英文论文参考文献格式如下:
一、学术论文英文参考文献标注格式
按照现行规定,学术期刊中论文参考文献的标注采用顺序编码制,即在文内的引文处按引用文献在论文中出现的先后顺序以阿拉伯数字连续编码,序号置于方括号内。同一文献在一文中被反复引用者,用同一序号标示。
这一规定使得所列文献简洁明了,应该引起论文作者注意。英文参考文献和中文参考文献一样,按在文中出现的先后顺序与中文文献混合连续编码著录;英文文献用印刷体;英文书名、期刊名和报纸名等用斜体;所列项目及次序与中文文献相同,但文献类型可不标出;忌用中文叙述英文。其格式为:
专著、论文集、学位论文、报告主要责任者。文献题名。出版地:出版者,出版年。起止页码。示例:Day,C.,Veen, Walraven,G. Children and youth at risk and urban education. Research, policy and prac-tice. Leuven/Apeldoorn:Garant. 1997.
期刊文章:主要责任者。文献题名。刊名,年,卷(期):起止页码。示例:Driessen,G.,& Van der Grinten,M. Home language proficiency in the Netherland:The evaluation of Turkish andMoroccan bilingual programmes- A critical review, Studies in Educational Evaluation,1994, 20(3):365- 386.
论文集中的析出文献析出文献主要责任者。析出文献题名。原文献主要责任者(任选)。原文献题名。出版地:出版者,出版年。析出文献起止页码。
示例:Driessen,G.,Mulder,L.,& Jungbluth,P. Structural and cultural determinants of educational opportunities in theNetherlands. In (Ed.),Root and migration in global perspective. Jerusalem:Magnes . 104.
二、关于英文人名的标注
现行编排规范对英文人名如何标注未作明确要求,英文人名的标注较为混乱,有标注全名的,有标注时将名缩写、姓不缩写、保持原来顺序的,还有在姓、名之间加圆点的,后者是我国翻译作品中,中文书写外国人名经常采用的一种方式。
其实,标注英文人名是有章可循的,在国外学术著作的参考文献中,关于人名的标注已约定俗成为一种统一的格式,即英文参考文献标注作者姓名时,要求姓在前、名在后,姓与名之间用逗号隔开,姓的词首字母大写,其余字母不大写;名用词首大写字母表示,后加缩写符号圆点,缩写符号不可省略。由于欧美国家人的姓名排列一般是名在前、姓在后,在标注时必须加以调整。如Georg Paghet Thomson,前面两个词是名,最后一个词是姓,应标注为Thomson,G. P为什么要如此标注呢?
1. 在应用计算机等信息工具进行英文文献检索时,以英文作者姓名中的姓作为依据之一,即以姓作为检索目标之一。
2. 在欧美人姓名表达含义里,姓比名的重要性更强、更正式。用姓而不是名来代表作者,还有尊重、礼貌的意味。名缩写后加缩写符号圆点,也含有正式、尊重和礼貌的意味,缩写符号不可省略。
3. 表示与平常书写姓名的不同,体现学术论文重要性、简约性和准确性的要求,符合科研论文文体风格。这种标注在英文学术著作、科技文献中已广泛采用,也容易被广大读者、作者理解、接受。
对于复姓情况,如Jory Albores-Saavedra等,在引用标注时,应将复姓全部写出,即Albores-Saavedra, J对于姓前带有冠词或介词的情况,如带有Mac,Le,Von,Van den等,标注时不能省略,应同姓一起提到前面标注,如Mac Donald,La Fontaina,Von Eschenbach,Van den Bery等。
一个参考文献有两位或两位以上作者时,标注时除按上述要求将每位作者的姓提前书写外,作者与作者之间用逗号分开,最后一位作者前加&符号,如示例[1],也可仅保留前三位作者,之后加etc.表示。
英文参考文献格式推荐
在社会的各个领域,大家都写过论文,肯定对各类论文都很熟悉吧,论文是对某些学术问题进行研究的手段。那么你知道一篇好的论文该怎么写吗?以下是我收集整理的英文参考文献格式推荐,欢迎大家分享。
方法/步骤
Journal (期刊)
期刊(Journal)是最常见的参考文献类型,一般需要依次列出以下信息:作者,文章的题目,期刊名称,发表年份,卷号,页码。
提醒:页码也可由DOI、文章编号(Article Number)代替;期刊类型参考文献也可以改成网页类型。
Book(书)
参考文献为书(Book),一般需要列出的信息有:作者,书名,出版社,出版社地点(包括城市和国家),年份,页码
书中的Chapter(章节)
书中的某个章节(Chapter),需要流出的信息有:作者,章节的`题目,书名,编辑,出版社,出版社地点(包括城市和国家),年份,卷号,页码
还未发表的文章(Unpublished Work)
引用了一篇还未发表的文章,你需要列出以下信息:作者,文章题目,期刊名称,阶段。
个人通讯(Personal communication)
个人通讯一般需要你列出作者所在机构和通讯时间。形式一般如图所示。
论文(Thesis)
在参考文献中,也会出现硕士和博士论文的引用,需要给出的信息有:作者,论文题目,论文级别(硕士还是博士),大学名称,大学地址(城市和国家),完成时间
会议(Proceedings)
一个学术会议也可以被引用。一般所需的信息有:作者,会议的名称,会议的地址(城市和国家)会议的时间。
英文参考文献格式要求
参考文献是毕业论文的重要组成部分,对其进行统计分析,不仅有利于本科生的教育和管理,而且能为图书馆文献保障和读者服务等工作提供一定的参考依据。下面是英文参考文献格式要求,希望大家重视。
一、参考文献的类型
参考文献(即引文出处)的类型以单字母方式标识,具体如下: M——专著C——论文集N——报纸文章 J——期刊文章D——学位论文R——报告
对于不属于上述的文献类型,采用字母“Z”标识。 对于英文参考文献,还应注意以下两点:
①作者姓名采用“姓在前名在后”原则,具体格式是:姓,名字的`首字母.如:MalcolmRichardCowley应为:Cowley,.,如果有两位作者,第一位作者方式不变,&之后第二位作者名字的首字母放在前面,姓放在后面,如:FrankNorris与IrvingGordon应为:Norris,F.&.;
②书名、报刊名使用斜体字,如:MasteringEnglishLiterature,EnglishWeekly。
二、参考文献的格式及举例
1.期刊类
【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[J].刊名,出版年份,卷号(期号):起止页码. 【举例】
[1]王海粟.浅议会计信息披露模式[J].财政研究,2004,21(1):56-58. [2]夏鲁惠.高等学校毕业论文教学情况调研报告[J].高等理科教育,2004(1):46-52.
[3]Heider,[J].ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearch,1999,(3):62–67.
2.专著类
【格式】[序号]作者.书名[M].出版地:出版社,出版年份:起止页码. 【举例】[4]葛家 澍 ,林志军.现代西方财务会计理论[M].厦门:厦门大学出版社,2001:42.
[5]Gill,[M].London:Macmillan,1985:42-45.
3.报纸类
【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[N].报纸名,出版日期(版次). 【举例】
[6]李大伦.经济全球化的重要性[N].光明日报,1998-12-27(3).
[7]French,[N].AtlanticWeekly,198715(33).
4.论文集
【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[C].出版地:出版者,出版年份:起始页码. 【举例】
[8]伍 蠡 甫.西方文论选[C].上海:上海译文出版社,1979:12-17.
[9]Spivak,G.“CantheSubalternSpeak?”[A].(eds.).VictoryinLimbo:Imigism[C].Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1988,.
英文文献的参考文献格式如下:
1、Journal(期刊)
期刊(Journal)是最常见的参考文献类型,一般需要依次列出以下信息:作者、文章的题目、期刊名称、发表年份、卷号、页码。提醒:页码也可由DOI、文章编号(ArticleNumber)代替,期刊类型参考文献也可以改成网页类型。
2、Book(书)
参考文献为书(Book),一般需要列出的信息有:作者、书名、出版社、出版社地点(包括城市和国家)、年份、页码。
3、书中的Chapter(章节)
书中的某个章节(Chapter),需要流出的信息有:作者、章节的题目、书名、编辑、出版社、出版社地点(包括城市和国家)、年份、卷号、页码。
4、还未发表的文章(UnpublishedWork)
引用了一篇还未发表的文章,你需要列出以下信息:作者、文章题目、期刊名称、阶段。
5、个人通讯(Personalcommunication)
个人通讯一般需要你列出作者所在机构和通讯时间。
6、论文(Thesis)
在参考文献中,也会出现硕士和博士论文的引用,需要给出的信息有:作者、论文题目、论文级别(硕士还是博士)、大学名称、大学地址(城市和国家)、完成时间。
7、会议(Proceedings)
一个学术会议也可以被引用。一般所需的信息有:作者、会议的名称、会议的地址(城市和国家)会议的时间。
不管毕业论文,还是学术论文,有一项必不可少的就是要在文章的最后加上参考文献,为了不影响文章的整体效果,参考文文献的格式还是要注意下的,特别是英文的参考文献格式。下面就来简单的说一下吧。基本格式大概是:[序号] 作者姓名,文章名称,出版处,时间字体的话:新罗马,五号字体(具体以实际投稿处的要求为准)其中需要注意的一点就是引用文章的作者姓名的书写原则,一般采用“名在前,姓在后”,具体格式是“名字的首字母,姓”,例如:,剩下的作者可以是跟第一作者一样。可以看到很多文献中,第一和其他作者的姓名一样的书写格式。中文名称也是一样的,名字在前,姓在后,如薛青禾即如:[1] ,,,,Carbon 45(2007)1899.[29] H. Fakih,S. Jacques,. Berthet, F. Bosselet,O. Dezellus, growth of Ti3SiC2 coatings onto SiC by reactive chemical vapor deposition using H 2 and TiCl 4[J]. Surface & Coatings .[30] , , , . Analysis of interlayer between WC–Co and CVD diamond film. Key Engineering Material, 2008,375-376:p92-94.
