三、帕克模式学说的时代背景
尽管帕克的模式学说具有非同寻常的持久生命力,它们仍是该理论诞生时所处时空的产物,在写作该文的20世纪60年代的美国,帕克认为刑事诉讼已由装配线司法过渡为障碍赛司法。(65)其中最重要的原因就在于在首席大法官爱尔·沃伦领导下的美国最高法院所进行的积极改革(66),在不到20年的时间内沃伦法院彻底改变了“游戏”规则,并使得美国的刑事诉讼体制向着正当程序的方向演进。
1961年,沃伦法院确立了非法证据排除规则,使得违宪获取的证据不得进入审判阶段(67),排除规则试图通过消除警察无视宪法的动机来防止宪法性侵权(68),法院并非基于供述存在虚假可能这一犯罪控制的理由而对非自愿供述加以排除,而是因为其是通过警察侵犯了被告权利的非法行为而获得的(69),沃伦法院对警察逮捕附带搜查(70)、获取搜查令状(71)、进行电子监控(72)以及暂停搜身(73)都进行了规范。
辩护律师在正当程序模式中扮演了一个十分关键的角色,帕克认为沃伦法院最为重要的决定是gideon v. wainwright一案(74)的判决,它要求政府必须为没有能力聘请律师的重罪被告提供一名辩护律师。而著名的米兰达规则(75)要求警察必须告知被采取羁押性讯问的嫌疑人有权聘请律师,包括公设律师。如果没有履行这种告知义务或拒绝被告聘请律师,那么即使是真实的供述也将被排除。wWW.133229.cOM米兰达规则的设立是为了保护从审判阶段延伸到侦查阶段的被告人免受自我归罪的权利。米兰达规则是如此地富于争议以至于国会试图推翻它的努力也未获得成功。(76)
沃伦法院对政府科以迅速审判的义务(77)、要求控方向被告开示无罪证据(78)、主张被告在庭审中保持沉默的事实不能被用作证明有罪的证据(79),这些都深刻地影响了刑事司法。未成年人享有与成年人相同正当程序权利的判例则影响了为谋求未成年犯之最大利益而设计的程序,包括免受自我归罪特权、律师代理权、对证人的对质权和交叉询问权(80),以及只有达到排除合理怀疑的证明标准才能被定罪的权利(81),沃伦法院致力于保护被告免受街道、警察局以及法庭上国家权力的任意侵害。
帕克认为由美国最高法院推动的正当程序革命是不稳定的,它要求最高法院要给予持续不断的关注(82),法官队伍或观念的任何一点细微的变化都会使情况迥异,立法机关不会支持正当程序,因为它们对刑事诉讼改革本身就没有多大的政治兴趣,“任何一个正当程序化的刑事诉讼改革都会伴随着刑事诉讼制度行将崩溃的可怕预言。”但是帕克却充满信心,因为正当程序革命是建立在高阶位的宪法基础之上的,所以它们不会被立法机关轻易否决。(83)
就在帕克最重要著作出版的当年,国会修订了名为《联邦综合犯罪控制与街道安全法》,以试图推翻米兰达规则,其修订的目的与其说是为了完善法律,还不如说是为了还最高法院以颜色(84),法院大都忽视了这部法律中声明废除沃伦法院所作出的宪法性判例的内容,但确实表明大众情感的指向是与正当程序模式相背离的,而政治家们则对犯罪控制模式情有独钟。
1972年帕克逝世前不久,他承认美国的正当程序革命是失败的,他从实证研究中发现了即使是在mapp案和miranda案中创设的最为彻底的排除规则也没有对现状造成任何改变(85),但是最后他仍坚持非犯罪化的思想,认为“我们永远不能左右刑事诉讼的改革,除非我们限制、并继而减少困扰整个刑事诉讼体制的案件负荷。”(86)帕克希望正当程序可以使得立法机关能够不再对刑事制裁寄望过高,尤其是在有关堕胎、乱伦、重婚、赌博、公共场合酗酒、同性恋、麻醉、色情以及卖淫等这些他认为是“无被害人”的犯罪之中,因为这些犯罪是双方合意的犯罪(87),警察必须采取诱惑侦查、电子监控、搜查以及讯问等手段。警察在采取最不重要行动的时候也是最具侵犯性的(88),而且可以觉察,帕克在对以上犯罪行为非犯罪化的倡导中体现了许多当时的自由主义思想。(89)除了堕胎和赌博以外,帕克大部分非犯罪化的倡议并未得到响应,而在今天看来,相对于对伤害和风险的新的阐释以及对弱势群体是否会对这些倡议真正感到满意的怀疑论调而言,它们又显得过时和落后了。
帕克的模式学说过时的另一个原因是它们忽视了被害人的存在(90),帕克写作该文时,揭示存在大量未举报犯罪的被害学尚未形成,他认为对已向警察举报的小部分犯罪进行的高效处理便足以控制犯罪了。在帕克所忽视的所有被害人当中,影响最大的要数妇女了。(91)帕克一直使用的是阳性代词,而没有在一些十分重要的场合运用“妇女”的说法。他有一次也撰文承认,对妇女和儿童的性侵犯和家庭暴力被视作私人事务而被公然地忽视了。女权主义者在帕克发表其模式学说之后仅仅作为一支强势的知识分子和政治力量而出现,这应被视作对其学说的公允评价。
四、对帕克模式学说之批评
帕克的理论遭致了严厉的批评,从实证的角度来看,在大部分案件中,他的正当程序模式似乎并不合乎实际,批评论者认为正是正当程序的错误观念使得犯罪控制理论得以成立并合法化,而不是单纯的限制国家权力,其他学者则认为正当程序太过现实,往往由于影响了犯罪控制而使弱者利益受损。(92)一些批评者认为,帕克的两模式学说经由对于刑事司法富有创造力思考的自由主义和对抗制假定的限制而得到了有机的统一(93),其两模式说未能顾及有关刑事被害学领域内的最新成果和对被害人的全新关注。
(一)正当程序之不合实际:过程即惩罚
实证研究者对于减少烦琐的刑事诉讼程序以达到诸如犯罪控制和正当程序的理性目标的努力持怀疑态度,malcolm feeley早已指出:“任何对于组织行为的分析都应足以解释构成整个体制的不同角色的多种目标、价值和动机,否则便会陷入过于具象的泥沼从而违背社会理论。”(94)许多实证研究都表明警察、检察官、法官、辩护律师在抵制犯罪控制和正当程序这两组相对的观念体系方面具有共同的团体利益,他们是这样一群官僚:总是通过惯性合作来使其团体利益最大化,而非天然地犯罪控制或正当程序的斗士。然而这并不表明我们认为他们的行为毫无意义。
在轻微案件中正当程序并不符合实际,因为主张权利的代价比丧失权利的代价更大,这就是为什么如此之多的被告人都愿意选择和平的辩诉交易的原因(95),正当程序权利主要作为公平的神圣象征或者充其量也只是重大、影响广泛的(intense)以及特别复杂案件所需要的奢侈品或备用品。(96)辩护律师时常表明选择辩诉交易是为其委托人争取最为高效和最为宽大的处置。(97)从系统的观点来看,他们是犯罪控制模式的执行者,很少向证据的可采性和上诉程序的启动提出质疑。(98)
