the main text, put forward a model of cultural metaphors with the relationship:" The language of metaphor is the emergence of expression into the system, which not only reflects the psychological Structure, but also reflect the different cultural models also play a role. " 2.1 metaphor in the relationship between Chinese and Western cultures 2.1.1 relationship Correspond to (corresponding) refers to the relationship between the two languages, English and Chinese in the meaning and metaphor in the use of the same meaning in the culture and image, and so on and-one mapping. This is because the survival of mankind itself, as well as all the external conditions, including the geographical environment, climate change, and the whole of human society and cultural background are certain there is a common, which formed a common humanity of their own and the outside world on many issues. In the "angry" mood, the English are angry that physiological responses, such as: grind one's teeth. (Teeth), bare one's teeth. (Ziyaliezui) an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth), reflecting the Chinese culture on the basis of common experience. 2.1.2 non-correspondence English-Chinese metaphor, after all, rooted in two different languages on the soil, resulting in very different cultural backgrounds, fully corresponds to the few metaphors, the vast majority do not have common cultural identity in order to form the corresponding non-(non-corresponding ) Relations. Non-relationship metaphor can be roughly divided into three categories: 2.1.2.1 Vehicle counterpart, Yu Yi does not correspond to English and Chinese in some cases there is the same as a metaphor, but in their own language and culture in the meaning of the metaphor means is different, even different. Peacock in the Chinese culture is auspicious, a symbol of beauty, especially the Dai people to express jumped Pavaner desire to better their own. If the Chinese people will be likened to a peacock, it means that beautiful light. However, in English, peacock (Peacock) is a symbol of pride, often interpreted as arrogance, love to show off. For example, They were eager to take the young peacock down a peg. (They want to pressure a pressure that the arrogant young guy's momentum). 2.1.2.2 counterpart Yu Yi, the vehicle does not correspond to English-Chinese two nations due to their differences, from different angles to look at things the same, it will be a different analogy. As a result both English and Chinese language there is a different vehicle, but Yu was referring to was basically the same as the meaning of the case, that is the same kind of non-correspondence. Such as: a person described as the hearts of anxious, restless, Chinese is "ants on the hot pan" and English is "a cat on the bricks". There are similar: To kick down the ladder. Guohechaiqiao. 2.1.2.3 Yu Yu Yi and do not correspond to Some of the metaphors Yu-Yu has a meaning and it refers to the language and culture are closely related, in another culture often can not find corresponding Yu and Yu Yi, which resulted in a culture known as the default Phenomenon. For example: in English "my rib" I am referring to Yu's wife, it comes from the "Bible" story, that is, Adam (Adam)'s wife Eve (Eve) God is with a piece of Adam's rib made. The Chinese did not, "the Bible" cultural background, and there was no analogy with rib habit, so the formation of a corresponding gap. Similarly, "ugly duckling" (Ugly Duckling) refers to the metaphor will get ahead of Little, "early bird" refers to the diligent Yu, in the words into Chinese language, culture, as a result of the default, can not find a corresponding relationship between metaphor . 2.2 Chinese and Western cultures in the common metaphor Metaphor and culture to a large extent, human beings have a common understanding, rooted in the people's own day-to-day experience. In this connection, often between different ethnic groups are the same. Both English and Chinese language in a lot of abstract thinking that the metaphorical expression is the same. For example: the human child in the period to form a position on the concept of input in that direction in the form of many of them easily understood, including the position expressed by metaphor, which has become a fixed pattern of thinking. For example: The term direction (up, down) to describe people's social status, physical, emotional, and other abstract concepts to the case when the good is up; Sad is down. We Chinese are also not difficult to find a similar sentence: "Gas Prices "," enhance the social status "and" vision "and" depressed. " Since the objective laws of nature with the relative unity of different cultures to understand the nature of the course is similar to the cognitive experience. 2.3 in the metaphor of the difference between Chinese and Western cultures As the English-Chinese geographical and cultural differences, living in two different cultures in practice there are a lot of differences, and different life experiences and let people understand the objective world, a different language carries different nationalities Cultural characteristics and cultural information. Understanding of metaphor is not out of socio-cultural backgrounds. For example, social and cultural impact of the color words is deep-rooted, some color words in different cultures in an entirely different meaning, has a distinctive feature of our national culture. Such as: English, said in green "inexperienced" and "shallow knowledge", such as: "a green hand", "I was very green when I started working there." The Chinese like to express the meaning of the word is "yellow" Such as: "Huangmaoyatou" and "flower girl". Cultural background knowledge is the metaphor to create a rich source of thinking, as the Eastern and Western cultures are different, metaphors in English and Chinese applications there are also significant differences. 2.4 The metaphor of the cross-cultural differences between Chinese and Western influence Language is a cultural change in the development of the complex, subject to political, economic, historical, environmental and other factors. Chinese and Western styles are different, but in many ways to infiltrate interaction and integration, language differences and cultural metaphor for the inevitable impact is complex and diverse. 2.4.1 metaphorical expression of cultural conflict Different nationalities in the world to observe a different perspective and ideas, different cultures there are a lot of conflict or inconsistency metaphor. If the animal metaphors, in English Long (dragon) is a kind of evil, will belch out smoke monster. "Bible", the dragon is the devil, is a symbol of evil and terror, there is a terrible vicious meaning. The Chinese dragon is in power, the auspicious symbol of Chinese traditional culture, the Chinese have "Wangzichenglong", "descendants of the Dragon." The same analogy in different cultures, different meaning, of two cultures "Dragon" to give a different connotation. 2.4.2 differences in living conditions caused by differences in metaphor In English is a lot of metaphor and marine-related, such as: all at sea (at a loss what to do); drink like a fish (drinking cow); fish in the air (Shuizhonglaoyue); give up the ship (give up). In Chinese, there are a lot of the horse or cattle pose a metaphor, such as: "a willing ox" (a willing horse) Gan means to serve the community; "old ox" (a working horse) refers to the hard work; "bragging "(Talk horse), and so on. This is due to different geographical location and natural environment caused by different cultural metaphor. Britain is an island, ultimately, dependent on the sea, and China is a large agricultural country, farming culture deeply feudal society. 2.4.3 different religious and cultural differences arising from the metaphor Religious culture of human culture is an important part of it by referring to the nation's religious beliefs, such as the formation of the sense of culture, "the Bible" in the story, with its language and meaning has become a feature of daily life in the West in terms of . For example, power of the keys (the keys to the kingdom of heaven; the rights of the Pope), in the right church, but in the wrong pew (in general is right, but not the details), and so on. Chinese culture and Buddhism, Taoism and more affected by the impact of Confucianism, the Chinese, there are a lot of related argot. "Jiehuaxianfo"; "临时抱佛脚"; "做一天和尚撞一天钟" and so on. It is due to the diversity of culture, resulting in the differences between English and Chinese metaphor. This difference to the cross-cultural communication has brought the impact. As a foreign language students, do not understand the difference between metaphor and language will make mistakes, sometimes mistakenly made good as pleasant, caused by either one or both of the conversation unpleasant; also sometimes mocked as a praise. When a native language other operators do not understand the language contained in the cultural differences, it is often difficult for such language to accurately convey the meaning of the understanding, difficulty to the cross-cultural exchange. 3. Metaphor of the three methods of translation The translation of metaphor not only accurately and effectively convey the original language, but also loyal, accessible, complete reproduction of the original language and cultural connotation and significance. But in the West because of cultural differences and different, so the translation of metaphor in English on the need to consider not only its literal sense, and so on, but also in the West should pay attention to their cultural differences. American Eugene Nida said: "Translation is the exchange between the two cultures. The real success of the translation, even more familiar with the two cultures is more important to master two languages. Because only in terms of its role in the culture In the background will only be meaningful. "Therefore, the translation of metaphor to combining Chinese and Western cultures, and cultural backgrounds to leave the translation, can not be achieved between the two languages of the real exchange. 3.1 Literal Translation The so-called "literal" is asked in the language when conditions permit, in the translation to maintain the original content, but also to maintain the original form, in particular, to maintain the original metaphor, the image of the nation, and other local color. In the literal translation method to maintain the original expression of the culture and at the same time, target enriched the vocabulary and expression, such as: "a Pandora's box" (Pandora's Box); "chain reaction" (chain reaction). In the original text and asked the information contained in the same culture, we should adopt the literal translation method. (1) You are my sunshine, my only sunshine. : You are my sun, my only sunshine. In Chinese and English, the sun is warm, beautiful, in both languages, they disseminate information on culture are the same. As a rule, and asked in the original text in the form of grammatical structure, similar to the style or color on basically the same, the law should adopt the literal translation. (1) He is another Shylock. : He is also a Shylock. (Note: Shakespeare's Shylock is "The Merchant of Venice" in a very harsh mean business People. ) (2) To carry coals to Newcastle. : Coal to Newcastle. (Note: "Newcastle" is a British coal, coal is superfluous here.) 4. Conclusion Metaphor as a way to figures of speech or skills, a unique feature of grammar, which features make the sentence more flexible and constructive, but the United States. Is a metaphor to express more complex ideas and things, a powerful tool. Wherever and whenever people in their daily lives are often used metaphor. As Mr. Lin Zhuang said: "The metaphor is no longer expanding his knowledge and understanding of a passive process. To help us in the form of new knowledge, the metaphor has played an active role so that we can better a better understanding of the objective world." In English and Chinese Metaphorical significance of the difference is due to cultural differences between East and West, that mode of thinking, moral values and sense of difference. However, different cultural impact of what is the concept of metaphor, it is still a need to examine and address the problem. At the same time, in the metaphor of the process of translation must pay special attention to cultural differences. The best translation is to be able to accurately reflect the true meaning of the author, as well as its cultural and stylistic characteristics of the translation, that is, the translation of metaphor to make as much as possible the original language and to achieve the target language culture, and so on.