到大学的图书馆,或者通过一些大学在校生,让他们通过学校内图书馆进行下载。很方便的
基于WIN CE的ADSL线路参数研究ADSL line parameters research based on WIN CE CE (also known officially as Windows Embedded CE since version [2][3], and sometimes abbreviated WinCE) is a variation of Microsoft's Windows operating system for minimalistic computers and embedded systems. Windows CE is a distinctly different kernel, rather than a trimmed-down version of desktop Windows. It is not to be confused with Windows XP Embedded which is NT-based. It is supported on Intel x86 and compatibles, MIPS, ARM, and Hitachi SuperH CE is optimized for devices that have minimal storage—a Windows CE kernel may run in under a megabyte of memory. Devices are often configured without disk storage, and may be configured as a “closed” system that does not allow for end-user extension (for instance, it can be burned into ROM). Windows CE conforms to the definition of a real-time operating system, with a deterministic interrupt latency. It supports 256 priority levels and uses priority inheritance for dealing with priority inversion. The fundamental unit of execution is the thread. This helps to simplify the interface and improve execution has stated that the ‘CE’ is not an intentional initialism, but many people believe CE stands for ‘Consumer Electronics’ or ‘Compact Edition’; users often disparagingly called it “Wince”.[4] Microsoft says it implies a number of Windows CE design precepts, including “Compact, Connectable, Compatible, Companion, and Efficient.”[5] The first version, known during development under the codename “Pegasus”, featured a Windows-like GUI and a number of Microsoft's popular applications, all trimmed down for smaller storage, memory, and speed of the palmtops of the then, Windows CE has evolved into a component-based, embedded, real-time operating system. It is no longer targeted solely at hand-held computers. Many platforms have been based on the core Windows CE operating system, including Microsoft's AutoPC, Pocket PC 2000, Pocket PC 2002, Windows Mobile 2003, Windows Mobile 2003 SE, Windows Mobile , Windows Mobile 6, Smartphone 2002, Smartphone 2003 and many industrial devices and embedded systems. Windows CE even powered select games for the Sega Dreamcast, was the operating system of the controversial Gizmondo handheld, and can partially run on modified Microsoft Xbox game distinctive feature of Windows CE compared to other Microsoft operating systems is that large parts of it are offered in source code form. First, source code was offered to several vendors, so they could adjust it to their hardware. Then products like Platform Builder (an integrated environment for Windows CE OS image creation and integration, or customized operating system designs based on CE) offered several components in source code form to the general public. However, a number of core components that do not need adaptation to specific hardware environments (other than the CPU family) are still distributed in binary form toolsVisual StudioLate versions of Microsoft Visual Studio support projects for Windows CE / Windows Mobile, producing executable programs and platform images either as an emulator or attached by cable to an actual mobile device. A mobile device is not necessary to develop a CE program. The .NET Compact Framework supports a subset of the .NET Framework with projects in C# and , but not Managed C++.Platform BuilderThis programming tool is used for building the platform (BSP + Kernel), device drivers (shared source or custom made) and also the application. This is a one step environment to get the system up and running. One can also use Platform Builder to export an SDK (standard development kit) for the target microprocessor (SuperH, x86, MIPS, ARM etc.) to be used with another associated tool set named Visual C++ (eVC)The Embedded Visual C++ tool is for development of embedded application for Windows CE based devices. This tool can be used standalone using the SDK exported from Platform Builder or using the Platform Builder using the Platform Manager connectivity to Windows Mobile, Pocket PC, and SmartPhoneOften Windows CE, Windows Mobile, and Pocket PC are used interchangeably. This practice is not entirely accurate. Windows CE is a modular/componentized operating system that serves as the foundation of several classes of devices. Some of these modules provide subsets of other components' features (. varying levels of windowing support; DCOM vs COM), others which are mutually exclusive (Bitmap or TrueType font support), and others which add additional features to another component. One can buy a kit (the Platform Builder) which contains all these components and the tools with which to develop a custom platform. Applications such as Excel Mobile/Pocket Excel are not part of this kit. The older Handheld PC version of Pocket Word and several other older applications are included as samples, Mobile is best described as a subset of platforms based on a Windows CE underpinning. Currently, Pocket PC (now called Windows Mobile Classic), SmartPhone (Windows Mobile Standard), and PocketPC Phone Edition (Windows Mobile Professional) are the three main platforms under the Windows Mobile umbrella. Each platform utilizes different components of Windows CE, as well as