这些关于刑事诉讼的实证研究证实了帕克的论断:在大多数案件之中,刑事诉讼都按犯罪控制流水线的方式运作,这一点在辩诉交易中体现得最为明显。让帕克感到惊奇的是:辩护律师、法官和被告,其正当程序代理人,都认为辩诉交易十分符合他们的利益。实证研究表明充其量存在两个层次的正义。(99)帕克的模式理论保留了它们的实用性,而正当程序模式则为犯罪控制模式的恶劣现状披上了一件鲜亮的外衣。
(二)正当程序的观念意义:正当程序服务于犯罪控制
如果正当程序不能合理地解释如此之多的实证研究的话,那是因为它是以它未经证实的观念和政治功能为论据的。面对众多批评,其唯一的回应就是“正当程序是为犯罪控制服务的”。(100)这是个冠冕堂皇的标榜,但同时又是必须认真加以对待的说法,因为即使对相同的人在不同的时间它也有着不同的意义。(101)
正当程序之所以有助于犯罪控制是因为立法机关和法官所制定的正式法律赋予了警察、检察官广泛的可自由裁量的权力。doreen mcbarnet认为英格兰和苏格兰的诉讼程序并未体现帕克所说的正当程序价值,而是赋予了检察官和警察更多有利于犯罪控制的自由裁量权。(102)richard ericson在1982年宪法权利法案制定前对加拿大巡逻官员(patrol officers)和探员(detectives)正式与非正式权力的一项研究中也得出了类似的结论(103):这部法律对警察权力限制方面的规定十分宽泛和模糊,甚或可以说未置一词。“即使是在警察向法庭提交的证据已被证明为非法搜查所得的极少数场合下,该证据也会因没有排除规则而仍被法庭采纳。”(104)法律从实用主义和现实利益的角度出发加以制定,赋予了警察和探员以极大的裁量权,因而在犯罪控制方面具有了较强的可操作性和明确性。(105)
这些关于法律运作的研究结论并不会使帕克感到意外,也不会使他的理论受到威胁,大宪章制定之前的英国以及加拿大都没有宪法权利法案,也不存在司法能动主义的传统,而这两者恰恰是正当程序模式的关键要素,帕克本期望可以通过宪法权利法案的制定来给法律的运作过程注入正当程序的精神,但是却不得不承认立法机构仍会制定法律以使检察官和警察更好地达到犯罪控制的目标。然而,正式法律文本中犯罪控制价值的彰显并非微不足道,而在沃伦时代来临之前忽视了这些却使得帕克备受批评,许多美国法院都接受了犯罪控制的思想(106),正如mike mcconville所言,正当程序与犯罪控制二者都深嵌于基本法律原则之中(107),而这意味着警察的不当行为往往会被一些以犯罪控制为面目出现的华丽辞藻披上合法的外衣(108),犯罪控制是一个可以与立法者和法官沟通的观念体系,同时也是警察、法官权力运作方式的抽象概括。
人们认为正当程序是为犯罪控制模式服务的另一个原因在于,它有助于说明对犯罪人课以刑事惩罚的正当性,这里所言之正当程序并非仅仅指的是法律的执行,更是对司法(109)或改革的一种修辞性说法。(110)
通过制造出在正当程序的障碍式司法中被告被公平对待并有充足的机会行使其权利的印象,这种理想化的、被公众广为认可的法律形式对犯罪控制提供了支持。但是在现实中,被动而孤立无援的被告却在犯罪控制的装备线上等待处理。帕克本来会对正当程序和犯罪控制之间的这种传说中的联系而感到惊异,其理论也会因此而受到挑战。他相信,正当程序模式尽管远非完美,却能够对犯罪控制施加一定的限制,而不是使后者正当化。
批评者认为正当程序与犯罪控制并不冲突的观点是很有说服力的,在加拿大,在最高法院对警察、检察官权力施加了许多重要的正当程序限制之后,囚犯数量仍一度剧增。(111)在美国,正当程序标准也未减缓针对毒品的斗争和囚犯数量的增加(112),唯一可能的质疑在于如果没有正当程序,囚犯数量是否会更多(113),然而比起如排除规则之类的并不经常发生作用的正当程序救济途径而言,监狱容量是限制囚犯数量增长的更为可能的原因。(114)
批评者认为正当程序使犯罪控制合法化的论断也是不无疑问的,必须承认正当程序不会放纵罪犯,甚至也不会减少罪犯数量,但是也应承认,如果没有正当程序,犯罪控制事业也不会如此迅速的发展。媒体在报道依据正当程序所作判决方面有很多问题,其间,依正当程序所作的判决往往给人以法院让罪犯逍遥法外的印象而触犯众怒,帕克意识到,依据正当程序作出的判决是经不起检验的,它受制于司法和立法的细微变化,依正当程序所作的判决从间接和略显新奇的角度使得对罪犯的刑事制裁更为公众所接受。
那些认为正当程序使得犯罪控制合法化的批评论者,时常忽略被害人权利在使刑事制裁合法化和给犯罪控制披上崭新、有力的人道主义和尊重权利的外衣方面所发挥的作用。由于michael mandel(115)用阶级术语来界定弱势群体,所以他并未强调政党化的后唯物论者(116)社团——如女权主义者和犯罪被害人集团——为日益强势的犯罪控制游说和使之合法化的能力。被害人权利可以比正当程序更为直接和感性地使刑事制裁合法化。尽管一些被害人权利模式的初级形式极易受到司法审查的非难,但是总体来说却比正当程序模式的初级形式要稳固得多,因为这些权利来自于民粹主义者的倡导并会引发立法与行政改革。正当程序模式偶然、不稳定以及充满争议的本质使得它很难被看做是一种很精细的正规技术,尤其是相对于被害人权利模式而言。
(三)帕克模式学说自由主义和对抗制图景的局限性
帕克的正当程序与犯罪控制模式因其程序和政治上的假定而备受批评,它们是根据当时美国社会的整体框架加以设计运作的(117),并且以对抗制为其理论前提,尽管世界上大部分国家采用的都是纠问制程序。这一点具有政治和程序上的双重意蕴。对抗制是建立在只关注独立纠纷解决的应激性国家权力假设之上的,而能动性国家权力则试图控制社会和人们的生活(118),被害人权利模式的初级形式可以使政府摆脱无所作为的状态,尽力控制风险与损害,矫正被害人和潜在被害人中存在的不安全感、疏远感和不受尊重感。
帕克以传统的自由观念将权利视作政府权力的制衡力量,针对排除证据和驳回起诉这些“宣告无效”(119)的救济方式是十分有限的,这些权利可以用以保护个人免受国家权力的侵害。他并未将权利视作安全与平等的有效保障,也未将刑事制裁看成是要求尊重被害人及潜在被害人权利的救济方式。帕克模式学说的有限性在其写作当时就已被注意到了。(120)1970年,john griffiths就批评帕克以自由的美国法律思维的流行观念来构建他的学说,帕克的两个模式学说都认为个人利益与国家利益、社会利益是相冲突的,它们之间唯一的不同就在于究竟何种利益应被优先考虑。