Chinese and Western cultural differences in the performance of every aspect of daily life from the greeting 、 term diet and cultural differences in the way of thinking in the abstract, such as differences everywhere, from the West focus on the following colors to express the difference between Chinese and Western cultural differences in areas such as a wedding set. First, in the West to express the color difference Different colors in different languages is not expressed in the same way. The representative of China in a sense, the West has a meaning that even the "color" to understand the meaning of the contrary. (A) red (red) Whether in China or in the English-speaking countries, often in red and festive celebrations or day-related. Calendar, red font used these days, therefore, red letter day: refers to the "Day" or "happy occasion." It also refers to the red "liabilities" or "loss" because people are always negative in red to register. So there are these phrases: red figure deficit in the red loss In common with the Chinese "red" words, translated into English, may not necessarily use the "red" for example: brown sugar brown sugar red wine red wine (B) yellow Yellow in English and Chinese in the extended meaning of the differences are considerable. In English, yellow can be said that the "timid, cowardly, despicable," meaning, for example: a yellow dog despicable, cowardly people a yellow livered coward Chinese yellow symbol of the term is sometimes vulgar, vulgar and obscene, indecent indecency means, such as yellow film, erotica, yellow CD, and so on. These in the name of "yellow" in English and "yellow" has nothing to do. However, in another English word blue is the color used to indicate the kind of meaning in Chinese, such as the blue jokes (dirty joke), blue films (yellow film). Second, the cultural differences in Western wedding First of all, in Western wedding culture and the first in the West in thinking about the differences: the Chinese people more conservative, like excitement, more old-fashioned thinking, so in the history of China for thousands of years the entire wedding customs did not change much. The thinking in the West is more open to the requirements of the wedding will be lower, they will be the climax of the wedding in the church: the sacred as the "wedding march" into the red carpet, Jiao Mei's father, the bride linked hands Rose walked slowly to the groom, the bride's father, daughter to the groom's hand on hand, her daughter's life will be entrusted to the groom, all eyes followed the couple, filled with well-being in their face. Second, the result of cultural differences wedding in the West because the West in a different religion. China is mainly Buddhist, but the West is mainly Christian. Therefore, the Western wedding is to be held in the church and the priest is Zhuhun Ren. China's traditional customs of the most important part of the Bai Tiandi is, the worship heaven and earth even after the ceremony has become.中西方文化差异表现在方方面面，从日常生活的打招呼用语、饮食文化等差异到思维方式等抽象方面的差异无所不在，下面着重从中西方颜色表达的差异，中西方婚礼文化差异等方面阐述。 一、中西方颜色表达的差异 不同颜色在不同语言中表达的方式并不一样。在中国代表一种意义，在西方又表示一种涵义，甚至对“颜色”的涵义理解恰恰相反。（一）red（红色）无论是在英语国家还是在中国，红色往往与庆祝活动或喜庆日子有关。日历中，这些日子常用红色字体，因此，red letter day：指的是“纪念日”或“喜庆的日子”。红色还指“负债”或“亏损”，因为人们总是用红笔登记负数。于是就有了这些词组：red figure赤字 in the red亏损汉语中常用的带“红”字的词语，翻译成英语，可不一定用“red”例如：红糖brown sugar 红酒red wine （二） yellow黄色在英语和汉语中的引申含义差别比较大。英语中，yellow可以表示“胆小、卑怯、卑鄙”的意思，例如：a yellow dog 可鄙的人，卑鄙的人a yellow livered 胆小鬼汉语中黄色一词有时象征低级趣味、色情庸俗、下流猥亵的意思，如黄色电影、黄色书刊、黄色光碟等等。这些名称中的“黄”与英语中的“yellow”无关。然而，英语中另一个颜色词blue却常用来表示汉语中这类意思，如blue jokes（下流的玩笑）， blue films（黄色电影）等。 二、中西方婚礼文化差异 首先，中西方婚礼文化差异首先和中西方人在思维方面的差异有关：中国人比较保守，喜欢热闹，思维较古板，所以在中国历史几千年的时间里整个婚礼的习俗并没有多大的变化。而西方人的思想则比较开放，对于婚礼的要求也比较低，他们婚礼的高潮则是在教堂中：随着神圣的《婚礼进行曲》步入鲜红的地毯，娇美的新娘挽着父亲手捧玫瑰慢慢向新郎走去，新娘的父亲将女儿的手放在新郎的手上，将女儿的一生托付给新郎，所有人的目光注视着这对新人，幸福洋溢在他们的脸上。其次，造成中西方婚礼文化差异的原因是中西方不同的宗教。中国是以佛教为主，而西方则是基督教为主的。所以西方的婚礼是在教堂中举行而主婚人则是神甫。中方的传统婚俗中的最重要环节就是拜天地，拜了天地以后就算是礼成了。
我倒是正好有以前的，可你给的分也太少了吧，那可是2000字，能高点分吗
商科论文写作通常可以遵循以下步骤：
1、定义主题
撰写商科论文的第一步是定义主题。了解论文的主要目的是什么(教育、宣传、推广)以及针对谁。这一步至关重要，因为它为整篇论文奠定了基础。
2、创建大纲
大纲在撰写商科论文时至关重要。要想论文讲得通，唯一的途径就是整合逻辑。首先创建一个简单的草图，描述论文整体的框架，包括各个部分应该写什么内容。这会防止同学在实际写作时偏离要点。
3、广泛研究
这是撰写论文时收集所有必要信息的部分。遵循之前创建的大纲，以避免浪费时间。充分利用所有可用的资源，例如：书籍、网络、采访等，只收集相关和必要的信息即可。这部分将构成论文的主体，所以同学需要获得充分的信息。
4、撰写初稿
有了详细的大纲和相关的材料支撑，这一步应该很容易。初稿很少是完美的，但通常需要耗费大量时间。有几个最重要的部分需要同学留意：
5、校对修改
千万不要直接提交初稿，因为很有可能里面全是错误。同学要消除所有的语法和结构错误。尽可能地浓缩观点，并通过修改论点来突出要点。
Discuss its causes and solutions(不少于2000字) china business ethics ： The
The characteristics of the world top 500 enterprises and its enlightenment to Chinese enterprisesA, the definition of us-funded enterprises in the worldWorld us-funded enterprises that adopt diversified business, implement the strategy of globalization, assets, strong, has a large and strong, the core competitiveness of enterprises has significant influence on the development of world economy and stability of the world's leading multinational companies.Second, the world a us-funded enterprise features1) ability to innovateEverything in the world has a production, development and decline of life cycle.Enterprise as economic actors also undergoes a start-up period, rising period, height, decay time and ruin the life course.Enterprise is the key of the length of the life cycle after a start-up period, how to accelerate the rise period, prolong their heyday, the arrival of the postponed its decline period.Product life cycle relative to the enterprise life cycle is short, the enterprise must develop more innovative products of market value, one or several products meet after rising and heyday, when its not yet enter the decline phase, the other one or several products have reached the peak.So interlocking, bobo is connected, the enterprise will be endless.In 2004, in "fortune" the world "of the" top 500 enterprises in the 21st, annual revenues of $80.501 billion of Siemens to reveal a "longevity" enterprise: the secret of technology innovation.After more than a century and a half of the long journey, Siemens technology innovation constantly, constantly develop innovative products, always all is given priority to with invention of technology innovation in the work first, attaches great importance to scientific research and development work, and constantly put scientific research achievements into realistic productivity as soon as possible.Can say, Siemens is the birth and development of enterprises in technological innovation.Technology innovation has become a strong core of the enterprise values, become thick accumulation of enterprise culture, is the source of continuously improve enterprise core competitiveness.2) the implementation of the strategy of differentiationDifferentiation strategy is the product or service provided by enterprises implement differentiation, to establish enterprise something unique in the industry, is to build enterprise core competitive ability.The implementation of differentiation strategy to make the enterprise the management in the industry competition superior and obtain higher returns.Positioning differentiation is to provide customers with unique product and industry competition is very different and super service, by customer requirement and enterprise competence of matching to determine the positioning of the enterprise, as the essence of the differentiation strategy.Porsche as Germany's small and medium-sized automobile company, in a wide variety of automotive industry, only choose sports as main products, with high and new technology to create excellent performance and is famous for its excellent quality, framed with a "technology" to harness the wisdom, roam the motorists customers.Thus formed the unique product positioning, unique customer orientation, unique price positioning, as well as to meet the needs of customers and constant innovation of technology, unique in the world of its own, as the world's largest special automobile manufacturing company, Germany's famous sports car production enterprises, become the model of implementing differentiation strategy.3) the brand advantageThe world famous brand, refers to the world market with outstanding performance, get customer recognition and favor, have a huge effect, with a strong competitive advantage of product brand, trademark and trade name.As the world famous brand, must have the following characteristics: first, has the high international reputation.Second, has the very high international reputation.Third, has great economic value.Fourth, have a high degree of international market share and market globalization.Fifth, brand culture and product has a high degree of international integration.In an increasingly turbulent and changeable market economy, brand has become a winning customer loyalty and enterprise for long-term survival and growth of the key.In 2004, in "fortune" the world ranked 70th in the "top 500" enterprises, the annual business income is 48.318 billion dollars in unilever as the world's top consumer goods manufacturers, in the process of its development, has been successful for more than international brand acquisition operation, and good at would buy local brands promoted to international brand, to become the world's most important soap, LengDongPin, ice cream and tea maker.4) corporate cultureThe connotation of enterprise culture is the core of the enterprise concept, management philosophy, management mode, system of choose and employ persons, all of a code of conduct.One of the most important is the enterprise's core values.It is the enterprise constantly in the process of growth is the result of accumulation and precipitation, induction and abstraction is a key success factor for the company, is engaged in which industry characteristics and the change of external environment and the result of self-criticism, process).Enterprises under the guidance of core values, formed a high-quality, high level and high unity team of professional staff and professional managers.Them in the work atmosphere of mutual appreciation and recognition, technology, innovation, value innovation, create brand, to create excellent benefits, joint efforts for the common value goal, make the enterprise with a strong cohesion and competitiveness, ultimately win the competition, for enterprise survival and development for long.Nokia's success lies in it to find its own core values, and stick to their own core values in the operation, to form the nokia distinctive management thought and