supplemental features and applications suited for their respective PC and Windows Mobile is a Microsoft-defined custom platform for general PDA use, and consists of a Microsoft-defined set of minimum profiles (Professional Edition, Premium Edition) of software and hardware that is supported. The rules for manufacturing a Pocket PC device are stricter than those for producing a custom Windows CE-based platform. The defining characteristics of the Pocket PC are the digitizer as the primary Human Interface Device and its extremely portable SmartPhone platform is a feature rich OS and interface for cellular phone handsets. SmartPhone offers productivity features to business users, such as email, as well as multimedia capabilities for consumers. The SmartPhone interface relies heavily on joystick navigation and PhonePad input. Devices running SmartPhone do not include a touchscreen interface. SmartPhone devices generally resemble other cellular handset form factors, whereas most Phone Edition devices use a PDA form factor with a larger Mobile 5 supports USB and new devices running this OS will also conform to the USB Mass Storage Class, meaning the storage on PPC can be accessed from any USB-equipped PC, without requiring any extra software, except requiring a compliant host. In other words, you can use it as a flash productsCompetitors to consumer CE based PDA platforms like Pocket PC – the main application of Windows CE – are Java, Symbian OS, Palm OS, iPhone OS and Linux based packages like Qtopia Embedded Linux environment from Trolltech, Convergent Linux Platform from a La Mobile, and Access Linux Platform from Orange and secondary usage of CE is in devices in need of graphical user interfaces, (point of sale terminals, media centers, web tablets, thin clients) as the main selling point CE is the look and feel being similar to desktop Windows. The competition is Windows XP, Linux and graphical packages for simpler embedded operating an RTOS, Windows CE is also theoretically a competitor to any realtime operating system in the embedded space, like VxWorks, ITRON or eCos. The dominating method, however, of mixing Windows look and feel with realtime on the same hardware, is to run double operating systems using some virtualization technology, like TRANGO Hypervisor from TRANGO Virtual Processors or Intime from TenAsys in the case of Windows, and OS Ware from VirtualLogix, Padded Cell from Green Hills Software, OKL4 from Open Kernel Labs, TRANGO Hypervisor from TRANGO Virtual Processors, RTS Hypervisor from Real-Time Systems or PikeOS from Sysgo, in case of the Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) is a form of DSL, a data communications technology that enables faster data transmission over copper telephone lines than a conventional voiceband modem can provide. It does this by utilizing frequencies that are not used by a voice telephone call. A splitter - or microfilter - allows a single telephone connection to be used for both ADSL service and voice calls at the same time. Because phone lines vary in quality and were not originally engineered with DSL in mind, it can generally only be used over short distances, typically less than 3mi ( km) [William Stallings' book].At the telephone exchange the line generally terminates at a DSLAM where another frequency splitter separates the voice band signal for the conventional phone network. Data carried by the ADSL is typically routed over the telephone company's data network and eventually reaches a conventional internet network. In the UK under British Telecom the data network in question is its ATM network which in turn sends it to its IP network IP distinguishing characteristic of ADSL over other forms of DSL is that the volume of data flow is greater in one direction than the other, . it is asymmetric. Providers usually market ADSL as a service for consumers to connect to the Internet in a relatively passive mode: able to use the higher speed direction for the "download" from the Internet but not needing to run servers that would require high speed in the other are both technical and marketing reasons why ADSL is in many places the most common type offered to home users. On the technical side, there is likely to be more crosstalk from other circuits at the DSLAM end (where the wires from many local loops are close to each other) than at the customer premises. Thus the upload signal is weakest at the noisiest part of the local loop, while the download signal is strongest at the noisiest part of the local loop. It therefore makes technical sense to have the DSLAM transmit at a higher bit rate than does the modem on the customer end. Since the typical home user in fact does prefer a higher download speed, the telephone companies chose to make a virtue out of necessity, hence ADSL. On the marketing side, limiting upload speeds limits the attractiveness of this service to business customers, often causing them to purchase higher cost Digital Signal 1 services instead. In this fashion, it segments the digital communications market between business and home usersHow ADSL worksOn the wireCurrently, most ADSL communication is full duplex. Full duplex ADSL communication is usually achieved on a wire pair by either frequency division