griffiths提出了第三个模式理论:家庭模式。他认为国家与被告正如父母与子女一样有着共同的利益,因为惩罚之后他们仍要继续一起生活。(121)被告的需求比他/她的权利更为重要,国家亦应按善意行事。(122)家庭模式最为贴切的例子就是未成年人犯罪法案,它允许国家可以像父母对待子女一样去谋求未成年犯之最大利益。(123)通过使加害人对其罪行感到耻辱的非正式、非惩罚和非对抗的干预,john braithwaite开始转而重新转向曾给其颇具影响的“羞辱感重整(re-integrative shaming)”模式以巨大启发的griffiths的家庭模式理论,并且通过家庭和社会为加害人提供援助和重返社会的机会。(124)
griffiths和braithwaite的著作都对当地居民司法推崇备至,它极为清楚、雄辩的揭示了帕克模式理论的自由主义与对抗制的理论假定(125),karl llewellyn凭借其对沙伊安部落纠纷解决机制的研究而可能成为首位对刑事司法中家庭模式和距离模式(arm,s length)加以对比研究的学者。在家庭模式中,被告被认为是大家庭中的一分子,司法人员努力搜集证据只是为了证明其是无辜的。(126)如果被告果真有罪,那么审判就着眼于加害人与被害人和社会关系的恢复过程,而非对加害人的孤立与惩罚。“其目的在于……使得犯错的兄弟——现在人们已经这样认为——忏悔、公开认罪并重新回归其所属的社会,而与往常无异。”(127)刑事司法的家庭模式认为帕克关于个人和国家利益是在根本上对立的假定是错误的。
距离模式起初比家庭模式更为不信任官员,但是越到后来越加强调刑事司法的惩罚性。被告虽被权利所保护,但却不被看成社会大家庭的一分子。因为对官员的不信任,所以严格排除大量相关证据的正式裁判程序便得以举行,而这往往使得真正的审判对案件事实真相一无所获。(128)武装对抗模式与帕克的正当程序模式一脉相承。刑事司法和当地居民司法的家庭模式揭示了帕克有关对抗制诉讼体制和自由主义的、应激性国家权力的理论假定。新模式理论应尽少强调被告和国家之间的角色冲突和对抗关系,而应更多地关注加害者、被害人、他们家庭(129)以及所属社会之间的和解。
(四)帕克对被害可能的忽视
在帕克的研究进行过程当中,对广泛存在的犯罪黑数现象和犯罪高发率进行描述的被害研究尚未展开。被害研究为被害人权利运动提供了由政府部门发起调研的具体数据材料的支持,以证实问题的严重性并非空穴来风。(130)帕克的理论则是建立在已举报的犯罪统计数字基础之上的,所以他认为提高破案率即可有效控制犯罪。被害研究则指出仅仅依靠警察和检察官的犯罪控制行为对绝大部分犯罪是无能为力的。在许多案件中,被害人认为与警察联系是没用的,有些甚至害怕会在报案后的诉讼过程中再次受害。(131)新的刑事诉讼模式理论应充分考虑到有关这些未举报犯罪的新研究成果。
对被害人研究中揭示的居高不下的犯罪黑数有多种解释。如有论者认为这表明刑事司法已经丧失了它的功效,已经不能得到被害人和一些不同程度的暴露于一部或全部犯罪之下的特殊团体的信任了。这些解释推动了一系列改革以期提高对性侵犯和家庭暴力案件报案率和起诉率。(132)现实主义的犯罪学家亦注意到,被害研究显示贫困人群往往会遭到不同程度的犯罪侵害。美籍非洲人中不同程度的受害情况(133)就在有关刑事司法的争论中发挥着十分重要的作用。更概括地说,被害研究可以为刑事制裁所招致的巨大不满以及对于现行制度之不足而产生的激烈批评提供佐证。当风险已延伸至对犯罪的恐惧时(这种恐惧正日益得以量化),被害研究会为对逮捕、起诉和刑事司法改革的持续需求提供依据。这些国家所采取的对绝大部分犯罪进行的犯罪控制措施的失败,以及被害人对对抗制模式和惩罚性模式信任和利用的限度,正是公众对犯罪控制产生巨大不满的原因所在。
另一方面,犯罪黑数也可以看成是可以引发对犯罪的非正式反应和民间反应的法律多元化的表征。被害人不向警察举报犯罪,而是自行对付犯罪,包括非正式惩罚和预防犯罪的举措。被害人更可能通过保险公司获取其受害赔偿而不是通过国家赔偿或被害人补偿计划来达到这一目的。(134)有充足条件的人士会发现私人保镖在预防犯罪和减少损失方面比公共警察更为有效(135),因为他们不需要遵守正当程序规则,也不需要将人定罪。犯罪发生的可能是无处不在的,因而用传统的犯罪控制策略是无法奏效的,这一认识可以使得从被害人权利的主张中催生新的治理方式,包括固定目标、邻里监视、电子监控、被害风险的图示警告以及被害保险等方法。(136)在其他方面,还可产生诸如有助于预防犯罪(137)的“软目标”管理或对易产生针对妇女和儿童的性暴力的男性特征和性习惯的更为根本的重新检查。(138)这些新的治理方式在政治领域内因其对个人、组织和社会存在不同的依赖而不尽相同,但是它们却在较少依靠刑事制裁和惩罚方面非常的一致。
被害研究也可被看做是对具有可测度性的风险社会(139)的一种量化,但却不能完全控制风险。与更为严重的意外事故和疾病风险不同的是,犯罪控制的低效常被看做是政府低效的一种极为突出的表现形式。犯罪发生率的统计为抨击刑事司法体制提供了一个经常的、可供反思的材料。风险研究可获得全新的政治意义并构成对一个按科学原理组织的社会的道德论证(140),被害研究常被应用于政治目的。有关妇女和儿童在其一生中遭受侵害和性侵害比率的统计数字在立法者、执法者和司法者所进行的政策讨论中获得了广泛的共识。(141)就像反映了针对少数民族的仇恨犯罪的统计数字一样(142),那些受到不同期限监禁的群体的诉求也在对刑事司法的政策讨论中发挥越来越重要的作用。(143)弱势群体遭犯罪侵害以及/或被判处监禁的日益增大的风险已与权利话语一起构建了被害人权利模式的新的话语体系。那些团体会利用他们遭遇上述风险的不同可能对刑事司法体制提出新的要求。
被害风险现在已经因可以量化而为人所知,它应成为刑事司法新模式的一部分,被害人权利模式更有可能被采取司法能动主义的国家所采纳,这种模式有控制风险、分清类别和实际权利的强烈渴望。同时,旧有的范式又不甘退出历史舞台。被害人权利模式的弊端之一在于它认同了帕克犯罪控制模式的理论预设:即刑事制裁可以控制犯罪,如今亦可控制风险。犯罪风险的新研究成果产生了对刑事制裁和刑事司法的无穷需求,对犯罪风险的计算总是比风险控制要容易得多,通过零忍耐策略而达到零风险的努力永远也不会使人满意,只会徒然增加与正当程序的冲突。但是另一方面,刑法无力控制无处不在的犯罪风险,人们对此的新认识会使得刑事制裁不再被视作对犯罪的预防和反应机制。被害人权利模式则对权利和风险予以关注,从而不再倚重刑事制裁,进而改造帕克的犯罪控制模式。但同时,被害人权利模式可以不再倚重刑事制裁,但它也不认同帕克自信的论断:许多犯罪是没有受害者的。