business philosophy, to crystallize its corporate culture.5) the core competitivenessEnterprise core competitive ability is the enterprise in the long time development, formed in the process of implication in the essence of enterprise, enterprise unique for enterprise to bring the value of sex, support enterprises in the past, present and future competitive advantage, and internal competition environment for a long time in the enterprise can obtain the active ability of competition.The core of the market competition in the talent, the enterprise should place in the fierce market competition, we must establish a high-quality talent team.Although the core competition ability does not exist and the individual, but the formation of core competence in the final analysis is the knowledge, skills, learning and accumulation.The talent is the carrier of the intellectual resources, therefore, enterprise core competence to a high degree of dependence to talents.In 2004, in "fortune" the world ranked 327th in the "top 500" enterprises, the annual revenue of $15.878 billion in l 'oreal can emerge from Paris many cosmetic industry, out of the France international, successfully sell himself to the world, let l 'oreal name around the world, it has to do with l 'oreal unique "way" of choose and employ persons is a direct relationship.L 'oreal unique talent view of "integrating poet and peasants", attracting talent "global online business strategy competition" approach, attaches great importance to the talent of innovation of science and technology, enable the image spokesperson of interpretations of the concept of fashion products, are based on the concept of "talent is the knowledge capital carrier"Third, China's top 500 with the world top 500With the rapid development of China's economy, Chinese companies are at an unprecedented rate the sprint world 500 strong reclined at the table.In the recently released by the fortune magazine ranked in the top 500 global latest annual, with 500 of the 18 Chinese companies.Sinopec and petrochina at sprint speed kill into the top 50, ranked 31st and 46th respectively.Ranking 46th national grid line upgrade last year, this year ranked 40th.However, compared to the list of top 500 China and the world top 500, schoolwork and the gap still exists obviously jiaotong university.The comparison of the gap on both the pure digital, also include some other deeper gap.待续~~~~
【英文篇名】 Switch Router Operating System Based on a General Operating System 【下载频次】 ☆ 【作者】 潘登; 徐佩霞; 【英文作者】 PAN Deng; XU Pei xia （Department of Electronic Engineering and Information Science; University of Science and Technology of China; Hefei; 230027; China）; 【作者单位】 中国科学技术大学电子工程与信息科学系; 230027; 【文献出处】 数据采集与处理 , Journal of Data Acquisition & Processing, 编辑部邮箱 2003年 04期 期刊荣誉：中文核心期刊要目总览 ASPT来源刊 CJFD收录刊 【中文关键词】 交换式路由器; 通用操作系统; 路由器操作系统; 【英文关键词】 switch router; general operating system; router operating system; 【摘要】 提出了一种将通用操作系统及其上层路由软件移植到交换式路由器平台上的方案。此方案可以向上屏蔽交换式路由器与传统的路由器体系结构上的区别 ,从而把通用操作系统及其上层路由软件移植到交换式路由器的平台上 ;同时兼顾数据通信和管理维护方面的需求 ,为上层路由软件提供了与传统路由器相同的接口 ,从而使基于通用操作系统的路由软件可以在不损失可升级性的条件下快速移植到交换式路由器上。实际应用证实了该方案具有良好的灵活性和兼容性 【英文摘要】 A new solution to port general operating systems and their routing software to switch router is presented. The solution shields the architecture difference between traditional router and switch router to application level software, thus it may support general operating system and their routing software on switch router platform. The solution is also considered as requirements of both data communication and control functions. And same ways of the access and control of the router are provied as traditional ro... 【基金】 国家 8 63计划 ( 863 -3 1 7-0 1 -99)资助项目 【DOI】 CNKI:SUN:SJCJ.0.2003-04-017 【分类号】 TN915.05 【正文快照】 引 言路由器最重要的工作是根据 IP包头和路由、过滤规则转发 IP包。其他功能还包括路由表的维护与路由器系统的维护。实际上路由器可以看成是一种针对 IP网络路由需求而设计的专用计算机。随着因特网所承载的业务的演进 ,因特网对于路由器性能的要求也日渐提高。在交换式路 看看这一篇 文章编号: 100429037 (2003) 0420450205一种基于通用操作系统的交换式路由器操作系统实现潘 登, 徐佩霞(中国科学技术大学电子工程与信息科学系, 合肥, 230027)摘要: 提出了一种将通用操作系统及其上层路由软件移植到交换式路由器平台上的方案。此方案可以向上屏蔽交换式路由器与传统的路由器体系结构上的区别, 从而把通用操作系统及其上层路由软件移植到交换式路由器的平台上; 同时兼顾数据通信和管理维护方面的需求, 为上层路由软件提供了与传统路由器相同的接口, 从而使基于通用操作系统的路由软件可以在不损失可升级性的条件下快速移植到交换式路由器上。实际应用证实了该方案具有良好的灵活性和兼容性。关键词: 交换式路由器; 通用操作系统; 路由器操作系统中图分类号: TN 915105; TP393 文献标识码:A 基金项目: 国家863 计划(8632317201299) 资助项目 收稿日期: 2003203229; 修订日期: 2003206215Switch Router Operating System Based ona General Operating SystemPA N D eng , X U P ei2x ia(Department of Elect ronic Engineering and Info rmat ion Science,U niversity of Science and Techno logy of Ch ina, Hefei, 230027,Ch ina)Abstract: A new so lu t ion to po rt general operat ing system s and their rou t ing sof tw are tosw itch rou ter is p resen ted. The so lu t ion sh ields the arch itectu re difference betw een t radit ionalrou ter and sw itch rou ter to app licat ion level sof tw are, thu s it may suppo rt general operat ingsystem and their rou t ing sof tw are on sw itch rou ter p latfo rm. The so lu t ion is also con sidered asrequ iremen t s of bo th data commun icat ion and con t ro l funct ion s. A nd same w ays of the accessand con t ro l of the rou ter are p rovied as t radit ional rou ter, so rou t ing sof tw are of the generaloperat ing system may be po rted to sw itch rou ter p latfo rm rap idly w ith the upgradeab lef lex ib ility. P ract ical design app roves that the so lu t ion has a good compat ib ility and f lex ib ility.Key words: sw itch rou ter; general operat ing system; rou ter operat ing system引 言路由器最重要的工作是根据IP 包头和路由、过滤规则转发IP 包。其他功能还包括路由表的维护与路由器系统的维护。实际上路由器可以看成是一种针对IP 网络路由需求而设计的专用计算机。随着因特网所承载的业务的演进, 因特网对于路由器性能的要求也日渐提高。在交换式路由器中, 包转发等绝大多数处理已经转移到以端口为中心的硬件中完成, 只有路由规则的生成与维护、网络管理和系统维护等比较复杂的工作仍由软件部分完成。实用中路由器所采用的操作系统可分为三大类: (1) 以Cisco 的IO S 为代表的专用操作系统, 常见于网络骨干节点; (2) 以V xWo rk s 为代表的嵌入式系统, 常见于小型办公ö家用接入设备上; (3)采用通用操作系统的则在骨干节点和用户接入设备上都有这类设备。例如Jun iper 的路由产品就采用L inux 作为操作系统。通用操作系统上的各种路由、网管软件的开发已经有相当长时间, 其功能、性能、稳定性和升级灵活性都很优秀, 但这些软件仍第18卷第4期2003 年12 月数据采集与处理Journal of Data A cquisit ion & P rocessingVo l. 18 No. 4Dec. 2003然是针对传统路由器体系结构开发的, 无法直接应用于新的路由器体系结构。本文提出在通用操作系统的驱动栈中插入一个中间层, 这样对系统内核及和运行在其上的路由、网管等上层软件屏蔽了下层硬件的特殊性, 从而把上层软件和高速硬件平台结合起来。该方案已经应用于高速边缘路由器中, 并表现出了良好的实用性和可扩展性。1 交换式路由器与传统路由器在体系结构上的差别路由器工作在网络的第三层, 其处理工作主要涵盖七层模型中的下三层, 包括: 物理接口处理、数据链路层处理、网络层的路由查找、转发以及队列管理等[1 ]。在传统的路由器体系结构中, 硬件部分只实现物理层的处理, 其余工作需要消耗系统计算资源完成: 包括CPU 周期、内存容量和总线带宽等, 因此性能也受限于这些资源。而在交换式路由器中, 路由处理机仅处理系统维护、路由表维护等少量工作, 数据流的处理都由相对独立的硬件完成, 不再受限于系统计算资源, 因此其性能远优于传统路由器[2 ]。如图1 所示。(a) 传统路由器体系结构(b) 交换式路由器体系结构图1 路由器的逻辑结构 传统路由器和交换式路由器在体系结构方面有明显的区别: 在传统路由器中, 所有的物理接口直接挂接在总线上, 内核可以通过总线直接访问这些接口; 而在交换式路由器中, 只有控制卡是直接挂接在总线上的, 内核必须通过控制卡间接访问各个接口。这导致操作系统内核中代表网络接口的驱动对象的区别: 在传统路由器中, 内核存在若干网络设备驱动对象实例, 每个实例通过总线直接维护一个端口, 为内核及其上面的上层软件提供基本操作支持。而在交换式路由器中, 普通的网络设备驱动对象无法直接维护端口, 也无法支持系统内核和上层软件操作。因此, 交换式路由器体系结构的特殊性使得通用操作系统和上层软件无法直接应用。针对这个问题有两种解决办法: (1) 大量修改内核和各种相关软件的源代码以适应新的体系结构。这种做法存在开发工作量大、周期长、局限性强的缺点, 丧失了使用通用操作系统的灵活性; (2) 在驱动栈中增加一个中间层, 支持普通网络驱动对象所能支持的一切操作, 这样系统内核和上层软件基本上不必修改就可以运行在交换式路由器上。这就是本文所提出的中间层方案。这种方案克服了第一种方法的复杂性, 在保持灵活性的基础上, 可以快速地把通用操作系统及上层软件移植到交换式路由器的硬件平台上。2 中间层设计中间层功能包括数据通信和控制两个方面。从数据通信方面考虑, 每个端口的功能都等效于传统路由器中的一个网络接口, 所以每个物理端口在内核中都应有对应的网络驱动实例。这样才能支持各种上层软件运行, 满足数据通信功能的需要。从控制功能方面考虑, 对上要把每一种可能的逻辑操作映射成硬件操作; 对下要能够和多个设备通信。上层应用包括系统维护、路由软件、网管软件; 下层设备包括处理引擎和端口。控制功能的具体实现和硬件平台有关。考虑到多种应用可能同时操作一个硬件设备, 一种应用也可能同时操作多个设备, 在实现时必须考虑到对于多并发操作的支持。基于上述考虑, 中间层由控制卡驱动模块和若干网络驱动实例组成。在图2 (a, b) 中分别给出了传统路由器的结构与驱动方式以及本文所提出的中间层所处的位置与驱动方式。第4 期潘 登, 等: 一种基于通用操作系统的交换式路由器操作系统实现451图2 中间层的位置与驱动方式 控制卡驱动模块作为中间层的核心, 维护控制卡上所有的端口、内存映射、中断和循环缓冲队列资源。它实现了数据通道和控制通道。对下直接驱动控制卡、与各个端口、处理引擎通信; 对上, 一方面通过内核调用陷阱方式提供控制通道接口; 另一方面向虚拟网络驱动实例提供数据通道接口。虚拟网络驱动实例在操作系统内核为各个物理端口实现网络驱动实例。它们工作在控制卡驱动模块的基础上, 并不直接控制硬件, 故称为虚拟网络驱动实例。虚拟网络驱动实例封装控制卡驱动模块提供的数据传输功能, 并为内核和上层软件提供与普通网络驱动实例相同的调用接口。下面分别给出数据通道和控制通道的实现方案。211 数据通道的功能与实现虚拟网络驱动实例和物理端口是一一对应的。内核数据收发的功能包括3 个方面:(1) 发往某虚拟网络驱动实例的数据包应该由其对应端口输出;(2) 这个端口所收到的包也通过该虚拟网络驱动实例向系统内核提交;(3) 中间层也可以对虚拟网络驱动实例进行流控操作, 以避免因拥塞导致数据丢失。注意到图2 (b) 中的交换结构以定长信元交换数据, 其格式如图3 所示, 其中信元头占4 字节, 包括处理引擎号和端口号域。对于收ö发信元, 处理引擎号和端口号分别为该信元的源端口的和目的端口的对应值。根据图2 (b) 所示的系统结构可知: 由处理引擎号和端口号可以确定端口的物理位置。控制卡驱动模块在其内部的驱动信息数组中维护虚拟网络驱动实例和端口之间的对应关系。图3 数据信元结构发送数据时, 虚拟网络驱动实例从内核网络部分获取待发送的数据, 偕同指向该实例自己的指针一起提交给控制卡驱动模块。一方面, 控制卡驱动模块通过这个指针可以对虚拟网络驱动实例进行流控设置; 另一方面, 控制卡驱动模块根据虚拟网络驱动实例指针查驱动信息表得到目标端口物理位置信息, 包括处理引擎号和端口号。端口物理位置信息将被填充到所有用来承载待发送数据包的信元头中。控制卡驱动模块通过控制卡把信元送到交换结构, 而交换结构和处理引擎分别根据处理引擎号和端口号将信元转发到到目标端口。最后端口从接收到的信元中恢复出原始数据发出。接收数据时, 端口也会将数据拆分到若干信元中逐级上传。考虑到交换结构的循环优先机制, 一个数据包上传的过程可能被来自其他端口的数据抢断。所以控制卡驱动模块对于接收到的信元按源端口位置信息(包括处理引擎号和端口号) 保存到不同的缓冲区中。当接收到该数据包相关的全部信元, 控制驱动模块即可重组该数据, 并根据源端口位置信息查驱动信息表以得到指向该端口对应虚拟网络驱动实例的指针, 进而激活该虚拟网络驱动实例接收数据。虚拟网络驱动实例从控制卡驱动模块中获取数据后, 按照网络驱动的常规方式调用net if- rx 接口向内核提交数据。数据收发实现结构如图4 所示。值得注意的是, 在交换式路由器中, 处理引擎通过交换结构交换的是IP 包; 而通用操作系统中452 数据采集与处理第18 卷图4 数据收发实现结构网络驱动通常处理链路层的帧。即控制卡驱动模块数据通道对上对下的数据格式是不同的。因此, 在发送数据时控制卡驱动模块需要从得到的链路帧中提取IP 包再转发到端口; 而接收数据时则对来自端口的IP 包进行链路帧封装再向上提交。以以太网为例, 需要恢复的包括源和目标站的物理地址、载荷类型和帧校验[3 ]。对于承载IP 包的以太帧, 显然其目标站物理地址和载荷类型[4 ]都是已知的。实现时采用的操作系统是L inux, 通过在虚拟网络驱动源代码中进行设置可以使内核不进行帧校验[5 ]。所以只有源站物理地址未知。如果要求硬件给出真实的源站物理地址, 则增加了硬件的复杂度; 而若在控制卡驱动模块中伪造源物理地址, 则可能导致内核的ARP 管理混乱。为简化硬件设计, 实现时采用了在控制卡驱动模块中伪造源物理地址的办法, 同时修改虚拟网络驱动源代码, 重载帧头处理函数[6 ]。这样内核ARP 表就不受伪造地址的影响, 其获取和刷新通过查询端口ARP 记录实现。212 控制通道的功能与实现控制功能的通信也是基于信元的, 其操作包括维护管理和表同步两类。维护管理主要是进行各种查询, 通常通过若干次双向通信完成。每次通信有效载荷都只有几个字节, 由一个信元即可承载。而表同步则是将上层软件维护的表复制到相关硬件中, 包括ARP 表、路由和分类表等。表同步操作涉及大量数据传输, 需要由多个信元承载。控制功能都是针对设备进行的, 所以在控制ö反馈信元中也必须包括目标设备的物理位置信息。在实际运行期间, 所有的上层应用和设备之间的控制通信复用控制通道, 其特点为:(1) 不同的应用可能同时访问同一设备;(2) 一个应用也可能同时访问多个设备;(3) 同一应用对于同一个设备的操作一般都是顺序的。为支持这种复用操作, 所有承载控制信息和反馈信息的头部除包括目标硬件的物理位置和操作指令外, 还包括命令类型、应用类型信息。控制ö反馈用信元结构如图5 所示。图5 控制ö反馈信元结构图5 中: 处理引擎号和端口号, 确定设备的物理位置; 收ö发信元分别为该信元的源端口的和目的端口的对应值; 命令码在设备和应用之间定义。每种可能的操作分配一个代码; 应用码在控制卡驱动模块和上层应用之间预定义。每种可能的应用分配一个代码。这些应用包含网管、路由维护、硬件维护和ARP 信息获取等。上层应用通过内核调用陷井( IOCTL ) 发起控制通道操作, 同时给出目标设备物理位置、命令类型代码和应用类型代码。控制卡驱动模块把这些信息填充到控制信元中再将其发往设备。设备把这些代码直接复制到反馈信元中, 再在后面追加上反馈信息。控制卡驱动模块为每一种应用分配一个循环缓冲区, 把收到的反馈根据应用类型排入相应队列中。上层应用从其所对应的循环缓冲区中读取反馈信元, 然后根据信元中的物理位置信息、命令码就可以确定该反馈对应的原始命令, 从而对反馈数据进行适当处理。这样就实现了各种控制功能对控制通道的复用。如图6 所示。第4 期潘 登, 等: 一种基于通用操作系统的交换式路由器操作系统实现453图6 控制通信实现结构3 结 论鉴于传统路由器体系结构和交换式路由器体系结构的区别, 通用操作系统及在其上开发的路由软件无法直接应用于交换式路由器。本文提出的中间层方案可以有效地解决这个问题。该方案全面考虑了数据通信和管理维护方面的需求, 为上层提供了与原有模型基本相同的接口, 并使得路由软件在不损失其灵活性和可升级性的条件下直接应用于交换式路由器中。虽然该方案只是在特定的平台和特定的操作系统上得到了实现, 但是不难看出, 这种思路对操作系统并没有特殊的依赖性, 完全可以移植到其他通用操作系统上。本文提出的方案已经在国家863 项目实用化综合接入系统的高速边缘路由器的研制中取得了良好的实际效果。本文为国产高性能路由器的软件开发提出了一种高效快捷的解决方案, 该方案具有良好的应用前景。参考文献:[1 ] Kuro se J F, Ro ss KW. Computer netwo rk ing: a top2dow n app roach featuring the internet [M ]. A ddisonW esley Longman′s P ress, 2001. 332～ 341.[ 2 ] 梁阿磊, 等. 路由器体系结构及其发展[J ]. 小型微型计算机系统, 2001, 8: 943～ 945.[3 ] M edia access cont ro l frame st ructure [S ]. IEEE Std80213, 1998. 36～ 40.[ 4 ] Charles Ho rnig. RFC 894: a standard fo r the t rans2m ission of IP datagram s over Ethernet netwo rk s[S ].198411～ 2.[5 ] Bovet D P. U nderstanding L inux kernel[M ]. O reil2ley P ress, 2002. 683～ 685[ 6 ] Rubini A. L inux device drivers. 2nd edit ion [M ].O r2eilley P ress, 2001. 455～ 458作者简介: 潘 登(19772) , 男, 博士研究生, 研究方向: 网络体系结构、网络安全, E2mail: pandeng@mail. ustc. edu. cn;徐佩霞(19412) , 女, 教授, 博士生导师, 研究方向: 音频视频编码、非线性处理、下一代网络。454 数据采集与处理第18 卷