duplex (FDD), echo canceling duplex (ECD), or time division duplexing (TDD). FDM uses two separate frequency bands, referred to as the upstream and downstream bands. The upstream band is used for communication from the end user to the telephone central office. The downstream band is used for communicating from the central office to the end user. With standard ADSL (annex A), the band from kHz to 138 kHz is used for upstream communication, while 138 kHz – 1104 kHz is used for downstream communication. Each of these is further divided into smaller frequency channels of kHz. During initial training, the ADSL modem tests which of the available channels have an acceptable signal-to-noise ratio. The distance from the telephone exchange, noise on the copper wire, or interference from AM radio stations may introduce errors on some frequencies. By keeping the channels small, a high error rate on one frequency thus need not render the line unusable: the channel will not be used, merely resulting in reduced throughput on an otherwise functional ADSL may support usage of higher frequencies as a proprietary extension to the standard. However, this requires matching vendor-supplied equipment on both ends of the line, and will likely result in crosstalk issues that affect other lines in the same is a direct relationship between the number of channels available and the throughput capacity of the ADSL connection. The exact data capacity per channel depends on the modulation method used.[edit] ModulationADSL initially existed in two flavours (similar to VDSL), namely CAP and DMT. CAP was the de facto standard for ADSL deployments up until 1996, deployed in 90 percent of ADSL installs at the time. However, DMT was chosen for the first ITU-T ADSL standards, and (also called and respectively). Therefore all modern installations of ADSL are based on the DMT modulation J and M shift the upstream/downstream frequency split up to 276 kHz (from 138 kHz used in the commonly deployed annex A) in order to boost upstream rates. Additionally, the "all-digital-loop" variants of ADSL2 and ADSL2+ (annexes I and J) support an extra 256 kbit/s of upstream if the bandwidth normally used for POTS voice calls is allocated for ADSL the ADSL access utilizes the MHz band, ADSL2+ utilizes the MHz downstream and upstream rates displayed are theoretical maxima. Note also that because Digital subscriber line access multiplexers and ADSL modems may have been implemented based on differing or incomplete standards some manufacturers may advertise different speeds. For example, Ericsson has several devices that support non-standard upstream speeds of up to 2 Mbit/s in ADSL2 and ADSL2+.[edit] Installation issuesDue to the way it uses the frequency spectrum, ADSL deployment presents some issues. It is necessary to install appropriate frequency filters at the customer's premises, to avoid interferences with the voice service, while at the same time taking care to keep a clean signal level for the ADSL the early days of DSL, installation required a technician to visit the premises. A splitter was installed near the demarcation point, from which a dedicated data line was installed. This way, the DSL signal is separated earlier and is not attenuated inside the customer premises. However, this procedure is costly, and also caused problems with customers complaining about having to wait for the technician to perform the installation. As a result, many DSL vendors started offering a self-install option, in which they ship equipment and instructions to the customer. Instead of separating the DSL signal at the demarcation point, the opposite is done: the DSL signal is "filtered off" at each phone outlet by use of a low pass filter, also known as microfilter. This method does not require any rewiring inside the customer side effect of the move to the self-install model is that the DSL signal can be degraded, especially if more than 5 voiceband devices are connected to the line. The DSL signal is now present on all telephone wiring in the building, causing attenuation and echo. A way to circumvent this is to go back to the original model, and install one filter upstream from all telephone jacks in the building, except for the jack to which the DSL modem will be connected. Since this requires wiring changes by the customer and may not work on some household telephone wiring, it is rarely done. It is usually much easier to install filters at each telephone jack that is in use.