注释:
①herbert l. packer, the limits of the criminal sanction part ii, stanford university press, 1968; herbert packer, "two models of the criminal process", 113 u. pa. l. rev.(1964), 1.
②michael king, the framework of criminal justice, croom helm ltd, 1981.
③ibid., p. 122.
④他警告说,他的模式理论并没有“贯之以实然和应然的标签……(这些模式)只是提供了一种谈论程序运作的便捷方式而已,而这一程序的日常功能就是在相互对立的两种价值体系之间进行持续微妙的调整,其规范性的未来同样也致力于对相互对立主张之间的张力进行协调。”herbert l. packer, the limits of the criminal sanction part ii, stanford university press, 1968, p. 153.
⑤richard ericson, "the state and criminal justice reform", in robert s. ratner & john l. mcmullan ed., state control: criminal justice politics in canada, university of british columbia press,1987, p.21.
⑥see generally george fletcher, with justice for same: victims' rights in criminal trials, addison wesley, 1995.
⑦see generally john braithwaite, crime, shame and reintegration, cambridge university press, 1989; john braithwaite & phillip pettit, not just deserts: a republican theory of criminal justice, oxford university press, 1990.
⑧帕克假设的本质在john griffiths的下述论文中得到了首次而武断地(masterfully)探讨“ideology in criminal procedure or a third 'model' of the criminal process”, 79 yale l.j. (1970), 359。
⑨see generally patrick devlin, the enforcement of morals, oxford university press, 1965; herbert l. packer, the limits of the criminal sanction part ii, stanford university press, 1968, pp.312-328.
⑩see generally catharine mackinnon, only words, harvard university press, 1993.
(11)see generally mayo moran, "talking about hate speech", wis. l. rev. (1994), 1425.
(12)see generally ezzat fattah, understanding criminal victimization, prentice hall of canada ltd, 1993; realist criminology: crime control and policing in the 1990's, john lowman & brian maclean eds., 1992; holly johnson, dangerous domains: violence against women in canada, nelson canada, 1996.
(13)see generally h. laurence ross, deterring the drinking driver: legal policy and social control, lexington books; rev & updt edition, 1984; canadian sentencing commission, sentencing reform: a canadian approach, minister of supply and services canada, 1989, pp.136-137.
(14)john hagan & bill mccarthy, mean street, cambridge university press, 1997.
(15)see generally richard ericson & patricia baranek, the ordering of justice: a study of the accused persona as dependents in the criminal process, university of toronto press, 1982; anthony e. bottoms & john d. mc-clean, defendants in the criminal process, routledge & k. paul, 1976.