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Computer ScienceComputer science (or computing science) is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation, and of practical techniques for their implementation and application in computer systems. It is frequently described as the systematic study of algorithmic processes that describe and transform information. According to Peter J. Denning, the fundamental question underlying computer science is, "What can be (efficiently) automated?" Computer science has many sub-fields; some, such as computer graphics, emphasize the computation of specific results, while others, such as computational complexity theory, study the properties of computational problems. Still others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, programming language theory studies approaches to describing computations, while computer programming applies specific programming languages to solve specific computational problems, and human-computer interaction focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to people.The general public sometimes confuses computer science with vocational areas that deal with computers (such as information technology), or think that it relates to their own experience of computers, which typically involves activities such as gaming, web-browsing, and word-processing. However, the focus of computer science is more on understanding the properties of the programs used to implement software such as games and web-browsers, and using that understanding to create new programs or improve existing ones. HistoryThe early foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks, such as the abacus, have existed since antiquity. Wilhelm Schickard built the first mechanical calculator in 1623. Charles Babbage designed a difference engine in Victorian times helped by Ada Lovelace. Around 1900, punch-card machines were introduced. However, all of these machines were constrained to perform a single task, or at best some subset of all possible tasks.During the 1940s, as newer and more powerful computing machines were developed, the term computer came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors. As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s, with the creation of the first computer science departments and degree programs. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own right.Although many initially believed it impossible that computers themselves could actually be a scientific field of study, in the late fifties it gradually became accepted among the greater academic population. It is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM (short for International Business Machines) released the IBM 704 and later the IBM 709 computers, which were widely used during the exploration period of such devices. "Still, working with the IBM [computer] was frustrating...if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again". During the late 1950s, the computer science discipline was very much in its developmental stages, and such issues were commonplace.Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computer science technology. Modern society has seen a significant shift from computers being used solely by experts or professionals to a more widespread user base.Major AchievementsDespite its relatively short history as a formal academic discipline, computer science has made a number of fundamental contributions to science and society. These include:Started the "digital revolution", which includes the current Information Age and the Internet. A formal definition of computation and computability, and proof that there are computationally unsolvable and intractable problems. The concept of a programming language, a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction. In cryptography, breaking the Enigma machine was an important factor contributing to the Allied victory in World War II. Scientific computing enabled advanced study of the mind, and mapping the human genome became possible with Human Genome Project. Distributed computing projects such as Folding@home explore protein folding. Algorithmic trading has increased the efficiency and liquidity of financial markets by using artificial intelligence, machine learning, and other statistical and numerical techniques on a large scale.Fields of Computer ScienceAs a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software. The Computer Sciences Accreditation Board (CSAB) – which is made up of representatives of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Computer Society, and the Association for Information Systems – identifies four areas that it considers crucial to the discipline of computer science: theory of computation, algorithms and data structures, programming methodology and languages, and computer elements and architecture. In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, computer-human interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and symbolic computation as being important areas of computer science.Theoretical Computer ScienceThe broader field of theoretical computer science encompasses both the classical theory of computation and a wide range of other topics that focus on the more abstract, logical, and mathematical aspects of computing.Theory of ComputationThe study of the theory of computation is focused on answering fundamental questions about what can be computed, and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In an effort to answer the first question, computability theory examines which computational problems are solvable on various theoretical models of computation. The second question is addressed by computational complexity theory, which studies the time and space costs associated with different approaches to solving a computational problem.The famous "P=NP?" problem, one of the Millennium Prize Problems, is an open problem in the theory of computation.Relationship with Other FieldsDespite its name, a significant amount of computer science does not involve the study of computers themselves. Because of this, several alternative names have been proposed. Certain departments of major universities prefer the term computing science, to emphasize precisely that difference. Danish scientist Peter Naur suggested the term datalogy, to reflect the fact that the scientific discipline revolves around data and data treatment, while not necessarily involving computers. The first scientific institution to use the term was the Department of Datalogy at the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1969, with Peter Naur being the first professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly in the Scandinavian countries. Also, in the early days of computing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the field of computing were suggested in the Communications of the ACM – turingineer, turologist, flow-charts-man, applied meta-mathematician, and applied epistemologist. Three months later in the same journal, comptologist was suggested, followed next year by hypologist. The term computics has also been suggested. Informatik was a term used in Europe with more frequency.The renowned computer scientist Edsger Dijkstra stated, "Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes." The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of computer hardware is usually considered part of computer engineering, while the study of commercial computer systems and their deployment is often called information technology or information systems. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research has also often crossed into other disciplines, such as cognitive science, economics, mathematics, physics (see quantum computing), and linguistics.Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with mathematics than many scientific disciplines, with some observers saying that computing is a mathematical science. Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as Kurt Gödel and Alan Turing, and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as mathematical logic, category theory, domain theory, and algebra.The relationship between computer science and software engineering is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by disputes over what the term "software engineering" means, and how computer science is defined. David Parnas, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, has claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making the two separate but complementary disciplines.The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on whether a department formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider alignment computational science. Both types of departments tend to make efforts to bridge the field educationally if not across all research.Computer Science EducationSome universities teach computer science as a theoretical study of computation and algorithmic reasoning. These programs often feature the theory of computation, analysis of algorithms, formal methods, concurrency theory, databases, computer graphics and systems analysis, among others. They typically also teach computer programming, but treat it as a vessel for the support of other fields of computer science rather than a central focus of high-level study.Other colleges and universities, as well as secondary schools and vocational programs that teach computer science, emphasize the practice of advanced programming rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in their computer science curricula. Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the software industry. The practical aspects of computer programming are often referred to as software engineering. However, there is a lot of disagreement over the meaning of the term, and whether or not it is the same thing as programming.