第1章 概述通信技术与计算机技术的发展通信技术的产生与发展计算机技术的产生与发展计算机通信的发展计算机通信产生的背景计算机通信的发展过程计算机通信的应用数据通信系统的体系结构数据通信中要解决的关键问题数据通信的层次结构数据通信系统的质量指标制定数据通信标准的机构习题1第2章 数据通信基础知识信息、数据与信号信息数据信号数据通信系统分析通信系统模型通信系统分析编码与码型编码码型信道信道的类型信道的容量光纤信道引言光纤的传光原理光纤信道的组成光纤信道的传输特性微波信道地面微波中继信道卫星中继信道铱星移动通信系统习题2第3章 传输技术模拟传输与数字传输模拟传输数字传输模拟信号的数字化传输模拟信号数字化的基本原理脉冲编码调制(PCM)语音压缩编码技术数字复接技术数字调制技术数字幅度调制数字频率调制数字相位调制调制解调器数字信号的基带传输数字基带信号基带脉冲传输的相关技术习题3第4章 同步技术同步的基本概念计算机数据通信同步的分类同步通信方式与异步通信方式通信系统中的同步方法载波同步插入导频法直接法位同步外同步法自同步法群同步异步通信系统中的群同步——起止同步法连贯式插入法网同步习题4第5章 数据透明传输技术数据透明传输的基本概念转义字符填充法零比特填充法采用特殊的信号与编码法 标准: CSMA/ 标准: 令牌环 标准: 令牌总线确定长度法面向字节计数的规程固定数据段长度法习题5第6章 差错控制差错的类型差错控制的基本方法差错控制的方式反馈重发纠错前向纠错混合纠错不用编码的差错控制采用检错码的差错控制奇偶校验码定比码循环冗余校验码其他校验码采用纠错码的差错控制不用编码的差错控制关于帧或分组顺序的差错控制习题6第7章 信道共享技术信道共享技术的原理信道共享技术的分类时分多路复用统计时分多路复用频分多路复用波分多路复用码分多路复用总线结构多机系统的信道共享技术选择型总线接入控制预约型总线接入控制竞争型总线接入控制令牌总线的接入控制有限冲突接入控制习题7第8章 数据交换技术数据交换技术概述什么是数据交换公用交换电话网公用数据网租用线路网数据交换技术的类型电路交换报文交换分组交换分组交换的基本原理分组交换的特点分组交换网的构成分组传送业务和用户业务类别建议书帧中继帧中继概述帧中继所提供的服务帧中继的体系结构帧中继的接入控制帧中继的帧格式帧中继的优点与应用交换引言技术的基本特点网的体系结构的信元格式交换原理服务质量(QoS)习题8第9章 寻址与路由技术计算机通信的地址地址的理解从IP地址到物理地址的映射地址的扩展的组播群组管理协议端口与套接字端口套接字域名系统的域名正式与非正式的Internet域名已命名项目与名字的语法将域名映射到地址域名转换高效率的转换路由技术路由选择的基本概念路由选择算法路由原理及路由协议路由原理路由选择协议路由表什么是路由表路由表的生成路由器路由器的原理与作用路由器的功能路由器的分组处理路由器的应用新一代路由器习题9第10章 流量控制和拥塞控制流量控制和拥塞控制的基本概念拥塞控制拥塞产生的原因拥塞控制的策略拥塞所产生的危害分组交换网的拥塞控制帧中继的拥塞控制帧中继拥塞控制的目标与方法许诺的信息速率利用显式信令避免拥塞利用隐式信令进行拥塞恢复网的拥塞控制通信量与拥塞控制的要求信元时延偏差通信量与拥塞控制框架结构通信量控制拥塞控制流量控制引言结点?结点流量控制源结点?宿结点流量控制结点与主机之间的流量控制源主机?宿主机流量控制习题10第11章 宽带综合业务数字网引言综合业务数字网(ISDN)的发展的国际标准的业务和功能的结构的协议模型同步数字体系——SDH技术的产生背景的概念与特点的帧结构与开销功能基本复用原理同步复用基本结构映射方法定位与指针复用方法号信令系统简介从信令到控制的体系结构与协议集习题11第12章 信息安全与保密技术简介引言网络信息安全所面临的威胁计算机网络信息安全存在的缺陷怎样实现网络信息安全与保密密码技术现代密码学的基本概念密码攻击概述网络加密方式几种著名的加密算法数字签名报文的鉴别防火墙简介防火墙的基本知识防火墙产品设计的要点防火墙的体系结构防火墙的关键技术虚拟专用网技术简介引言虚拟专用网分类虚拟专用网安全协议习题12附录中英文术语对照表参考文献
就从美军近几年来发动的几场战争来写。例文:美军近次战争信息化特点海湾战争期间,美军和多国部队所建立的战区通信网络是有史以来最大、最多、最全、最先进的,它运用卫星通信技术和数字化通信网络技术,把数十年来各国研制、生产和装备的各种战略、战区及战术通信网络和设备全面融合,综合为一体化的高效率的C3I通信系统,以98%以上的高战备率确保白宫、五角大楼、后勤支援基地与中央总部、多国部队和基层作战部队之间的联系,确保洲际之间、战区与本土之间、多国及友邻部队之间、各军兵种之间、飞机、舰艇和坦克等作战平台之间,以及上下、左右、纵横、交叉的不间断的持续通信和信息交换。海湾战争总指挥施瓦茨科普夫上将当时在沙特首都利雅得开设战区指挥部,各下属司令部也是在沙特开设。施瓦茨科普夫与各级指挥官讨论重大问题或研究作战方案基本是采用电视会议或视频面对面商谈的方式进行,各级指挥机构信息沟通也是采取电话、电报、软盘传递等方式进行。科索沃战争是第一次大规模实战运用全球一体化C4ISR指挥控制系统。在科索沃战争中,由于牵涉到北约十几个国家联合作战,所以还是沿用了传统的战略、战役和战术三级指挥体制。阿富汗战争中,美军刻意试验网络中心战和扁平式指挥的能力,所以没有按照战略、战役和战术层次设立指挥体系,也没有在阿富汗战区设立前沿指挥部,只是在美国本土设立了一个战略总指挥部,下面直接就是战术指挥层次,所以这场战争的指挥实际上是一场战略性战斗的指挥尝试。阿富汗战争期间,美军首次试验网络中心战取得了一些成果,比如,从阿拉伯海航空母舰上起飞的舰载机,有80%以上事先并不知道要去战区的什么地方、攻击什么样的目标,只是在起飞以后的飞行途中才接到指挥系统发来的最新任务指令,这时飞行员便可在指挥系统的引导下,选择最佳路径和方式对目标进行攻击。从阿富汗战争开始,网络中心战就已经正式进入作战程序,在这种作战程序中,指挥机构的指挥员和参谋人员最主要的不再是听取下属发来的请示,也不再是拟制电报或下达话音指令,而是在C4ISR系统的辅助指挥控下,侧重于做好这样三项工作:一是通过C4ISR系统掌握敌我双方的情报,驱散战争迷雾,定下作战决心;二是进行作战规划计划,提前下达作战任务指令,确定联合作战中各部队的具体认为是、出动批次、作战任务、作战目的、作战要求,具体各部队如何实施没有必要进行统一部署,只是提出准确的打击时间、地点、目的和要求即可,按照委托式指挥原则由部队自行协同;三是进行毁损评估,对上一次任务的执行情况进行监督和评估,以便确定下一批次的打击任务。伊拉克战争中,由于地面部队的大规模介入,所以美军又恢复实施三级指挥体制。战略指挥部仍然设在美国本土,技术上主要依托全球指挥控制系统(GCCS);战区指挥部中央总部司令部设在卡塔尔,中央总部陆军司令部设在科威特,中央总部空军司令部设在沙特,中央总部海军司令部设在巴林;战术级指挥机构分别在各司令部下设立战术作战指挥中心。战争中,美军使用了全球一体化指挥控制系统。伊拉克战争中,美国在本土有21处、本土之外基地上有33600名人员对航天侦察监视系统进行支持。美国部署的军用卫星系统覆盖了对伊作战所需的各个信息领域,动用的卫星包括侦察卫星、通信卫星、导航定位卫星、资源卫星和气象卫星等。在侦察卫星方面,主要包括3颗锁眼光学成像卫星,3颗长曲棍球雷达成像侦察卫星,3颗入侵者电子侦察卫星和12颗二代白云电子型海洋监视卫星;在导航定位卫星方面,共投入了GPS—2和GPS—2R共24颗卫星,定位精度从16米提高到10米。还动用了由14颗国防卫星通信系统卫星、4颗军事星和跟踪与数据中继卫星组成保障伊拉克战区战略及战术通信的天基信息传输系统。此外,租用了一些商用卫星,主要是地球资源卫星和气象卫星等。例文2:从伊拉克战争看美国的信息网络战摘要:在新军事变革的引领下,战争有机械化战争阶段发展到了信息网络战的新阶段。从伊拉克战争中,可以看到信息网络战这种作战模式的巨大威力。同时也显示出制约信息网络战的“软肋”,这将为我国的军事变革、军队建设以及信息网络化建设提供借鉴和经验教训。关键词:信息网络战战争,使信息网络成为军事打击和心理战的重要载体,成为一种不可缺少的作战工具。信息战已衍生为一种重要的作战方式和战斗力。传统战争是兵马未动舆论先行,现代战争的信息网络行为已贯穿战争的全过程。从伊拉克战争中可以看出,信息网络已成为一把高悬在战场上的达摩克利斯之剑。一、信息网络战的特点及巨大威力信息网络战在在科索沃战争中就开始显示出来,只不过在伊拉克战争中将其发挥的淋漓尽致。信息网络战是利用强大的计算机通信网络,将各种分散在空间、陆地和海上的探测系统、指挥系统集成一个统一、高效的信息网络体系,使陆、海、空军各级作战人员能够利用该网络共享战场态势、交流作战信息、协同指挥与实施作战行动,其目的是通过攻击敌计算机网络窃取情报,破坏、瘫痪敌信息系统,并采取各种措施保护己方网络安全,夺取和保护“制网络权”。信息网络战的主要特点:一是作战力量广泛。由于信息技术有很强的军民通用性和计算机网络的互联性,使得凡是具有一定计算机网络知识、掌握着一定网络攻击手段的人都可以介入网络战;二是作战对象平等。计算机网络战中,只要拥有高水平的计算机网络人才,网络战就可以得到有效实施,而与国力大小、兵力多少无关;三是作战空间广阔。计算机网络战不受地域限制,只要网络能够到达的地方,网络战都可以实施;四是作战时间连续。计算机网络战不受外界自然条件的干扰,不受天候因素制约,可在任何时段进行。 五是破坏信息系统和影响人的心理,破坏信息系统的效果是敌方无法利用信息系统的设施获得所需要的正确信息,既可以从物理上摧毁地方的硬件设施,也可以是破坏系统软件,使系统崩溃或提供不正确的信息。通过提供对敌方不利的信息可以对人的心理造成影响进而控制人的行为,影响士气,削弱敌方的战斗力。信息网络战主要有三种形式:心理战、电子战和计算机战。心理战是指通过各种手段施加对敌方不利的信息,影响人的心理从而削弱战斗力。电子战是现代战争的主要作战内容之一,将其归为信息战武器主要是因为信息系统的基础是各种电子设备,无论是探测器(雷达,光电设备,监听设备),还是信息处理平台、通讯设施(无线通讯,有线通讯),核心都是电子设备。通过电子干扰可以削弱雷达等探测器的能力,使得敌方无法及时收集信息;无法及时传递信息或者传递错误的信息。计算机是信息系统的基础和平台,在信息系统中具有核心的地位,计算机战是指利用计算机开展的以信息系统为主要目标的作战形式。其形式主要有:利用计算机信息系统的网络特性、电磁特性对敌实施网络窃密和电磁窃密;通过计算机病毒攻击、计算机芯片攻击、网络“黑客” 攻击、电磁干扰等手段实施网络进攻;采取加强“防火墙”技术、断开核心系统与外界的链接等措施进行网络防护;进行系统备份,为网络恢复做好充分准备等。伊拉克战争是21世纪初爆发的一场现代高技术条件下的局部战争,从某种意义上讲也是一场声势浩大的信息网络战,在这次伊拉克战争中,美军作战的速度远远超过了伊拉克军队的反应能力。作战的速度之快和程度之猛烈,使伊拉克军队多次陷于美军的集中打击之中。美军采取的打击方式是,集中摧毁伊军的一个战斗单元,然后迅速移动到下一个目标。伊军的指挥通信系统,也在美军对巴格达发动进攻前被美军彻底摧毁。由实行网络中心战而获得的信息优势,是美军实现快速作战的关键。美军能知道伊军的位置,而伊军不知道美英联军的位置,也不知道联军的下一个攻击目标。因此,可以说美国以网络中心战赢得了这次战争的胜利。1.及时获得可靠的目标信息这次战争中,先进的卫星系统、侦察飞机、地面站和地面侦察人员等,组成了一个天、地(海)、空一体化的情报、侦察和监视(ISR)系统。它为部队提供作战空间的情况,包括各部队的部署、兵力兵器、作战意图等方面的情况和提供毁伤效果评估。它也为战斧巡航导弹和由全球导航定位系统制导的联合直接攻击炸弹等的精确打击提供目标信息,为反爱国者导弹提供预警和目标信息。在海湾战争时,美军一般需要两天的时间才能完成对目标的侦察评估和打击准备,而现在最快只需几分钟。太空是未来战争的制高点。在ISR领域,由于卫星侦察和监视的覆盖范围大,并能实现全球覆盖、运行时间长和在平时可以进入敌方领土等优点,已成为实施网络中心战的前提。其中,6颗军用成像侦察卫星通过伊拉克上空,包括3颗KH-12卫星和3颗“长曲棍球”雷达卫星。每颗卫星一天两次通过伊方上空。KH-12卫星精度达到米。“长曲棍球”雷达卫星最高精度达到米。美军充分利用了有人和无人侦察机、战机以及个人跟踪系统所提供的实时情报和图像。这些信息定向直接传送到指挥部或者指挥官的战区指挥控制车。实时的情报和图像有助于区分敌我,减少传感器到射击器的时间。美国国防部所拥有的所有情报、监视以及侦察资源,在战争中都高速运行,为联军地面指挥部的陆军指挥官以及世界范围内的其他指挥官,提供了一幅通用的作战图。美军已经在通信与数据网络中集成了ISR平台,并为它们的运行提供带宽。2.提高了信息传输的速度、质量和安全性保障军用信息传输系统的畅通,提高信息传输的速率和可靠性,加强信息管理能力,是实施网络中心战的重要保障。卫星通信以其广域覆盖和全球覆盖,独特的广播、多播能力,快速灵活组网,支持不对称带宽要求和可以按需分配带宽等优势,为战场信息网络的建设提供了条件。美国国防部投资16亿美元构建了国防文电系统,对其全球范围内的通信进行安全加密,确保向国防部用户、各业务局以及合同商传送秘密以及最高机密的信息安全。在伊拉克战争中,使用这个系统较之使用自动数字网或其他类似的军用文电系统,其传输速度更快、保密性更强且更易于使用。国防文电系统的信息,是通过用于分发语音、视频以及数据信息的国防信息系统网(DISN)进行传输的。由于严格的保密原因,国防文电系统的信息与Outlook的信息有些微小差别。但是用户可以在计算机上编写国防文电系统信息,然后使用带有加密令牌的Fortezza卡,对信息进行标记并加密。当美英联军在伊拉克战场与伊军交战时,网络空间的战斗也在紧张地进行。自对伊战争爆发以来,联军的网络系统遭受了轻微的网络攻击,而且尝试发起攻击的行为异常频繁。因此,认为不安全的设备将被迅速隔离,脱离网络并进行病毒扫描,以防止更大问题的发生。在实际战场上,如果部队身处危险境地,程序将被保护,甚至破坏那些面临危险的设备和系统,以避免敏感的数据流落到敌人的手中。