(16)john braithwaite & stephen mugford, "conditions of successful reintegration ceremonies: dealing with juvenile offenders", 34 brit. j. criminology (1994), 139; john braithwaite, restorative justice: assessing an immodest theory and a pessimistic theory, university of chicago press,1997.
(17)see generally michael tonry, malign neglect: race, crime, and punishment in america, oxford university press, 1995.
(18)see generally michael mandel, the charter of rights and freedoms and the legalization of politics in canada, thompson educational publishing, inc., 1994.
(19)see generally tom tyler, why people obey the law, princeton university press, 1990; john braithwaite, restorative justice: assessing an immodest theory and a pessimistic theory, university of chicago press, 1997.
(20)john braithwaite & phillip pettit, not just deserts: a republican theory of criminal justice, clarendon press, 1990.
(21)see andrew sanders & richard young, criminal justice, oxford university press, 1994, p. 13; abraham goldstein, "reflections on two models: inquisitorial themes in american criminal procedure', 26 stan. l. rev. (1974), 1009.近期对于帕卡模式理论的争论,see david j. smith, "case construction and the goals of criminal process", 37 brit. j. criminology(1997), 319; mike mcconville, "descriptive or critical sociology: the choice is yours", 37 brit. j. criminology(1997), 347; peter duff, crime control, "due process and the case for the prosecution", 38 brit. j. criminology(1998), 611.
(22)see generally peter arnelia, "rethinking the functions of criminal procedure: the warren and burger courts' competing ideologies", 72 geo. l.j. (1983), 185; mirjan damaska, "evidentiary barriers to conviction and two models of criminal procedure: a comparative study", 121 u. pa. l. rev. (1973), 506; malcolm feeley, "two models of the criminal process: an organizational perspective", 7 l. & soc'y rev. (1973), 407; john griffiths, "ideology in criminal procedure or a third 'model' of the criminal process", 79 yale l.j. (1970), 359.
(23)see richard ericson & patricia baranek, the ordering of justice: a study of the accused persons as dependents in the criminal process, university of toronto press, 1982; doreen mcbarnet, conviction: law, the state and the construction of justice, palgrave macmillan, 1981.
(24)herbert l. packer, the limits of the criminal sanction part ii, stanford university press, 1968, p.159.
(25)ibid., p.163.
(26)ibid., p.165.
(27)ibid., p.173.
(28)ibid., p.158.
(29)see generally, john hagan, the disreputable pleasures: crime and deviance in canada, mcgraw-hill ryerson, 1991.
(30)but see andrew ashworth, the criminal process, oxford university press, 1994, p.26.
(31)herbert l. packer, the limits of the criminal sanction part ii, stanford university press, 1968, p.159.
(32)ibid., p.160.
(33)see peter arnelia, "rethinking the functions of criminal procedure: the warren and burger courts' competing ideologies", 72 geo. l. j. 185(1983), 185.
(34)see herbert l. packer, the limits of the criminal sanction part ii, stanford university press 1968, p.177.
(35)ibid., p.189.
(36)ibid., p.203.
(37)ibid., p.196.
(38)ibid., p.199.
(39)see albert v. dicey, introduction to the study of the law of the constitution, adamant media corporation, 1959. p.193
(40)people v. defore, 150 n. e. 585,587(n.y. 1926).
(41)see herbert l. packer, the limits of the criminal sanction part ii, stanford university press, 1968, p.162.
(42)ibid., p.206.
(43)ibid., pp.211-214.
(44)ibid., p.222.
(45)ibid., p.223.
(46)united states v. garsson, 291 f. 646, 649 (s.d.n.y. 1923).
(47)herbert l. packer, the limits of the criminal sanction part ii, stanford university press, 1968, p.230.
(48)ibid., p.170.
(49)ibid., p.151.
(50)ibid., p.173.
(51)ibid., p.168.
(52)herbert l. packer, the limits of the criminal sanction part ii, stanford university press, 1968, p.180.
(53)ibid., p.203.
(54)ibid., p.191.
(55)ibid., p.180.
(56)ibid.
(57)ibid., p.168.
(58)ibid., p.207.
(59)ibid., p.217.
(60)ibid., p.224.
(61)herbert l. packer, the limits of the criminal sanction part ii, stanford university press, 1968, p.224.
(62)ibid., p.167.
(63)ibid., pp.231-232.
(64)ibid., p.173.
(65)ibid., p.239.
(66)see generally, liva baker, miranda: crime, law and politics, atheneum,1983, pp.111-217; craig bradley, the failure of the criminal procedure revolution, university of pennsylvania press, 1993; fred graham, the due process revolution: the warren court's impact on criminal law, hayden book co, 1970.
(67)see mapp v. ohio, 367 u.s. 643 (1961).
(68)elkins v. united states, 364 u.s. 206 (1960).
(69)see, e.g., rogers v. richmond, 365 u.s. 534 (1961).
(70)see chimel v. california, 395 u.s. 752 (1969).
(71)see spinelli v. united states, 393 u.s. 410 (1969).
(72)katz v. united states, 389 u.s. 347 (1967).
(73)terry v. ohio, 392 u.s. 1 (1968).
(74)372 u.s. 335 (1963). see herbert l. packer, the limits of the criminal sanction part ii, stanford university press, 1968, pp.236-237.
(75)miranda v. arizona, 384 u.s. 436,479 (1966).
(76)liva baker, miranda: crime, law and politics, atheneum, 1983, pp 207-208; see craig bradley, the failure of the criminal procedure revolution, university of pennsylvania press, 1993.
(77)klopfer v. north carolina, 386 u.s. 213,216 (1967).
(78)brady v. maryland, 373 u.s. 83, 86 (1963).
(79)griffin v. illinois, 380 u.s. 609,613 (1965).
(80)in re gault, 387 u.s. 1, 2-3(1967).
(81)in re winship, 397 u.s. 358,367(1970).
(82)see herbert l. packer, the limits of the criminal sanction part ii, stanford university press, 1968, p.240.