The computer is a wonderful machine. They are already widely used in industries and in universities. They are used in many ways. Computers can do many kinds of work. For example, computers can helps us do maths problems quickly. Some problems are too hard for us to work them out, but computers can. A scientist can ask computers some questions, and the computers can answer on the screen.
英语教育论文
论文题目： 浅析游戏教学法在中职英语课堂教学中的应用
摘要： 情感因素对语言学习有很大的影响。中职学生在英语学习方面普遍存在着基础薄弱、学习动机不强等学习焦虑方面的问题，英语课堂教学因此存在着互动消极、教学反馈少、效果差的情况。游戏教学法从理论和实际效用上对于改善这种情况都是很好的应用。
关键词： 游戏教学法;中职英语;课堂教学
英语是当今世界通用语言，我们在生活和工作中越来越多地接触、使用到英语，学好英语对于当代中职生的职业发展和个人素质的提高都是非常有益和必要的。
但是实际情况是，中职生的英语基础普遍薄弱，存在不同程度的英语学习焦虑，有的中职生，由于英语基础比较薄弱，对英语失去了兴趣，出现了对英语失去信心的现象，从而导致英语课堂教学开展困难，教学效果不理想。
一、中职英语课堂教学的现状
教师讲授为主，师生互动为辅，学生参与度低。中职英语教学课时有限，为了完成既定的教学内容，语言知识的讲解和练习占据了大多数的课堂教学时间。
师生间互动教学以教师提问，学生作答为主，学生间生生互动以课文对话的替换练习为主，形式内容单调。学生对此不感兴趣，形成了“老师讲，学生听”的单调局面。有时上课还有学生玩手机、睡觉等现象，课堂效果非常不好。
教材设定的情景互动内容趣味性弱，学生参与度低下。现行教材中设定的情景练习以生活类英语会话为主，如购物、就餐、问路、看病等，缺乏趣味性。中职学生处于爱玩爱闹的青春期，此类会话练习难以触动学生的兴奋点。
学生基础薄弱，有不同程度的英语学习焦虑。在开展课堂互动时，中职生往往沉默应对，或是消极敷衍，鹦鹉学舌，应付了事。即使教师积极地鼓励学生，这种正面的评价也很难得到学生自己的认同。
英语教育论文范文2000字
无论是身处学校还是步入社会，大家都不可避免地会接触到论文吧，论文可以推广经验，交流认识。相信写论文是一个让许多人都头痛的问题，以下是我为大家整理的英语教育论文范文2000字，仅供参考，希望能够帮助到大家。
论文题目： 浅析游戏教学法在中职英语课堂教学中的应用
摘要： 情感因素对语言学习有很大的影响。中职学生在英语学习方面普遍存在着基础薄弱、学习动机不强等学习焦虑方面的问题，英语课堂教学因此存在着互动消极、教学反馈少、效果差的情况。游戏教学法从理论和实际效用上对于改善这种情况都是很好的应用。
关键词： 游戏教学法;中职英语;课堂教学
英语是当今世界通用语言，我们在生活和工作中越来越多地接触、使用到英语，学好英语对于当代中职生的职业发展和个人素质的提高都是非常有益和必要的。但是实际情况是，中职生的英语基础普遍薄弱，存在不同程度的英语学习焦虑，有的中职生，由于英语基础比较薄弱，对英语失去了兴趣，出现了对英语失去信心的现象，从而导致英语课堂教学开展困难，教学效果不理想。
一、中职英语课堂教学的现状
1.教师讲授为主，师生互动为辅，学生参与度低。中职英语教学课时有限，为了完成既定的教学内容，语言知识的讲解和练习占据了大多数的课堂教学时间。师生间互动教学以教师提问，学生作答为主，学生间生生互动以课文对话的替换练习为主，形式内容单调。学生对此不感兴趣，形成了“老师讲，学生听”的单调局面。有时上课还有学生玩手机、睡觉等现象，课堂效果非常不好。
2.教材设定的情景互动内容趣味性弱，学生参与度低下。现行教材中设定的情景练习以生活类英语会话为主，如购物、就餐、问路、看病等，缺乏趣味性。中职学生处于爱玩爱闹的青春期，此类会话练习难以触动学生的兴奋点。
3.学生基础薄弱，有不同程度的英语学习焦虑。在开展课堂互动时，中职生往往沉默应对，或是消极敷衍，鹦鹉学舌，应付了事。即使教师积极地鼓励学生，这种正面的评价也很难得到学生自己的认同。
二、语言学习中的情感因素影响
语言学家斯蒂芬·克拉申(Stephen Krashen)的情感过滤假设理论(Affective Filter Hypothesis)认为，“有了大量的适合的输入的环境并不等于学生就可以学好目的语了，第二语言习得的进程还受着许多的情感因素的影响。语言输入(input)必须通过情感过滤(filter)才有可能变成语言吸入(intake)。”也就是说，情感因素起着促进或阻碍的作用。“高情感过滤会限制习得，而低情感过滤则有助于习得。”情感因素则包括动机、自信心及焦虑程度。
英语学习中的焦虑主要指学习者需要用英语这种第二语言进行表达时产生的恐惧或不安心理。Horwitz等(1986)确定了语言焦虑的三个成因：交际畏惧、考试畏惧和负面评价畏惧。在英语课堂教学中，中职生的交际畏惧和负面评价畏惧表现得非常明显。交际畏惧是指尽管语言学习者有成熟的想法和意见，但因为无法进行合理有效的语言输出引发的焦虑。要克服这种畏惧心理，要求一个轻松、愉快的学习氛围。负面评价畏惧则是指学生的自我效能感低，对自己的英语水平和能力缺乏自信心，担心无法得到肯定评价，自尊心又导致害怕接受否定评价。针对这种畏惧，一个单纯反映语言输出效果，而不加人为评价的语言环境是比较有益的。
三、注意的规律和教学游戏
无意注意也叫不随意注意，它是一种没有预定目的，也不需要意志努力的注意。引起无意注意的原因来自两个方面，一是客观刺激物的特点，二是人的主体状态。注意的规律表明：(1)那些符合人的需要和兴趣的事物，容易引起人的无意注意。(2)新颖充实、难易适当的教学内容和多样化的教学方法能保持学生的注意力。心理学的研究表明，最能引起注意的是那些既使人感到熟悉，又有些陌生的内容。而教学方法的多样化，则符合“不断变化的刺激”这一无意注意的规律，能激发学生定向探求活动，不致使定向反射由于刺激物的习惯化而消失。中职生是爱玩爱闹的青少年群体，多数喜欢做游戏，对这种形式有较高的接受度和兴趣，并且教学游戏有多种变化形式，可以提供“不断变化的刺激”，非常符合无意注意的教学规律。利用无意注意规律的教学游戏，有利于学生形成正确的学习方法和良好的学习习惯，有利于化难为易，减轻学生负担。
四、游戏教学法在中职英语课堂教学中的应用
1.游戏教学法的应用原则。
(1)目标性原则：教学游戏的设计要以教学为中心，与其密切相关。不能一味追求趣味性，而必须充分考虑教学目的、教学内容、教学要求。
(2)竞争性和协作性原则：游戏具有比赛的性质，这有助于学生克服害羞、怕说错的心理障碍;以小组的形式展开的游戏要求每个成员积极参与，为了完成同一任务互相配合，有助于克服学生的懈怠和懒惰情绪，同时培养了学生的团队精神和协作意识。
(3)层次性原则：一方面要遵循循序渐进的原则，设计一系列由易到难的游戏活动。另一方面要注意面向全体学生，根据学生的实际水平分层次地开展游戏活动，让全体学生都有机会参与，都能体验到成功的喜悦。
(4)创新性原则：根据学生的反馈和实际教学效果，不断地设计和创新新的游戏，让学生也参与到游戏的设计中来，充分调动学生的主动性和积极性。
2.游戏教学法实例。
(1)猜词游戏(词汇主题的练习)。游戏方法一：同学A对单词进行描述(Oral Description)，同学B来猜测。如“It is a kind of fruit，it has green skin and red inside.”游戏方法二：用问答形式进行猜词。给出既定范围内的单词，比如交通工具类。同学A用规定的一般疑问句句型发问，如“Does the vehicle have wheels?”同学B只能回答“Yes”或“No”。两组同学分别进行，规定时间内猜出更多词汇的一组获胜。这是一种促使学生积极思维，考察学生对知识点掌握情况的好方法。
(2)传话游戏(句子的口语练习)。学生分两组，教师把课文中的好句子或使用重点短语和词汇的句子告诉每组的第一位学生，这位学生迅速口述给第二位学生，一个一个往下传，让最后一位学生说出这句话与第一位学生所说的进行比较，看哪组传话传得又快又好，准确说出的小组为获胜者。这种方式可练习学生的听说能力，且能对课文的知识点掌握得更好。这种寓教于乐的形式，很受学生的欢迎，他们思维活跃，反应灵敏，在游戏中，就学到了很多短语和词汇，这是一举两得的好的教学方式。
(3)一站到底(文化类主题的练习)。每组选出一名学生参加游戏，以抽签的方式产生一位擂主，其他同学依次进行挑战，挑战胜利者成为下一轮的擂主接受挑战，最后站在擂主位置的同学为获胜者。挑战的题目内容是与文化相关的，每个同学答题时间有一定的限制。如“When is Christmas?(圣诞节是何时?)Whatdo westerners use when they eat?(西方人用什么吃饭?)”