例如,链接到国防部保密IP路由器的计算机带有可移动硬盘,一些加密设备也有类似的保护措施。在美军驻卡塔尔的联合空中作战中心,在开始指挥所有联合空中任务之前,其信息系统需要进行鉴定与授权。信息安全公司负责承担了这项紧急任务。3.依靠有效的数据链实施精确打击网络中心战的一个重要特点是通过信息网络系统,在武器平台之间实现横向组网,做到信息资源共享,从而最大程度地提高武器平台的作战效能,以实施精确打击。传统的以坦克、战车、火炮和导弹为代表的陆基作战平台,以舰艇、潜艇为代表的海上作战平台,以飞机、直升机为代表的空中作战平台等,都必须在火力优势的基础上兼有现代信息优势,才能成为真正的高技术信息化武器装备。因此,一种链接各作战平台、优化信息资源、有效调配和使用作战能量、用于链接整合军队各战斗单元的数据链,正日益受到重视。数据链将成为未来军队作战力量的“粘合剂”和“倍增器”。此次对伊战争中,美军基本上使用的是旧式飞机和坦克,但这些旧武器通过网络进行链接,从而把飞机的座舱、指挥所和坦克驾驶员联在一起,使其看到他们视野外很远的地方,从而大大提高了战斗力。3月底伊拉克一度被沙尘暴,搅得昏天黑地,但是美军仍能清楚地看到战场上的情况,甚至在高空飞行的B-52轰炸机的飞行员,也能透过滚滚黄沙,俯瞰地面的动静。B-52轰炸机能通过使用其他侦察机传送过来的雷达图像,对伊拉克军队进行精确轰炸。这次战争中美军广泛使用的“21世纪旅和旅以下部队战斗指挥系统”,是一种基于因特网的通信系统。它综合了卫星、无人机和特种部队的信息源。它已成为美军数千装甲车、坦克和直升机上的标准装备。这个系统实现了坦克之间、直升机之间的共享数据。坦克可以发送文本信息,在激烈的战斗中文本信息的可靠性高于语音通信,直升机也可以通过文本信息呼叫炮兵火力支援。每台车辆都有计算机地址用于识别,车辆的位置信息通过全球定位系统随时修正更新。加密的数据通过无线电在部队车辆之间传送。跳频技术使敌方无法对信号进行导向目标追踪。坦克的所有功能都通过一台相当于奔腾Ⅲ的计算机控制。如果主系统出现故障,将由备份系统继续操作。如果整个计算机系统全部失效,最后可用手动控制。一旦坦克乘员被俘,他们可以在极短的时间内删除敏感的数据。全球导航定位卫星更是精确打击的关键。在战争中,依靠美军的GPS系统,为美军的精确打击武器提供了有效保障。美军这次所使用的精确打击武器为海湾战争的10倍左右。在这次伊拉克战争中,他们投掷精确制导炸弹万枚,其打击精度明显高于海湾战争。在这次战争中,美军能使用大量精确武器,对伊拉克领导目标和共和国卫队,实施时间敏感型的攻击。4.实现了部队快速机动在机械化战争时代,由于部队的通信、机动和兵力兵器投送能力有限,无法很快地集中兵力,实施攻击。地理位置上的限制,还使部队很难在保持高度协调一致和得到充分后勤保障的情况下,实施快速、远距离机动。但是,在实施网络中心战后,部队将不再受地理条件的制约而实现快速机动。在伊拉克战争中,美军第3机械化步兵师创造了日行170公里的开进速度,这等于海湾战争时部队开进速度的3倍。令人关注的是,这种机动方式直奔要害领域,甚至可以不顾暴露后勤保障的危险。由于部队能够进行快速机动,就可大大减少参战人员的数量。这次伊拉克战争,在伊拉克战场的美军总人数约万人,远远少于海湾战争时的50万人。二、从伊拉克战争看信息网络战的不足由于伊军在这次战争中几乎没有任何信息战和网络战的任何能力,让美军在网络空间如入无人之境。实际上,美军的信息网络仍然是较脆弱的,在这次伊拉克战争中,美军的信息网络的安全性和可靠性,实际上也没有受到真正的考验。尽管如此,美军在作战中暴露出的一些问题,也揭示了美军的网络中心战尚须进一步改进的方向。第一,假信息掣肘美军战斗力在信息战中,战斗力的形成和发挥依赖于对信息的正确采集、处理和使用。在现代战争中信息量的空前增大和信息传播环节的增加难免造成虚假信息的泛滥和有用信息的失真现象。这就使信息在采集和处理过程中真假难辨,进而影响战斗力的发挥。在海湾战争中,伊军放置的假坦克、假阵地使美军侦察系统摸不清虚实,采集回来的信息也良莠不齐,从而导致美军判断失误,对假目标狂轰滥炸。同样的,在科索沃战争中,美军的侦察卫星不能完全识别南联盟巧妙的伪装,对移动的车辆和其他目标难以跟踪,也不能穿过云层和森林发现目标。因此,当北约得意洋洋地宣布“重创”南联盟军队几天之后,南联盟人民军军容整齐地开出隐蔽地域。当时他们只损失了十几辆坦克。第二、信息化武器发挥作用受战场环境限制信息战对作战环境要求很高。气象和地理条件都会影响到信息进攻。比如丛林、沙漠、山地等地形和恶劣的天气就会对信息武器系统产生影响。美五角大楼承认在对南联盟的空袭中,复杂的气候和地理环境迫使北约取消了20%以上的空袭行动。在“伊拉克自由”行动中,沙尘暴曾使美军信息化武器失灵,大大延缓了作战行动。第三,信息网络系统发达却易受攻击首先,美国不能独占信息战的技术。它要占领和控制世界信息市场就必须输出先进软件、硬件和加密技术,并创造信息环境。然而由于信息技术的扩散性和共享性,使得美国在建立起一个信息系统平台用于信息战时,也为其他国家和个人利用这个平台攻击美国提供了机会。并且袭击这种信息系统的大部分技术,如计算机、调制解调器很便宜。因此,任何头脑灵活的人都可以把自己武装成信息战士,轻而易举地使美国军用和民用电脑网络陷于瘫痪,甚至可以破坏美军高层决策机构所依赖的指挥控制系统。其次,庞大的信息系统使美军在信息进攻面前招架无力。在国内,美军和政府行使职能越来越依赖于国家信息基础设施,大量的后勤社会化保障不得不借助民用通信网。美国防部有200万台计算机、1万个局域网络、100多个长途网络。这些网络设备用于协调和执行国防部各方面的任务,包括从武器设计到战场管理。虽然美军进行实际作战的计算机一般是安全可靠的,但是管理军饷、人事、运输、零部件的计算机防护能力低,而且与公共通信设施联网,极易泄密和遭到破坏。在国际上,美国是当前信息技术最发达的国家。统计资料表明,因特网上80%的信息来自美国,而世界范围内80%的数据处理是在美国进行的。美国高度发达的经济依赖完善健全的全球信息网络。随着信息网络的不断扩大深入,美国经济对全球的依赖性就愈强,美国的文化和经济与世界各国的联系就会越发紧密。这样美国不仅将能向世界各地随心所欲地伸出触角,同时通过“计算机接口”也将自己更全面地暴露于世界,更易于成为众矢之的。据美国防部的报告指出,政府和军队的信息系统曾遭受过万次攻击,成功率高达88%,可是检测到的只有4%。这4%中95%无法采取任何应急措施。可见庞杂的信息系统可使美军在信息进攻面前毫无招架之功。在信息战中,美军要是想维持其信息技术优势,就必须加大信息工程建设、改造、维护和更新的投入。但是这笔费用非常大,美国现在还不能轻松承受。比如,作为集高、精、尖技术于一体的信息化武器平台往往价格不菲。“爱国者”导弹每枚110万美元,“战斧”式巡航导弹每枚135万美元,E-8电子侦察机每架亿美元。目前,信息技术的研制费和采购费在飞机、舰船、坦克、大炮等武器装备中占22%~30%,在导弹中占45%,而在一体化信息系统C4ISR中,所占比例更高。此外,信息化武器装备的软件系统具有看不见、摸不着和专业性强的特点,其研制和采购费用高昂,更难估算。同时由于信息安全的投资回报收益在短期内并不显著,甚至可能会血本无归,即便是财力雄厚的公司也不愿倾力相助,政府也难免资金短缺。所以,在信息战中,美军防御乏力。要改善这种状况,恐怕还需要相当长的一段时间。信息网络技术或知识优势可能赢得战争,,但是这种优势是十分脆弱的,这种优势可能因为一根保险丝而全面改变,也可能因为一句谎言,也可能因为你保护自己的优势不被敌人偷去的能力有限等原因而失去。优势的这种脆弱性在于认识掌握信息的主体,人的任何一点疏忽都会造成错误。历史证明,不管是在冷兵器时代还是网络时代,人仍然是决定战争成败的关键。网络中心战虽为决策优势提供了条件,但从信息优势转变为决策优势还要取决于指挥员乃至整个军队的素质。而在军队各种素质中最重要的是创造性。三、几点启示:信息化社会里,一切政治、经济、文化和军事活动都将围绕网络这个中心来进行。在未来战争中,控制了网络空间,就意味着夺取了在陆、海、空、天多维空间里行动的自由权。为了应对网络战的威胁,夺取制网络权,世界各国都在加紧备战网络战。而目前我国的信息安全形势极为严峻,实施和抵御信息网络战的能力同世界先进水平相比,尚存在较大的差距,其主要表现为:一、硬件方面受制于人。我国目前尚不能自给生产CPU芯片,计算机网络系统的其他部件的关键技术,也都掌握在外国生产商手里。二、软件方面漏洞较多。由于我国在信息安全方面起步较晚,国内使用的大部分软件存在有安全隐患。另外信息安全技术也与世界先进水平有较大差距。因此,大力加强军队的信息网络化建设,提升整个社会的信息网络化水平,增强全民族的国防意识,是适应未来信息战要求的一项极为迫切的工作(一)是落后就要挨打,尤其是在武器装备上,不能有太大的时代差,否则在战场上就无法获取哪怕是战术上的优势,这就很难打赢战争,因此应进一步推进军事信息网络化建设。未来的信息化战争,以宽带、大容量、数字化的网络传输能力为基础和前提,所以,加快军队的信息网络化建设,特别是末端建设和移动网络的建设势在必;进一步提高一体化建设水平。未来作战是联合作战,指挥自动化系统的真正一体化还有较长的路要走,只有加快建设和发展适合自己国情的综合集成系统,才能真正实现情报侦察、预警探测、信息对抗,特别是武器平台控制的现代化目标。此外,还必须推进民族信息产业的发展,一个国家的信息战能力是建立在本国信息产业的发展水平上的。因此,我们要在这方面下大力气去抓,优先发展信息产业。同时充分发挥我国社会主义体制方面的优势,集中全国的人力、物力,在国家的统筹规划下展开联合攻关,以形成我们的优势领域,铸就自己的“撒手锏”。(二)是必须创新作战理论,装备技术落后可怕,但思想观念滞后更危险。作战理论的创新一方面要求和现有武器装备相匹配,一方面又要与作战对象相协调,伊军的作战理论非常落后,在这两个方面都不适应,因此应进一步加强综合军事理论研究。面对世界新军事变革的影响,应不断跟踪探讨适合各自国情的信息化建设特点与对策,加大军事理论创新的力度,从而促进多出成果,加速发展。(三)是要注意建设周边以及国际安全战略环境,伊拉克的失败与萨达姆在国内推行独裁统治,在国际上缺少朋友很有关系。(四)培养网络训练人才。在未来的信息战中,人的因素仍然是首要的、是决定战争胜负的最主要的因素,高素质的人才能驾驭高科技的装备。要适应网络战需求培训三类人才:一是专门从事网络对抗研究的电脑专家队伍;二是懂得网络对抗技术及其战术的指挥员队伍;三是具有一定计算机网络基础知识的网络技能操作人员,逐步造就一支专门从事网络对抗的计算机专家队伍。(五)建立网络安全防护屏障。必须制定一系列的网络安全法规体系,将计算机及其网络技术的开发、应用、管理、安全问题法律化,以法律手段保障计算机网络安全;应该开发相应的防护技术。技术是实现网络安全精锐武器,必须发展网络防护技术。应着重开发密码鉴别技术、计算机网络信息泄漏防护技术、计算机网络安全等薄弱环节检测技术等,首先确保网络系统的安全。在此基础上加强对军事情报的研究和改进,军事情报是迈向执行信息战略规划的第一步。参考文献:1、[美]阿尔文.托夫勒,《未来的战争》,新华出版社,1996年版2、[俄].利西奇金 .谢列平著,《第三次世界大战——信息心理战》,社会科学文献出版社,2000年9月版。3、张绍忠著《怎样打赢信息化战争》,世界知识出版社,2004年6月版。
怎样写关于美军信息化战争的论文
卫星通信双线极化天线馈源阵列分析的论文
摘要 :本文介绍了一种用于Ku频段卫星通信的双线极化天线馈源阵列,该馈源阵列可应用于单反射面或双反射面的卫星通信天线中,实现对通信卫星的小角度、高速、高精度电子波束扫描和跟踪,降低卫星天线对机械伺服结构精度和动态跟踪的要求,从而大幅降低伺服系统成本,拓展动中通卫星天线在民用领域的应用。
关键词 :馈源阵列;动中通;微带天线
1引言