(83)herbert l. packer, the limits of the criminal sanction part ii, stanford university press, 1968, pp.241242.在其他允许立法机关对被告人权利加以限制的国家,如加拿大、以色列和南非,可能在法院和立法机关之间会有更大规模的对话,立法机关也常常拥有最后的决定权。还可参见kent roach, "institutional choice, co-operation and struggle in the age of the charter, the charter's impact on the criminal justice system", in jamie cameron ed. 1996; guido calabresi, "foreword: anti-discrimination and constitutional accountability" 105 harv. l. rev.(1991),80-91.
(84)fred graham, the self inflicted wound, macmillan publishing company, 1970, p.319; see also liva baker, miranda: crime, law and politics, atheneum, 1983; craig bradley, the failure of the criminal procedure revolution, university of pennsylvania press,1993, p.30.
(85)herbert packer, "criminal code revision", 23 u. toronto. l.j. (1973) 1, 13.
(86)ibid.
(87)herbert l. packer, the limits of the criminal sanction part ii, stanford university press, 1968, p.151.
(88)ibid., p.284.
(89)see generatlly troy duster, the legislation of morality: law, drugs, and moral judgment, free press, 1970; edwin schur, crimes without victims: deviant behaviour and public policy, englewood cliffs, n.j., prentice-hall, inc., 1965; sanford kadish, "the crisis of overcriminalization", 374 annals of pol. sci. (1967), 157; jerome skolnick, "coercion to virtue: the enforcement of morals", 41 s. cal. l. rev. (1968) 588.
(90)andrew ashworth, the criminal process, oxford university press, 1994, p.28.
(91)robert elias, the politics of victimization, oxford univerisity press, 1986, p.20; see generally paul rock, a view from the shadows, clarendon press, 1986.
(92)catharine mackinnon, only words, harvard university press, 1993, pp.45-69.
(93)john griffiths, "ideology in criminal procedure or a third 'model' of the criminal process", 79 yale l.j. (1970), 359,395-396.
(94)malcolm feeley, "two models of the criminal process: an organizational perspective", 7 l. & soc'y rev. (1973), 415.
(95)malcolm feeley, the process is the punishment, russell sage foundation, 1979, p.277.
(96)ibid., p.290.
(97)see generally, anthony e. bottoms & john d. mcclean, defendants in the criminal process, routledge & k. paul, 1976; john baldwin & michael mcconville, negotiated justice, martin robertson, 1977; michael mcconville, standing accused, oxford university press, 1994.
(98)richard ericson & patricia baranek, the ordering of justice: a study of the accused persons as dependents in the criminal process, university of toronto press, 1982.
(99)doreen mcbarnet, conviction: law, the state and the construction of justice, palgrave macmillan, 1981, p.123.
(100)ibid., p.156. see also patricia carlen, magistrates' justice, maritin robertson, 1976, p.42; richard ericson & patricia baranek, the ordering of justice: a study of the accused persons as dependents in the criminal process, university of toronto press, 1982, p.223.
(101)doreen mcbarnet, conviction: law, the state and the construction of justice, palgrave macmillan, 1981, p.6. richard ericson同样指出:“正当程序模式与犯罪控制模式的不同最为明显地体现在大众文化的话语中。在对制定法、判例法的控制文化以及法律人的日常工作中,正当程序都是服务于犯罪控制的。”richard v. ericson, the constitution of legal inequality, carleton university press, 1983, p.28.
(102)doreen mcbarnet, conviction: law, the state and the construction of justice, palgrave macmillan,1981.
(103)see generally richard ericson, making crime, university of toronto press, 1981; richard ericson, reproducing order, university of toronto press, 1982.
(104)see generally richard ericson, making crime, university of toronto press, 1981, p.15.
(105)ibid., p.11.
(106)abraham goldstein, "reflections on two models: inquisitorial themes in american criminal procedure", 26 stan. l. rev. (1974), 1010.
(107)mike mcgonville, the cnse for the prosecution, routledge,1991, pp.189-190.
(108)ibid. but see david j. smith, "case construction and the goals of criminal process", 37 brit. j. criminology (1997), 319,395-396,他对mcconville等人进行了略显不公地批评,仅仅因为他们忽视了犯罪控制的重要性。
(109)doreen mcbarnet, "arrest: the legal context of policing", the british police (1979), 39.
(110)richard ericson & patricia baranek, the ordering of justice: a study of the accused persons as dependents in the criminal process, university of toronto press, 1982, p.230. richard ericson, "the state and criminal justice reform", in robert s. ratner & john l. mcmullan ed., state control: criminal justice politics in canada, university of british columbia press, 1987, p.30.
(111)michael mandel, the charter of rights and freedoms and the legalization of politics in canada, thompson educational publishing, inc., 1994; michael mandel, "'fundamental justice', repression and social power", in jamie cameron ed., the charter's impact on the criminal justice system, carswell co., 1996, pp.369,376-377.在某些方面,加拿大的正当程序标准甚至超过了美国沃伦法院所确立的标准。see generally kent roach, constitutional remedies in canada,1994, pp.10.680-10.830; robert harvie & hamar foster, "ties that bind?: the supreme court of canada, american jurisprudence and the revision of the canadian criminal law under the charter", 29 osgoode hall l.j. (1990), 729; kent roach & m. l. friedland, "borderline justice: policing in the two niagaras", 23 am. j. crim. l. (1996), 241.
(112)see michael tonry, malign neglect: race, crime, and punishment in america, oxford university press, 1995. p.vii.
(113)see don stuart, charter justice in canadian criminal law, carswell publication, 1996, pp.1-4.
(114)see peter f. nardulli, "the societal costs of the exclusionary rule", am. b. found. res. j.(1983), 585,606-609.
(115)michael mandel, the charter of rights and freedoms and the legalization of politics in canada, thompson educational publishing, inc., 1994, pp.239-40.
(116)see generally alan c. cairns, reconfigurations: canadian citizenship and constitutional change, mcclleland and steward, 1995; see also frederick l. morton, "the charter revolution and the court party", 30 osgoode hall l.j. (1992) 627,631-635.
(117)herbert l. packer, the limits of the criminal sanction part ii, stanford university press, 1968,p.154.
(118)mirjan r. damaska, the faces of justice and state authority, yale university press, 1986, p.11.