(4)“记忆达人”秀(以复习职业类单词为例)。教师快速呈现一组图片，其中包括职业类、食品类、运动类等，然后要求学生说出共有几幅关于职业的图片以及这些职业的单词，答出最多者为“记忆达人”。可以把学生的积极性调动起来进行比赛。答案正确，答对数量多者为优胜者，现场发“记忆达人”小红旗。也可以进行“记忆达人”挑战赛，最终获胜者，为“记忆达人”霸主，从而激发学生的积极性。
(5)单词接龙游戏。教师给出单词，如holiday，要求学生用尾字母作为首字母给出新单词，以此类推，单词不能重复。两组同学比赛，规定时间内说出更多单词的一组获胜。在此游戏中尽量鼓励学生给出新单词。这一游戏要求学生能迅速地听出前一个学生给出的单词，且对该单词的拼写要非常熟悉，这可帮助学生记忆单词，其他的学生也可锻炼听力及巩固单词的记忆。这样既可活跃气氛，又锻炼学生的反应能力，是学生喜欢的一种非常有效的接龙游戏。
五、结论
孔子曾经说过：“知之者不如好之者，好之者不如乐之者。”心理学研究表明，当一个人充满兴趣地干一件事时，创造性和主动性会得到高效发挥。他们会积极主动地去求知，去实践，并在成功的体验中收获学识增加、智力提高的乐趣和满足感，从而变得乐于学习，善于学习。实践表明，这种玩中学、学中玩的游戏教学法是中职学生乐于接受的一种情景教学方式，既可以优化中职英语课堂教学，调节课堂的学习氛围，又可以使中职学生学习和掌握知识，让学生学以致用，还可以充分调动中职学生的非智力因素和潜力，使学生改变以往消极懈怠的不良学习态度。总之，只要中职英语教师在实施游戏教学法时精心设计、运用得体，就能够提高中职学生英语学习的兴趣和效率。
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【内容摘要】 今后的教学模式的发展趋势是从哲学范畴去创新课堂教学形式，在生成观视域下探索学生的心理发展，最终以课堂教学为外在形式，使学生能够形成积极的人生观、价值观。本文从“生成观”的角度来理解大学英语教学过程，对其价值导向、主体生成、生活属性等进行哲学关注，希望从理论上重新理清大学英语的教育思路，提高教学效果。
【关键词】 生成观；大学英语教育；价值导向；主体生成
将英语课堂的视角投向大学英语教学的课堂之外，从知识的传授到学生专业技能的学习，再从专业技能到健康和谐的心理活动的生成。今后的教学模式的发展趋势是从哲学范畴去创新课堂教学形式，在生成观视域下探索学生的心理发展，最终以课堂教学为外在形式，使学生能够形成积极的人生观、价值观。
一、生成观的哲学阐释
哲学家海德格尔对生成观的解释是：最为独立的“人”的存在，不能单纯的独立于社会之外，而是将其看做是社会各自然人相互作用的结果。其本质就是将“人”看做不断生长、不断完善的一个过程的产物。从哲学的角度来理解就是每一个个体都是相互影响、相互促进的“社会性人的存在”，不再单纯将“人”看做生命机体的.存活，而是将其视为“生成性的社会存在”。在大学英语教育的过程中，从“生成观”的角度来理解教学过程就是：不再将课堂教学视为单纯的知识传授，而是要从学生的知识形成过程去分析其影响因素，从心里层面、社会角度去分析探究提高学生的成长过程。从哲学的范畴就是强调学生学习的的客观性、社会性、过程性，围绕上述几个方面展开大学英语的教育活动。也就是说，大学英语教育活动中教与学的都是在社会大背景下，相互影响、相互促进的自然过程。从辩证角度去理解教学过程，对完善教学活动，提高学生综合素质有着积极的意义。
二、生成观视域下的大学英语教学
对于生成观视域下的大学英语教学活动解读，主要体现在三个方面。一是教学互动，大学课堂不再是大学教师主导的教学活动，而是需要教师和学生、学生和学生、教师与教师之间的双向、多角度互动交流，将知识的传授变成交流互动的最终产物，这也是知识本身由来的客观性存在。二是从心理、文化、环境等多角度去分析教学影响因素，更加客观的评价教学活动。大学英语教育过程是受以上诸多因素影响的，不再单纯的去完善大学课堂教学模式。这样的体系更加客观，更能综合性的分析评定大学英语教育活动。三是辩证理解学生及教师之间的关系。之前的教学活动，大学教师是教学主体，主导学生的学习活动。
（一）大学英语的价值导向
首先，大学英语教育切合现实需求。在大学英语教育的整个过程中，大学教材的选择、课堂组织形式、教学效果评价等等都需要与当前的市场经济需求相吻合。学生在学习的过程中，可以有效的将知识与现实需求结合起来，不仅提高了学习效率，而且学习的主动性大大提高。在这样的价值背景下，现实需求不是追求短期的经济需求，而是要将眼光放远，应用更加开阔的角度来审视我们当前的英语教学过程。其次，大学英语教学合乎未来需求。在变化多端的社会活动中，要有前瞻性的眼光，对当前的英语教育活动进行必要的探究，将教育活动最大化的与现实需求进行良性互动，最终能在英语教育的过程中，提高学生知识的综合运用的能力。学生的毕业时间往往与当前的英语学习有时间上的差异，也就是说知识的学习与应用不是同时进行的，这就要求教师在组织教学活动时，对知识的未来需求有一定的前瞻性，使学习的内容合乎市场经济的未来需求。第三，大学英语教育要存些“功利心”。在当前的大学英语教学中，教学活动的组织都在考试这一指挥棒下进行，这虽然能在短期内提高学生的学习成绩，但是从根本上来讲忽略教育的本质功能，是培养学生良好知识架构和实践技能，最终能在毕业后得到合适的工作，在社会上能谋生。也就是说，我们的大学教育应该在满足成绩的需求基础上，对于学生的学习内容进行相应的创新变革，最终满足学生基本的就业需求。
（二）大学英语教学的主体生成
第一，大学英语教育中的主体之一是教师。教师在教育活动中的意义不言而喻，在传统的教育活动中，更多的是关注教师的传道授业解惑，也就是说教师能否完成本职工作，很少对教师的自身价值观念和知识架构进行评价分析。在教书育人的过程中，教师的外在形式与内心诉求有着统一性的表现。第二，大学英语教育活动的主体之一是学生。学生在学习活动中，对于知识的掌握和基本实践技能的提高都与学生自身的学习行为有着密切的联系。在生成观视域下，学生的学习活动不再是单一的个体行为，而是在社会活动的范围内完成学习过程。学生在学习过程中，应该讲自身的心理活动、学习环境、文化素质等等因素与自身的学习活动结合起来，客观性的评价自身的学习行为，最终提高自身文化素养及社会实践能力。
（三）大学英语教学的生活属性
在生成观视域下，对大学英语教学活动进行分析总结，得出教学活动本身就是自然人社会活动的缩影。大学教学活动是教师与学生互动存在的社会活动，这本很就是生活的一部分。所以在教学活动中，教师与学生之间的互动交流都要本着乐观的生活态度进行，在良好的价值观引导下，进行相应的教学活动，这样往往能够达成最初的教学目标。生成观视域下的大学英语教育实践活动要本着教与学的双向交流互动、多角度分析影响因素及尊重知识的客观存在性基础上展开教学活动的组织、策划。生成观视域下的教学活动其本质是探究知识存在的客观性，在教学活动中，学生及教师相互尊重，共同交流，在此基础上不断获取文化知识，提高社会实践技能。
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摘要： 我国传统的高校英语教育偏向于应试教育，学生更多地只是为了应付考试过级，哑巴英语现象十分严重。因此，随着互联网技术的发展，高校英语教育在跨文化的视域下需要做好转型和改革。而且，高校英语教育必须适应互联网的传播方式，同时，高校英语教育还要注意互联网时代跨文化的影响。
关键词： 互联网时代；跨文化；高校英语教育
任何语言的学习都是文化的体现，同样，对于英语的教育其实也是一种文化的体现，我国传统的高校英语教育更重视的是应试教育，导致学生实践应用能力比较差，只是为了应付考试而学习英语。而随着社会的发展，以及网络技术、电子信息技术、通信技术和互联网技术的进步，全世界已经进入到了互联网时代。在互联网时代，由于以新媒体为代表的媒体传播以快速和便捷的优势迅速影响了全世界，互联网让全世界无论身在何时何地都可以迅速地获得自己想要的资料，在此大背景下，互联网的优势逐渐显现出来，跨文化融合趋势愈加明显。区域文化和地区文化很容易随着新媒体和互联网的传播进入到任何国家，所以，高校英语教育也应该做好转型和改革，从而更好地适应社会的变化和发展，促进高校英语教育水平的进一步提升。
一、高校英语教育必须适应互联网的传播方式
互联网传播方式的特点是快速和便捷，高校英语教育是一种语言学习，而语言学习首先需要的是语言的氛围和环境的熏陶，以及多语言文化的了解。在互联网时代，高校英语教育应该有效利用互联网的优势，在帮助学生学好英语的同时，教会学生在具备多渠道和传播优势的互联网上获取自身英语学习所需要的有效资料，丰富英语教育的内容，同时还应该提高学习的趣味性和生动性。高校的英语教育可以加强人才培养方案的改革与创新，让学生多进行实践性的教学，在互联网上获取自己所需要的教学资源，并且还可以进一步强化英语教学内容和教学手段的改进。互联网的发展影响了很多人，对于高校的英语教育而言，利用互联网来进行英语教学的改革势在必行，互联网的优势在于它可以丰富教学内容和教学方法，可以激发学生学习英语的兴趣，可以调动学生学习英语的积极性，从而使学生在互联网的帮助下更好地学习英语。客观地说，互联网为高校的英语教育带来了机遇，同时也带来了挑战，一方面，互联网充实了高校英语教学的教学内容，丰富了高校英语教学的教学模式；另一方面，在一定程度上，互联网在提高高校的优质英语教学方法方面提出了挑战。
二、高校英语教育要注意互联网时代跨文化的影响
互联网时代，语言早已经成为了一种传播文化的有效工具，学习一国的语言也必须要了解一个国家的文化，随着全球的一体化发展，跨文化的思想也逐渐成为学习语言的一种障碍，尤其是高校英语教学，如果不能摈弃哑巴英语的学习方式和方法，不能在跨文化语境中有效地学习英语，就无法真正地掌握英语的精髓。因此，为了学好英语这门语言，就应该加强对英美文化的全面了解，尤其是在跨文化的过程中，要注意英美思维的融入，只有这样，才能找到英语的精髓，才能确保英语学习效率。文化的接受是一个长期的过程，跨文化视域下的英语学习和高校英语教育更应该关注学生学习的过程，尤其是如何让学生在学习过程中从跨文化的观念出发，借用互联网的优势来做好自身英语的学习。语言的学习和文化的融合是息息相关、密不可分的，对于文化的了解有利于强化语言学习，而互联网时代恰好为英语教学的发展提供了条件。在高校的英语教学中，可以通过互联网来了解跨文化背景下的西方文化，便于自身更好地掌握这门语言，并且精通这门语言的学习。
三、结语
随着教育的进一步发展，高等教育已经逐步开始了应用型教育的转型，尤其是在互联网市场上，高等教育应该与时俱进，做好高校教育的工作，英语教育亦是如此，英语教育不同于其他的高校教育，是一门跨文化背景下的语言教育，因此，想要学会他国的语言，首先需要充分了解该国的文化背景，那么，如何在互联网时代，在跨文化视域的背景下提高高校英语教学水平，培养出更多的适合社会发展的人才成为需要研究的重要问题。
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关于高效课堂的小学英语论文范文三篇
第一篇
一、教学形式活动化
在小学英语课堂教学中，教师可以通过丰富多样的教学形式，让学生“动”起来，充分体验和亲身感受语言的灵活运用，提高对英语的感知度，促使学生在知识与技能、思维与情感等方面有所收获。如我在教学小学英语时，把活泼、有趣、生动的游戏引入了课堂。针对身体各部位的单词，我先带领学生读会单词，而后进行游戏比赛：教师指出自己的某一身体部位，让学生快速说出相应的英语单词。教师还可以创设情境，让学生表演。如我把教学内容编成了一些节奏欢快、通俗易懂的英语韵律歌谣，供学生朗读、吟涌并表演。如在教26个英语字母时，我让学生模仿字母的形状，用身体摆出和字母大体相似的形状，这样，就把呆板、枯燥的字母活灵活现地演绎了出来，激发了学生的学习热情。在教学有关天气、季节的知识时，我采用儿歌教学法。有了儿歌，学生学得有滋有味，很快掌握了教学内容。针对高年级，我引入了小记者游戏，让学生扮演小记者采访他人，在采访中可谈论自己喜欢的季节、天气、景象，学生一个个兴趣盎然、积极主动，取得了良好的教学效果。只要我们在教学中采用多样的教学形式，调动起学生学习的积极性，相信课堂教学定会收到事半功倍的效果。
二、教学手段多样化