星地动中通天线系统满足了用户通过卫星在动态移动中传输宽带数据信息的需求,使车辆、轮船、飞机等移动载体在运动过程中可实时跟踪卫星,不间断传送语音、数据、图像等信息[1][2]。目前,动中通天线主要用Ku频段与固定轨道卫星进行通信[3],需同时覆盖上行/下行频段,其中上行频段为,下行频段、,上行和下行频段为双正交的线极化。为保证卫星与地面移动设备间的流畅通信,动中通天线要实时指向通信卫星,同时为避免天线发射时对邻近卫星的干扰,移动设备在运动中天线的跟踪误差要小于°,并且馈源也要进行旋转跟踪,接收和发射间的极化隔离度要大于30dB[4][5]。国内外已有多家企业推出了动中通天线产品,如以色列RaySat公司的多组片天线、美国TracStar的IMVS450M产品等[6]。为满足天线对卫星的高精度实时跟踪对准的要求,上述动中通天线中均包含有自动跟踪系统,在初始静态情况下,由GPS、经纬仪、捷联惯导系统测量出航向角、载体所在位置的经度和纬度及相对水平面的初始角,然后根据其姿态及地理位置、卫星经度自动确定以水平面为基准的天线仰角,在保持仰角对水平面不变的前提下转动方位,并以信号极大值方式自动对准卫星。在载体运动过程中,测量出载体姿态的变化,通过数学运算变换为天线的误差角,通过伺服机构调整天线方位角、俯仰角、极化角,保证载体在变化过程中天线对星保持在规定范围内,使卫星发射天线在载体运动中实时跟踪地球同步卫星。高精度的伺服系统始终是传统动中通天线系统的关键部分。通常情况下,由于动中通天线具有较大的口径(一般约为)及重量,造成了高精度伺服系统具有较高的成本。目前,应用于动中通天线的高精度伺服系统成本动辄数万、甚至超过十万,占整个动中通天线系统成本的很大部分,限制了动中通卫星天线在民用领域的广泛应用[5]。
2双线极化天线馈源阵列
为了克服现有的动中通天线跟踪伺服系统所需精度高、成本高等缺点,我们开发了一种双线极化天线馈源阵列,可应用于单反射式或卡塞格伦式卫星通信天线中,结合后端的多通道数字波束形成(DigitalBeamForming,DBF)技术实现天线系统的机电融合跟踪,最终通过“大角度低精度机械跟踪”与“小角度多通道DBF精确跟踪”相结合,在实现天线系统对卫星的高精度跟踪对准的同时,降低对伺服系统的精度要求,从而降低伺服系统的成本。此馈源阵列为中心对称式结构,阵列的中心放置在单反射式或卡塞格伦式天线的焦点处,当对阵列中不同单元进行馈电时天线将辐射不同指向的高增益波束,此时再结合后端的高精度DBF技术可实现小角度范围内高精度的波束指向控制。馈源阵列采用基于微带印刷电路板的“法布里-帕罗”天线形式,阵列由三层结构组成,其中底层为带金属地板的微带反射板,中间层为微带形式的天线结构,顶层为一块起增强定向性作用的纯介质板。
底层结构
馈源阵列的底层为一侧附铜并开有8个馈电孔的介质板,SSMA以及空心铜柱通过馈电孔焊接在底层介质板上,发射天线馈口和接收天线馈口分别有4个馈电孔。图2为底层电路板结构示意图。
顶层结构
顶层介质板是将覆铜板全部刻蚀掉的介质板,构成了“法布里-帕罗”的上层结构。图3为顶层电路板结构示意图。
中间层结构
中间层电路板两侧分别刻蚀了发射天线、接收天线及其附属馈电线路,其中,为焊接方便,焊盘均在一侧。为隔绝表面波对天线方向图的影响,天线阵列由格状金属条带分割,电路板两侧均有金属条带,并由金属化通孔相互导通。图4为中间层电路板结构示意图。中间层电路板上的微带阵列单元采用一对交叉的金属偶极子结构分别实现收/发的功能,两金属偶极子分别印刷于中间层微带介质板的正面与背面,分别工作于收/发(下行/上行)频段,并且交叉偶极子结构可对应实现收/发所要求的两正交线极化。阵列单元通过同轴底馈的方式实现馈电,其中偶极子的两臂分别与同轴接口的内芯以及外壁通过一段印刷细导线相连,这里采用细导线以减小馈电结构对收/发间隔离的影响。为进一步减小馈电结构对收/发间隔离所带来的影响,在设计中将同一位置处的两偶极子结构通过一段印刷细导线相连,通过其长度、粗细等参数可利用合适的对消手段来实现收/发之间的高隔离。通过在阵列单元周围引入一圈密集的金属化通孔结构,并且在电路板上设计金属附加结构以隔离介质中的表面波,从而降低阵列单元间的互耦。
馈源阵列的装配
馈源阵列的三层电路板由数个尼龙螺柱进行固定,图5是馈源阵列的立体分解及整体装配示意图。在馈源阵列结构中,通过调节金属偶极子的'臂长,可调节天线的工作频率。通过调节顶层介质基板与中间层电路板间的距离,可方便地调节辐射增益以适应不同反射面尺寸及焦距的需求。
3仿真及实测效果
馈源阵列的端口1、端口3、端口5、端口7为接收端口,端口2、端口4、端口6、端口8为发射端口。图6是馈源阵列的仿真和测试回波损耗结果图。由图6可见,接收端口和发射端口回波分别在和范围内小于-10dB,达到了良好匹配。图7是馈源阵列在工作频点的仿真及实测接收方向图。由图7可见,工作于时,天线在天顶方向的增益为15dB,副瓣比主瓣低10dB(仿真)/18dB(实测)。图8是馈源阵列在工作频点的仿真及实测发射方向图。由图8可见,工作于时,天线在天顶方向的增益为15dB,副瓣比主瓣低11dB(仿真)/10dB(实测)。
4结束语
本馈源阵列采用微带印刷电路板结构,简单紧凑、工艺成熟、加工简单、成本较低且适用于大规模生产。相比于传统的波导口、波导喇叭等馈源结构,可在较小的面积内实现多个单元以及收/发通道,从而利于实现更高精度的波束指向控制。同时,馈源阵列采用的对消技术可在天线结构端实现同一位置处接收/发射通道之间30dB的隔离度,减轻了后端器件的压力。从实际应用来看,天线馈源阵列与主反射面配合,实现了动中通卫星天线对Ku频段通信卫星的小角度、高速、高精度电子波束扫描和跟踪。采用这种技术,大幅降低了天线对伺服系统精度和动态反应速度的要求,把伺服系统的成本降低了一个数量级,有助于推动卫星天线在天地一体化通信中的规模应用。
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毕业论文常见的参考文献介绍
参考文献来源分类: 期刊文章-[J],普通图书、专着-[M],论文集、会议录-[C],学位论文-[D],规范、标准-[S],报告-[R],未说明文献类型或资料类-[Z].
毕业论文常见的参考文献介绍
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关于毕业论文
毕业论文是大专院校学生毕业之前写作的体现学习成果的论说文。从整个写作过程来说,要抓好三件事:一是选题要得当,二是材料收集要充分,三是论证要严密。一个环节失误,都会严重影响论文质量。在此仅就写法上的问题谈几点应注意事项:
一、题目最好小一点,角度新一点 。
由于完成论文的时间大体上只有三五个月,论文字数也有一定限制,因此选的题目不能过大。否则,为时间、精力、资料等条件所限,将难以写好。题目小一点,写得实在一点,把问题讲得透彻一点,对于初学写论文的同学来说,是一个较好的锻炼。确定题目之后,还要考虑从哪个角度写比较好。譬如论一部作品,究竟是论它的思想性、艺术技巧还是人物形象等,要在调查研究的基础上,根据自己的特长和所掌握的资料来确定,最好是从前人所没有论述过的地方或前人虽有论述但自己有新见解的地方着手。当然,也不是题目越小越好,越冷僻越好。钻牛角尖也容易走上歧途。
二、依理定形,顺理成章。
论文和文学作品不同,它要求用简明的语言讲清楚一个最基本的道理。因此,论文的结构只能以理为中心,结构形式必须服从事理发展逻辑。所以,在写作之前要细致地分析所有的材料,理清思路。在写作时,要紧紧抓住自己所要阐述的问题组织和使用材料,用严密的论证来说明自己的观点。
三、中心突出,层次清楚。
要使文章中心突出,首先要确定论证重点,然后在材料的安排上下功夫,即先找出材料安排的顺序,看看什么材料该先用,什么该后用,放在什么地方最为合适。如材料安排是平行关系,即列举式的,材料之间并无内在的逻辑联系,谁先谁后没有多大关系。如果是递进关系,不论是递增式还是递减式,就象阶梯一样,有一定先后次序,它们之间就不能随意颠倒顺序,否则,就会造成气不通、理不顺。此外,还有接续关系和对立关系等。总之,在使用材料时,要把握它们之间的内在联系,用得恰到好处,这样,文章就可以做到中心突出、层次清楚。层次清楚还要求:段落之间的衔接要紧凑,文势的曲折变化要自然。段落之间的过渡不论采用什么形式,如用联接词,用插叙或说明等,都要有连贯性,不要给人突如其来的感觉。为了使文章曲折变化、引人入胜,有时要退一步讲,有时要抓住关键性的字眼反复挖掘深意,有时需要间接证明,有时需要用顿笔造成奇峰突起等。但无论怎样曲折变化,都不能离开文章的中心,横生枝节,而要显得自然、合理。
动笔写作之前,最好先列一个提纲,确定文章的架子,看看要讲哪几层道理,用什么材料,怎么论证,如何开头、结尾等。这样,一方面可以检查自己材料是否够用,另外,写作时也不致因时间较长而使思路中断。当然,写作过程中,随着认识的加深或新材料的发现,部分修改甚至提纲的事也是有的,但有提纲总比没有要好。初稿写毕,要在听取指导老师和同学的意见之后反复修改,最后再定稿。
毕业设计说明书与毕业论文撰写的规范化要求
一篇完整的毕业设计说明书或毕业论文要有题目、摘要及关键词、目录、引言(前言)、正文、结论、谢辞、参考文献、附录等几部分构成,毕业论文规范。理工科专业的毕业设计说明书(毕业论文)要求不少于2500字,文科专业不少于3000字,具体实施细则如下:
一、毕业设计说明书撰写的主要内容与基本要求
1.题目
毕业设计课题名称,要求简洁、确切、鲜明。
2.中外文摘要及关键词
应扼要叙述本设计的主要内容、特点,文字要简练。中文摘要求约100字左右。关键词3-5个。
3.目录
主要内容的目录。
4.前言
应说明本设计的目的、意义、范围及应达到的技术要求;简述本课题在国内(外)的研究概况及尚可开拓空间;本设计的指导思想;阐述本设计要解决的主要问题。
5.正文
(1)设计方案论证:应说明设计原理并进行方案选择。应说明为什么要选择这个方案(包括各种方案的分析、比较);应阐述所采用方案的特点(如采用了何种新技术、新措施、提高了什么性能等)。
(2)设计及计算部分:设计及计算部分是设计说明书的重要组成部分,应详细写明设计结果及计算结果。
(3)样机或试件的各种实验及测试情况:包括实验方法、线路及数据处理等,开题报告《毕业论文规范》。
(4)方案的.校验:说明所设计的系统是否满足各项性能指标的要求,能否达到预期效果。校验的方法可以是理论分析(即反推算),包括系统分析,也可以是实验测试及计算机的上机运算等。
6.结论
概括说明本设计的情况和价值,分析其优点、特色,有何创新,性能达到何水平,并指出其中存在的问题和今后的改进方向。
7.谢辞
简述自己通过本设计的体会,并对指导老师和协助完成设计的有关人员表示谢意。
8.参考文献
应列出主要参考文献。
9.附录
将各种篇幅较大的图纸、数据表格、计算机程序等作为附录附于说明书之后。
二、毕业论文撰写的主要内容与基本要求
1.题目
题目应该简短、明确,要有概括性,让人看后能大致了解文章的确切内容、专业的特点和学科的范畴。题目的字数要适当。
2.中外文摘要及关键词
摘要,即内容提要,应当以浓缩的形式概括研究课题的主要内容、方法和观点,以及取得的主要成果和结论,应反映整个论文的精华。中文摘要约100字左右为宜,关键词3-5个。摘要应写得扼要、准确,一般在毕业论文全文完成后再写摘要。在写作中要注意以下几点:
(1)用精练、概括的语言表达,每项内容均不宜展开论证。
(2)要客观陈述,不宜加主观评价。
(3)成果和结论性意见是摘要的重点内容,在文字上应着重陈述,以加深读者的印象。
(4)要独立成文,选词用语要避免与全文尤其是前言和结论雷同。
(5)既要写得简短扼要,又要行文活泼,在词语润色、表达方法和章法结构上要尽可能写得有文采,以唤起读者对全文的阅读的兴趣。
3.目录(必要时)
论文编写完成后,为了醒目和便于读者阅读,可为论文编写一个目录。目录可分章节,每一章节之后应编写明页码。
4.前言
前言是全篇论文的开场白,它包括:
(1)选题的缘由。
(2)对本课题已有研究情况的评述。
(3)说明所要解决的问题和采用的手段、方法。
(4)概括成果及意义。
作为摘要和前言,虽然所定的内容大体相同,但仍有很大的区别。区别主要在于:摘要一般要写得高度概括、简略,前言则可以稍微具体些;摘要的某些内容,如结论意见,可以作为笼统的表达,而前言中所有的内容则必须明确表达;摘要不写选题的缘由,前言则明确反映;在文字量上前言一般多于摘要。
以下为参考示例。[1]李中原,尚德堉,孙峥翰,等.面向大型无人机的一种高频大功率模块电源设计[J].通信电源技术,2021,38(04):60-62.[2]李可才.地铁应用场景5G网络综合解决方案探讨[J].通信电源技术,2021,38(04):87-90+93.[3]范利刚,方小燕,高云.基于改进雷达图法的变压器运行状态综合评估[J].通信电源技术,2021,38(04):12-16.