(119)herbert l. packer, the limits of the criminal sanction part ii, stanford university press, 1968, pp.240-241.
(120)john griffiths, "ideology in criminal procedure or a third 'model' of the criminal process", 79 yale l.j.(1970), 359-360.
(121)ibid., 359,371-373.
(122)ibid.
(123)ibid., 359, 388.然而,这一家长式的做法却遭到了正当程序的挑战。
(124)see generally john braithwaite, crime, shame and reiutegration, cambridge university press, 1989.
(125)see generally karl n. llewellyn & e. adamson hoebel, the cheyenne way, university of oklahoma press, 1941.
(126)karl n. llewellyn, jurisprudence: realism in theory and practice, the university of chicage press, 1962, p.448.
(127)karl n. llewellyn, jurisprudence: realism in theory and practice, the university of chicage press, 1962, p.448. murray sinclair法官解释说,“在土著社会中,正义的首要含义就是通过在被告人内心、被告人与被害人及其家庭之间的和解而恢复社区的和平和平衡。”murray sinclair, "aboriginal peoples, justice and the law", in richard gosse etc.. ed., continuing poundmaker's and riel's quest, purich publishing, 1994, p. 178.这一定义包括了恢复性司法和康复性司法(healing)两个方面的含义。有时,对于恢复性和谐强调得更多,有时则对康复性和谐强调得更多。对于土著社会司法的官方立场倾向于强调恢复性司法,部分原因在于恢复性司法的世界性运动,以及康复性司法的复杂过程涉及个人的精神领域。
(128)karl n. llewellyn, jurisprudence: realism in theory and practice, the university of chicage press, 1962, p.445.
(129)patricia a. monture-okanee & mary e. turpel, "aboriginal peoples and canadian criminal law: rethinking justice", 26 u. brit. colum. l. rev. (1992), 239,258.
(130)mike maguire & john pointing, victims of crime: a new deal, open university press, 1988, p.7.
(131)rosemary gartner & anthony doob, "trends in criminal victimization", 14 juristat 4 (1994), 1988-1993.
(132)see generally julian roberts & renate m. mohr, confronting sexual assault: a decade of legal and social change, university of toronto press, 1994; cassia spohn & julie horney, rape law reform: a grass roots revolution and its impact, kluwer aca, 1992.
(133)see randall kennedy, race, crime and the law, vintage, 1997, p.76; robert j. sampson & janet l. lauritson, "racial and ethnic disparities in crime and criminal justice in the united states", 21 ethncity, crime & immigr. (1997), 311,312-314.
(134)see john hagan, victims before the law, 1983, pp.186-192.
(135)see michael brogden & clifford shearing, policing for a new south africa, routledge, 1993, p.5.
(136)see richard v. ericson & kevin d., haggarty, policing the risk society, university of toronto press, 1997, pp.41-46; malcolm m. feeley & johnathan simon, "the new penology: notes on the emerging strategy of corrections and its implications", 30 criminology (1992), 449; david garland, "the limits of the sovereign state", 36 brit. j. criminology(1996), 445,452-455.
(137)john braithwaite, "on speaking softly and carrying big sticks: neglected dimensions of a republican separation of powers", 47 u. toronto l.j. (1997), 305,326-334.
(138)john braithwaite & kathleen daly, "masculinities, violence and communication control ", in marina valverde etc. ed, wife assault and the canadian criminal justice system, centre of criminology, university of toronto, 1995, p.207.
(139)see generally ulrich beck, risk society: towards a new modernity, sage publications ltd, 1992, p.23.
(140)ibid., p.176.
(141)被害人研究表明,有十分之一的妇女经历过家庭暴力,这一研究在加拿大制定有关家庭暴力的政策过程中起到了十分重要的作用。see paul rock, a view from the shadows, oxford university press, 1986, p.275; n. zoe hilton, "one in ten: the struggle and disempowerment of the battered women's movement", 7 canadian j. fam. l. (1989), 313, 313-316.被害人研究还揭示,有一半的妇女遭到了婚内性侵犯,这一研究也在“强奸防治”法的合宪性问题的争论中起到了很关键的作用。regina v. seaboyer 2 s.c.r. [1991] 577,649.
(142)see kent roach, "systemic racism and criminal justice policy", 15 windsor y.b. of access to just. (1996), 236, 247-248.
(143)see generally james b. jacobs & kimberly potter, hate crimes: criminal law and identity politics, oxford university press, 1998.
(144)see, michael mandel, the charter of rights and freedoms and the legalization of politics in canada, thompson educational publishing, inc., 1994, pp.61-64.
(145)see george fletcher, with justice for some: victims' rights in criminal trials, basic books, 1995,p.152.
(146)see randall kennedy, race, crime and the law, vintage, 1997, p.311; christine boyle, "the role of equality in criminal law", 58 sask. l. rev.(1994),203,215-216.
(147)see president's task force on victims of crime, final report (1982), 114-115.
(148)ibid., 11,114-115.
(149)see lorenne clark & debra lewis, rape: the price of coercive sexuality, canadian scholars press, 1977,pp.147-158.
(150)see stuart scheingold etc., "sexual violence, victim advocacy and republican criminology: washington state's community protection act", 28 l. & soc'y rev.(1994), 729,739-741.
(151)总统犯罪被害人特别工作组建议立法机构放松否决保释的条件,废除假释制度,废除针对搜查和扣押程序侵权而采取的非法证据排除规则。在这一报告中,被害人权利却几乎都是为犯罪控制服务的,而绝口不提犯罪预防或恢复性司法。该报告强调犯罪控制的倾向可以从以下内容中看出,它建议给那些不向警察报告毒品和暴力犯罪的学校领导处以轻罪的处罚。see president's task force on victims of crime, final report(1982), 31-32.一份由加拿大联邦和省两级政府组成的犯罪被害人工作组在一年以后发表了一份报告。该报告更多地采取了一种欧洲式而非惩罚式的做法,强调被害人获得服务和补偿的需要,而对被告人正当程序权利受到的侵害却漠不关心。see foderal/provincial task force on justice for victims of crime, task force report (1983),pp.8,10-11.