在小学英语教学中，针对不同的教学内容需采用不同的教学手段，以此让学生能够时时产生“柳暗花明又一村”的新鲜感，真正起到激发、保持学生学习兴趣的作用，提高课堂教学效果。为此，教师可以采用图片、实物挂图等方式进行直观教学，简洁明快地引出教学内容，把学生吸引过来。如我在教pencil、pen、ruler、window、door等单词时，分别运用展示实物或者出示相应的图片等方式来加深学生的印象；还可以采用投影、幻灯、录像、录音、PowerPoint等多媒体技术，创设出具有直观性和感染力的教学场景，把英语教学内容生动、形象、逼真象地呈现出来，为课堂教学注入新的活力，激发学生学习的兴趣。例如我在教animals这一课时，先录下了狗、牛、猫等动物的叫声，然后在英语课堂上播放，学生认真地听并有声有色地跟着模仿。当他们兴趣正浓时，我放出了这些动物的单词读音，让学生兴致勃勃地跟读dog、cow、cat等单词，课堂上响起了英语朗读声和各种动物的叫声，这样，大大激发了学生学习英语的兴趣，收到了较好的教学效果。
三、教学氛围和谐化
和谐的英语课堂教学氛围，会令学生如沐春风，如饮甘泉，人人轻松愉快，个个精神抖擞。在课堂上，往往会看到这样两种不同的场景：有的英语教师精神饱满，学生情绪高涨、注意力集中，教与学双方都沉浸在一种轻松愉快的气氛之中，共同探索着英语知识；而有的英语教师却不甚得法，即使讲得口干舌燥、声音嘶哑，学生也木然置之，毫无反应，整个课堂犹如一潭死水。英语教师要善于解释学生的疑惑，适时点拨。教师的讲解要生动有趣，幽默诙谐，使学生不时发出会心的笑声，同时还要鼓励学生大胆质疑，让学生围绕中心各抒己见。在关键问题上，教师要留出“空白”，让学生探索；要留有余地，让学生联想；要让学生透过有限去发现无限。在小学英语课堂教学中，教师要建立和谐、平等、民主的师生关系，要利用自身良好的师德、风趣的语言、十足的亲和力、饱满的热情、真实的感情、有效的管理，构建起和谐的课堂教学氛围，使师生之间上呼下应、下传上达，情真意切，配合默契，从而真正激发起学生学习的热情，高质量地完成英语教学任务。
四、教学评价激励化
小学英语教学中，教师要通过尊重激励、信任激励、赏识激励等多元的激励性评价方法，科学、及时地对学生进行激励评价，多给学生一些认可和信任，给予学生精神力量，让他们的身心始终处于最佳状态，从而最大限度地发挥出自身的主动性、积极性，积极地投入到学习之中。总之，小学英语课教学中，教师要想方设法地激发起学生学习的热情和兴趣，让学生保持愉悦的心情主动地学习，从而打造出高效的小学英语课堂。
第二篇
一、利用儿歌教学，从提高兴趣入手实现高效课堂
很多学生在歌声中，激发了学习的积极性，一些学生课前消极的情绪也能被歌声吹散。歌声的魅力是很大的，需要教师积极挖掘，使课堂教学效率达到事半功倍的效果。在新课呈现环节，教师也可以根据教学内容，创造儿歌，使学生进行相关学习。如在新单词教学时，教师可以把一些单词编成儿歌，中英结合，激发学生单词学习的积极性和热情，使学生能够在儿歌的咏唱中掌握有关单词。例如：你拍一，我拍一，window window是窗户。你拍二，我拍二，floo rfloor是地板。……其实，儿歌的用途很广泛，只要教师能够结合学生的心理特点，结合教学内容，创造性地把内容融进儿歌中去，就能创新教学形式，让学生快乐学习，积极参与，提高课堂教学效率。
二、利用直观教具教学，在形象思维中实现高效课堂
对于小学生而言，他们的抽象思维能力很差，学生认识客观事物，是靠形象思维完成的。在小学英语教学中，教师要依据学生的这一心理特点，尽量使抽象的内容形象化，使学生能够有效理解知识，掌握知识，促进学生有效学习。利用直观教具组织教学，是化抽象为形象的有效方式。在教学中，教师可以根据教学内容自制一些教具来辅助教学，也可以在教学中使用一些实物教具，这对于激发学生参与学习的兴趣都有积极作用。例如，在教学onion,tomato,potato,cucum-ber,carrot等食物类的单词时，教师可以准备一些实物，带进教室，在课桌上展示出来，一个个指给学生，教学新单词。这样，学生的学习积极性很高，争抢着根据实物进行英语拼读，在很短的时间内，学生可以有效掌握这些单词。在学生过了单词关之后，教师可以引导学生进行相应的句式练习，教师指着“tomato”问学生“What’sthis?”引导学生回答“It’satomato”，再利用实物引入句型“Isita/an...”以及回答“Yes，itis...”或“No，itisn’t...”然后，教师与学生角色互换，学生提问，教师回答，学生评价。这样，学生参与的积极性很高，师生密切配合，可以有效完成教学任务，促进教学的发展。
三、利用游戏教学，在玩中实现高效课堂
从生理和心理角度而言，小学生爱动、活泼，特别喜欢从事游戏活动。因此，教师可以在教学中，利用游戏方式开展教学活动。教师可以根据教学内容，组织一些游戏活动，引导学生参与到游戏活动中去，使学生在游戏中学习，在学习中游戏，使学生有效学习，快乐成长。例如，在教学nose,eye,mouth,ear,head等单词时，教师自己做动作，瞪瞪眼睛，吸吸鼻子，甩甩胳膊，踢踢腿等。在教师做动作的过程中，让学生跟着一起做动作，并齐声喊出相关单词。这样，学生在游戏中可以有效地学会单词。学生掌握单词后，教师再训练学生听祈使句并迅速做出反应。教师发出指令，让学生根据指令做动作。如：Touchyourface(eyes,ear,nose)/Putupyourhands/Closeyoureyes等，学生听到后便做这一动作，又快又准的学生获胜。训练完身体部位单词后，再用其他的单词进行祈使句的操练，如Touchyourpencil(yourbook,chair...)等，学生在游戏中可以有效掌握祈使句，达成教学目标。
四、利用正面引导，在激励中实现高效课堂
由于英语是第二语言，小学英语课时数少，学生在生活中接触的也很少，造成英语学习效率低，容易遗忘。因此，对于小学生而言，学习英语是很困难的，在英语学习中难免会遇到很多问题。在单词、句型教学中，学生可能会记不住单词，不会应用句型，甚至在字母学习中，学生也可能会出现很多问题，甚至有学生分不清b和p，分不清v和w。学生在英语学习中遇到的困难多了，难免会产生畏难情绪，甚至有学生会觉得学习英语太难，索性放弃。对于这种情况，教师要在第一时间有所了解，并对学生进行积极的引导和鼓励，尤其要重视对学生的进行正面引导。教师可以通过各种方式设疑、质疑，来激发不同层次的学生学习的主动性。学生在课堂中表现好时，应及时地激励、赞扬学生。如用“Good,Smart,Great,Wonderful,Fantastic”等言语来激励学生。这对于学生学习自信心的培养，对于学生英语学习兴趣的提升具有积极的意义。在教学中，为了让学生体验成功，作为小学英语教师，我们必须要有宽容之心，不能因为对他们的微小错误“有错必究”而挫败他们学习的积极性。教师要善于保护好学生的表达欲望，让他们都“敢”说。对于课堂勇于开口、勇于表现的学生，我们都要采取鼓励的态度。当学生犯错误时，教师要告诉他们，错误是不可避免的，但要注意当学生犯了普遍性的错误时，教师要适当进行指正，引导学生的成长。教育家苏霍姆林斯基说过：“成功的快乐是一种巨大的情趣和力量。”只有根据儿童学习语言的发展规律，对学生进行正面引导，才能让学生快乐学习，提高课堂实效。总之，在小学英语教学中，教师要认识到让学生快乐学习、实现高效课堂的重要性，要通过有效的策略，实施趣味化教学，不断激励学生，鼓励学生学习英语，这对于学生学习自信的培养，英语学习兴趣的提升，有效学习英语和获得全面发展具有积极的作用。
第三篇
一、激发学生的英语学习兴趣
（一）在课堂中恰当地融入一些游戏活动，也能激发小学生的英语学习兴趣
小学生生性好动，好奇心强，若能将枯燥的语言放在游戏中去，让学生在丰富多彩的游戏中练习所学的'知识，英语课堂就会变成学生的乐园。例如，我在教人体部位的单词：face,mouth,nose,ear时，我将几个学生叫到黑板前，让他们做Touchyourface/mouth/nose/ear等动作。做对了，下面的同学说“Yes”，做错了，下面的同学就说“No”，也可以由教师说：“Touchyourface.”让全班学生做动作。通过这一游戏，学生就很容易地掌握了这些单词。在课堂上多设计游戏活动，不但能提高学生的积极性，使课堂气氛活泼有序，学习兴趣趋于浓厚，也使得教学目标的达成不再那么困难了。
（二）在课堂中恰当地运用多媒体技术也可以激发学生学习英语的兴趣。
有些直观的交际情景单纯地依靠传统的教学方式根本无法在课堂上呈现出来，而利用现代信息技术则完全可以突破这一点。它可以使所有交际情景在课堂中更加生动形象，使学生如身临其境、感同身受，吸引他们进入角色参与到交际中来。例如，在讲到有关动物时，我制作过这样的课件：布置动物园，包含tiger,monkey,elephant,panda等词汇及图片，可以让学生用鼠标拖动把单词和图片连接起来。在这种练习中，学生可以充分地表现自己，学生学习英语的过程变成了一个主动参与的过程。
二、建立和谐的师生关系
高效的课堂应该是快乐、宽松、民主、互动的课堂。师生关系的融洽是构建高效课堂的根本。教师必须要爱自己的学生，爱能让课堂气氛轻松、愉悦、和谐。首先，教师要尊重每一个学生。教师不应该打骂学生，应一视同仁地对待每位学生，不能厚此薄彼。在课堂中，教师不能只关注优等生，成绩差的学困生同样也需要我们的关注。在设置问题时，教师可以把一些简单的问题留给学困生，让他们也有参与课堂活动的机会，也有得到教师肯定的机会。其次，师生间良好的情感交流可以减轻学生的心理负担，营造出愉快的学习氛围。在课堂上，教师要放下架子，走到学生中间，让微笑的阳光洒落到每一个学生的身上，使学生能够在轻松愉悦的学习环境中感受到教师的关注。
三、在英语课堂中要把英语的交际功能摆在首位
英语作为一门语言，其本质就是用于交际的工具。传统的英语课堂教学却多是以枯燥地灌输语法知识为主的“哑巴式英语”，忽视了英语的交际功能，也挫伤了学生学习英语的热情和自信心。新课标提倡“听说领先，读写跟上”的教学原则，让每个学生都开口说英语是课堂教学的首要任务。
1.以教师的说，来带动学生。
在课堂的前五分钟，师生可以进行“freetalk”活动环节。教师可以用提问的形式与学生进行一些简单的日常交际会话。例如，Howareyou?Nicetomeetyou.等，或者也可借助前面学过的句型来与学生交流。例如，Whatcolorisyouhair?Wheredoyoulive等。在会话过程中，教师要关注每一位学生的表现。对英语成绩较好的学生，教师可以适当地加快语速，提稍微难一点儿的问题。对于学困生，教师要多留出一些简单的问题，让他们也能参与到会话中来。
2.进行小组合作会话。
小组的构成对会话的成败起到了关键性的作用，因此教师要合理分组，明确每个组员的职责。在小组会话前，教师要确定一个会话的主题。在小组会话中，教师要积极地参与进去，耐心地倾听，及时地表扬表现踊跃的组员，鼓励表现不够积极的组员，并给学生机会来展示他们的活动成果，让每一位学生都能不同程度地提高自己的口语交际能力，从中得到快乐。
四、利用各种评价机制，激发学生学习英语的自信心
教师应该仔细寻找学生的闪光点，善于激励学生，使他们建立起学习英语的自信心。教师要善于挖掘不同学生的优点，使他们感受到英语学习的快乐。在教学中教师要经常对学生进行激励性评价，要不吝于使用赞美的语言。有时，这些激励性的话语会像“亢奋剂”一样，使学生信心高涨、跃跃欲试。另外，教师还要善于运用肢体语言评价学生。在课堂中，教师要多微笑，要使学生如沐春风，能够在愉悦的氛围中学习英语。教师还可以运用眼神与学生交流。正如有句话说的好：教师不经意的一句话，可能会创造一个奇迹。总之，要构建英语高效课堂，教师首先必须不断地转变自己的教学观念，不断地探索更加适合学生的教学方法，以提高学生的兴趣为出发点，让学生乐于学习英语。同时，教师要使自己融入到学生中去，为他们架起一座用英语沟通的桥梁。教师要学会赏识自己的学生，不断地激励他们，使他们建立立起学习英语的自信心，促使学生积极、主动、有效地参与到教学活动中来。只有这样，我们的英语课堂才能真正高效。
随着改革开放的不断深化和我国社会经济的快速发展,英语学习从无到有,从中学又进入小学课堂,小学生学习英语已经成为中国小学生学习的必备内容。下文是我为大家搜集整理的关于小学英语获奖论文参考范文的内容，欢迎大家阅读参考!
浅谈促进小学英语教学中朗读水平的提高的对策
听说读写是英语学习中四项基本的能力，既然是一种语言，学习以后贵在交流和运用，在学习的时候注重的就应该是读和说。小学英语，学生刚刚接触，只有加强朗读，才能形成语感，使得单词和句型不自觉地就能从嘴里“溜”出去，这样就形成了最基本的英语语言系统。英语朗读能力的提高是逐步的，课堂是朗读训练的主要阵地，课堂也是学生朗读能力提高的有利环境，甚至课后也是英语朗读能力提高的黄金时段，这要看英语老师怎样来合理利用。
一 朗读示范，提高标准程度
小学英语的内容比较少，因而英语课时也不多，老师要抓住课堂的分分秒秒进行内容的讲解、朗读的训练，在有限的时间内获得最大的效益。要给学生最正宗的英语朗读训练，让学生明确朗读中的正误，提高朗读的标准程度。读准，才能读顺。
朗读示范，这是每一位英语老师的重要工作，每一节课英语老师都应不厌其烦地一遍遍领读，纠正学生发音的错误。英语毕竟不是母语，在读和说的时候都是“鹦鹉学舌式”，所以出现这样或者那样的问题也不足为怪。“拖音”和“减音”是比较常见的现象。尤其是齐读的时候，“拖音”的现象最严重，而且是一个语调下来，没有节奏感和重音，这样的朗读就没有感情色彩，当然就不美。老师要做好示范朗读，让学生很清晰地听明白每一个单词的发音，每一个句子的重音落在哪个单词上，然后再让学生模仿朗读。
学生对本课的单词和句子能够读得比较顺了，再播放录音。现在用得比较多的是多媒体，结合动画，调动起学生各种感官，眼动、口动、脑动，学生的朗读效果就会不断加强。
如小学英语5A Unit 3 At a Music lesson 学习了很多单词，lesson，sing，song，dance，play等，领读单词后，开始练习句型和对话。Boys and girls，Can you sing some English songs? 其中的“songs”语调要升。老师要让学生注意跟读(Look at me and listen to me，please.)。重点是语调和重音，如Can you sing the song“We can sing and dance”? /I can sing “Ten Little Indians”，what can you sing? 之后，再通过多媒体动画演示，配上比较标准的英语朗读，学生听后跟读。然后模仿录音自由读，一节课下来，大多数的学生都能熟读成诵，朗读训练的效果当然很好。
所以，英语老师的朗读示范是帮助学生读准音调的最好方法，很多的课文录音也可以帮助学生正音，但是英语掌握程度不是很高的学生很难适应录音中的语速，老师的范读可以根据学生的需要适当调整速度，以便学生更加清晰地明白其音调和重音。
二 技巧指导，诱发感悟能力
朗读技巧很多，如语音、语调、节奏、重音、语速的把握等，都是朗读的时候需要特别注意的。小学英语比较重视口语交际，只有先会读，才能流利地说。如果单词都是一个一个地分开读，听者就会听不懂。还有一种现象是，学生根本不会断句，因为语音把握不好，一些非重读的音节被拉长，一些意思紧密的词语被拆开，所以读起来就没有节奏感。如Boys and girls，we have a new friend today.句子中的a是应该弱化的词，学生却重读了。在朗读的时候，需要老师加强指导，以提高学生朗读的准确性。
语音语调的训练，老师可以通过指导学生去探究一些符合拼读规则的单词，让学生首先具有自主发音和拼读的基本技能。积累一定量的单词以后，学生就会发现读音和拼读之间的规律，从而领悟字母发音的规律性。老师在指导字母发音的规律时，渗透语调的运用，这样学生就可以把握单词语音语调的朗读和运用。
节奏和语速是英语朗读训练比较重要的方面。节奏感最有效的训练是教材每个单元的“Chant”，学生通过诵读、练唱，可以非常明显地提高英语朗读的节奏性。老师不仅仅要利用好教材中的“Chant”，还应该自己编制儿歌来训练，同时还可以增强课堂的趣味性。
老师在指导朗读的时候，要注意指导学生结合想象，尽可能想象语言交流的环境。学生凭借想象可以走进文章中所描述的那个具体形象的世界，不断融入语言环境中，就可以不自觉地准确把握语气、语调。
三 组织活动，培养朗读兴趣
每天的课外活动时间，英语老师都会组织小组进入“英语角”进行朗读训练。形式可以多种多样，如儿歌朗读、小组比赛、角色配音等。小组活动时可以根据课文内容进行同步训练，也可以选取与课文内容相关的课外语段进行朗读训练。小学生的词汇量还不是很大，多是依据课本进行训练。英语老师在课外活动的时候，选取所教的几个班级中程度相当的小组进行朗读比赛。因为是不同班级派出代表，学生的班级荣誉感都很强，所以无论是轮到哪个小组，学生的重视程度都特别高。只要能够提高学生的重视程度，朗读训练才会有更好的效果。
如5A Unit 2 A new house，学生都很喜欢读，学习这个单元的一周内，每天下午的课外活动，我都会抽出不同程度的学生进行朗读比赛。不同班级还可以融合在一起，分出男女生比赛朗读，在朗读的时候，还增进了兄弟班级之间的友谊。每个单元学习完以后还会举行朗读竞赛，评出朗读明星，在学习园地里贴上一颗星。每个月评一次“月冠军”，每个学期还要评出“学期冠军”。这种训练评价的方式可以激发学生的朗读热情。 有趣的活动是学生最喜欢的学习方式，尤其是带有竞赛性的活动，更能激发学生的斗志，点燃学生的热情。老师在举行活动的时候，要激发学生的荣誉感，让学生能够主动去读。如果学生能够带着欲望去读，对英语单词和句型的识记速度就快，效果就好。朗读水平的提高并非朝夕之功，需要学生长期坚持训练。所以，活动的形式要常换常新，让学生对活动保持新鲜感。
四 拓展训练，形成基本语感
课堂是朗读训练的主要场所，课间也有老师组织安排，那么课后回家呢?节假日和周末是学生朗读训练最充足的时间，如果老师不能安排好，做不好“遥控指挥”，经过一个周末回来，学生会读的单词不认识了，会读的课文也会变得生疏了。所以，学生周末在家，老师不能仅仅布置书面作业，还应该让学生多读、多练，甚至还要鼓励学生阅读英语报纸上短小精悍的小文章。老师可以帮助学生精选与课文内容相关的文章，还可以拓宽学生的知识面。多读、多练即可形成语感，在语音、语调、节奏、语速上就可以很好地把握。
周末节假日，只能靠家长监督。老师应该利用家长会与全体家长沟通交流，让家长在周末更上心，协助老师监督学生在家里的朗读情况。单词、句型的朗读要求是几遍，家长要监督好，并且“签字证明”。周一老师检查的时候，很明显就能发现学生在家里读的效果。如果发现有不到位的情况，可以和家长交流了解。这样，家校形成合力，可以有效促进学生朗读能力的提高。当然，老师的要求不能是泛泛的要求，让家长无所适从。如果是朗读课文还是比较好操作的，因为学生都有课本，家长有依据。如果是课外阅读语段，则要老师帮助挑选，最好是统一打印下发，方便家长配合监督。如5A Unit 6 Doing housework 学习完后，让学生周末回家读课文单词3遍，效果不错。类文朗读 The first time cooking，学生经过在家里的训练都能拿出来进行朗读比赛。
拓展训练的要求难度大一些，尤其是课外时间，较之课堂教学效果要差一些。有的家长并没有能力辅导学生的朗读训练，但可以“听”。只要学生在读，大声读，就是有效果的。没有训练的材料，就可以让学生读英语教材，把英语课本上所有的句型、对话、文章都读熟，也是一种语感的培养。
朗读是语言习得中比较重要的方面，老师要运用多种方式引导学生进行朗读的训练，增强学生“读”的兴趣。每学习一篇新的课文，学生都能朗朗上口，在熟读的基础上达到成诵的程度。就像有的老师说的：“学生每天千遍百遍地读，一些句子不假思考就跑到嘴里来了。”这就形成了基本的语感。达到这个程度，英语朗读教学就不再是问题了。
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