(152)robert elias, victims still: the political manipulation of crime victims, new bury park, 1993,pp.2-3. see generally ezzat fattah ed., the plight of crime victims in modern society, palgrave macmillan, 1989.
(153)stuart scheingold etc., "sexual violence, victim advocacy and republican criminology: washington state's community protection act", 28 l. & soc'y rev. (1994), 759.
(154)see daniel e. lnngren, "victims and the exclusionary rule", 19 harv. j.l. & pub. pol'y (1996), 695.
(155)see, e.g., diana majury, seaboyer and gayme, "a study in equality, in confronting sexual assault: a decade of legal and social change", in julian roberts & renate mohr eds. 1994. see regina v. seaboyer 2 s.c.r. [1991] 577 and criminal code 276 as amended s.c. ch. 38, 2(1992)(can.); regina v. daviault 3 s.c.r. [1994] 63 and criminal code 33.1 as amended s.c. ch. 32 1 (1995)(can.); regina v. o'connor 4 s.c.r. [1995] 411 and criminal code 278.1-278.91 as amended s.c. ch. 30 1 (1997)(can.)
(156)see patrick devlin, the enforcement of morals, oxford university press, 1965.
(157)catharine mackinnon, only words, harvard university press, 1993, pp.206-207.
(158)mari matsuda, "public responses to racist speech: considering the victim's story", 87 mich. l. rev. (1989), 2320, 2322-2323. packer十分关注平等问题,但他却在民权运动高涨的时刻从事研究工作,他假设沃伦法院的正当程序判决会保护“城市中的贫民,特别是那些属于少数群体的贫民,受到刑事追究的绝大部分都是这类人群。”herbert l. packer, "the courts, the police and the rest of us", 57 j. crim. l., criminology & police sci. (1966), 238-241.
(159)see robert j. sampson & janet l. lauritson, "racial and ethnic disparities in crime and criminal justice in the united states", 21 ethncity, crime & immigr.(1997), 137.
(160)michael brogden & clifford shearing, policing for a new south africa, routledge, 1993, pp.106-107.
(161)关于反对建立在话语基础之上权利的需求,see michael ignatieff, the needs of strangers, picador, 1984, pp. 9-23; kent roach, "the limits of corrective justice and the potential of equity in constitutional remedies", 33 ariz. l. rev. (1991), 859, 898-903。
(162)see generally lenore walker, the battered women, harper paperbacks, 1979; donald downs, more than victims: battered women, the syndrome society and the law, university of chicago press, 1996.
(163)see david garland, "the limits of the sovereign state", 36 brit. j. criminology (1996), p.453.
(164)see richard tremblay & wendy craig, "developmental crime prevention, in building a safer society: strategic approaches to crime prevention", in michael tonry & david farrington eds., building a safer society, university of chicago press, 1995, pp.151,189-218.
(165)ibid., pp.234, 241.
(166)see ezzat fattah, understanding criminal victimization, prentice-hall, 1993, pp.110-128.
(167)see leroy lamborn, "the un declaration on victims: incorporating 'abuse of power'", 19 rutgers l.j.(1987), 59,70.
(168)ibid., 59, 70. a.7.
(169)see john hagan, victims before the law, 1983, p.187; richard v. ericson & kevin d. haggarty, policing the risk society, university of toronto press, 1997, pp.408-409.
(170)see generally rupert ross, returning to the teachings: exploring aboriginal justice, penguin books australia ltd, 1996.
(171)see generally joe hudson, family group conferencing perspectives on policy and practice, the federation press, 1996; john braithwaite & stephen mugford, "conditions of successful reintegration ceremonies: dealing with juvenile offenders", 34 brit. j. criminology(1994), 139.
(172)see howard zehr, changing lenses, herald press, 1990, p.181; daniel van ness, "new wine and old wineskins: four challenges of restorative justice", 4 crim. l. forum(1993), 251,258.
(173)see nils christie, "conflict as property", 17 brit. j. criminology (1977), 1,10-12.
(174)see generally alan dershowitz, the abuse excuse, back bay books, 1994.
(175)howard zehr, changing lenses, herald press, 1990, p.72.
(176)see herman bianchi, justice as sanctuary, indiana university press, 1994, p.38.
(177)see carol smart, feminism and the power of law, routledge, 1989, p.47.
(178)laureen snider, "feminism, punishment and the potential of empowerment", 9 can. j.l. & soc'y (1994),75,77.
(179)ibid., 75, 77, 76.
(180)ibid., 75,77, 103.
(181)frances heidensohn, "models of justice: portia or persephone?", 14 int'l j.of the soc. of l.(1986), 287-296正如martha minow所说的那样:报应性的方法会加深仇恨和被害的感觉;相反,修复性的做法则可以帮助被害人摆脱仇恨和无助的感觉。修复性和恢复性的司法尽管与对加害人起诉、定罪和惩罚的机制不同,但同样可以确保公众知晓错误行为并对其加以谴责。恢复性司法还赋予了被害人原谅对方的权利,并由此而获得一种地位——不论被害人本人最后究竟会不会原谅加害人,这对于被害人本人的心灵愈合和不带仇恨的拥抱未来的生活都是十分有益的,正如它带给加害人的利益一样。martha minow, "between vengeance and forgiveness: feminist reponses to violent injustice", 23 new eng. l. rev.(1998), 967,969-970.
(182)see generally ruth morris, crumbling walls: why prisons fail, mosaic press, 1989; see also dianne martin, "retribution revisited: a reconsideration of feminist criminal law strategies", 36 osgoode hall l. j.(1998), 151.
(183)martha minow注意到,“大部分女权主义者并不主张对那些侵犯妇女权利或犯下其他罪行的加害人采取宽大的、恢复性司法的措施。”martha minow, "between vengeance and forgiveness: feminist reponses to violent injustice", 23 new eng. l. rev. (1998), p.974.
(184)see, e.g., payne v. tennessee, 501 u.s. (1991) 808; booth v. maryland, 482 u.s. (1987) 496; austin sarat, "vengeance, victims and the identities of law", 6 soc. & legal stud. (1997),163,171-180.