查找 Review article 文献 的方法有三种:
这种方法的优点是简单。
缺点有二:
第一,有时搜索的内容比较多,容易陷入文献之海;
第二,有些综述类的文献并没有overview、survey这样的字眼,容易把这样的文献漏掉。
由于被SCI检索的文献,当其参考文献多余一个值时(具体是多少我不知道),就将其归为综述类的文献。当我们用内容关键字搜索之后,利用SCI的文献分析功能,选定文献类型为survey进行二次检索就可以得到关于某方面内容的综述类文献了。而且,我们还可以根据文献的被引次数,判断文献的分量。
有些期刊是专门刊登综述类文章的,我们可以利用“内容关键字+指定期刊”的方式直接找到所需要的综述类文献。这种方法的优点是文献的质量比较好。这种专门刊登综述类期刊的综述文章,相对于一般期刊而言,无论是综述文献的作者,还是综述的专业水准上都要高一些。
在通信领域中,适合初学者,专门刊登综述类文献的期刊是:
of the IEEE——这个期刊内容比较多,通信只是其中的一个方面
Signal Processing Magazine——正如期刊名称一样,这个期刊主要是信号处理方向
Communications Survey & Tutorials——通信类的综述期刊,可以在IEEE的搜索中,利用“内容关键字+指定期刊”的方式找到所需的综述类文献。
第1步
读一篇综述论文首先从摘要读起,然后读结论。如果你能读懂摘要和结论,那么再开始读introduction。
第2步
当你读完introduction之后,如果还饶有兴趣,那么可以继续读正文部分;否则如果没产生兴趣,那么正文部分就不用读了。在读introduction的时候,在脑子里尽量形成一些框架式的结构,如综述所阐述问题的结构是什么样的、文章的组织结构是什么样的。
第3步
读完一篇综述文章后,如果你对这篇文章里面讲到的内容有60%以上能看明白,而且有兴趣想沿着这个方向尝试着做下去,你需要做的是把introduction里面提到的参考文献从IEEE上面下载下来读一读(注意是introduction里面的参考文献,而不是所有参考文献)。这一点是我之前没有注意到的,一篇好综述的introduction部分,其中所引用的文献往往是这个领域中具有标志性意义的文献,也就是通常所说的经典文献。
第4步
当你读完一定数量的参考文献之后(大概8篇左右),你就对这个领域最前沿的研究现状小有了解了。接下来要做的就是问问自己对这个方向有没有什么新想法,可以是对已有算法的改进、对现有假设条件的调整等等。除非你是牛人或者基础知识非常扎实,通常你在开始一个新的领域后的最初一段时间内不会有太多的创意(因为你还是懂的太少),这时候你需要做的就是不断重复读已经读过的参考文献,以及参考文献中的参考文献,参考文献的参考文献……直到你能够提出新的思路和想法。通常如果你能保证把一篇综述的10篇参考文献都读过,每篇理解度在70%以上,或者6篇都读过,每篇理解读在90%以上,我相信你就自然而然有新想法出来了。
拓展内容:
文献综述简称综述,是对某一领域,某一专业或某一方面的课题,问题或研究专题搜集大量相关资料,通过分析,阅读,整理,提炼当前课题,问题或研究专题的最新进展,学术见解或建议,做出综合性介绍和阐述的一种学术论文。
文献综述是在确定了选题后,在对选题所涉及的研究领域的文献进行广泛阅读和理解的基础上,对该研究领域的研究现状(包括主要学术观点、前人研究成果和研究水平、争论焦点、存在的问题及可能的原因等)、新水平、新动态、新技术和新发现、发展前景等内容进行综合分析、归纳整理和评论,并提出自己的见解和研究思路而写成的一种不同于毕业论文的文体。它要求作者既要对所查阅资料的主要观点进行综合整理、陈述,还要根据自己的理解和认识,对综合整理后的文献进行比较专门的、全面的、深入的、系统的论述和相应的评价,而不仅仅是相关领域学术研的“堆砌”。
参考资料:
移动通信作为一个科技密集型和知识密集型的高新技术产业,在现代市场经济条件下,在竞争空间日趋激烈和社会信息化发展趋势下,必须十分重视市场营销管理,重视市场营销管理体系建设。要充分根据市场需求的现状与趋势,制定计划,合理有效配置资源。通过有效地满足市场需求,来赢得竞争优势,在加快市场营销步伐的同时,努力建立和完善移动通信市场营销管理体系,以不断适应新的发展形势需要。1目前国内移动通信市场营销管理的现状“市场部”这个词走进国内企业还是近几年的事,目前移动通信企业内部所设置的营销部、分销处、运营部、销售部、以及市场管理部等都是市场部的涵盖范围。从分营后的中国移动通信、中国联通、上海光大、电信长城等具有运营资格的运营商来看,中国移动通信市场营销做的比较大,在原先营业厅基础上,又发展了商场、专卖店、量贩等销售形式,给人一种规模和实力的感觉,然而市场知名度高,但市场品牌忠诚度低;中国联通起步晚,但市场经济条件下没有迟到的经营者,只有善于经营的赢家,中国联通采取分销商网络营销的思路引起业内效仿,但诸多不完善的环节也时常引起消费者反应;其它几家运营商尽管营销思路很前卫,但是制约其市场开发的因素较多,市场反应冷淡。可以说,目前移动通信企业市场营销管理是各行其道,短期行为太多,缺乏长远统一的规划。从行业整个市场来看,我国移动通信企业尚未真正掌握专业营销知识和操作技能,就其对市场的态度和行为而言,移动通信企业还处于为完成短期销售目标而采用广告、公关、有奖销售等促销手段为主的促销导向型阶段,尚未达到市场营销导向型阶段。当然,其中原因也有我国通信行业长期处于垄断阶段的因素,广大从业者没有市场危机感。没有市场危机感就不会产生市场营销紧迫感,对市场营销管理的认识和努力只是在竞争机制下才有所转变。就移动通信行业进入市场经济状态的时间和目前市场供需关系的状况看,从业者的观念和认识的迅速提高要靠调查、分析、预测、营销企划等方式来引导、开拓、扩大和满足广大消费者对其服务的需求来完成,进而达到企业整体长远的营销目标的实现,尽管尚须时日,但这是市场营销的需求和必然发展趋势。从市场发展规律来看,卖方市场到买方市场的转变往往是在市场开始竞争之时,对竞争日渐激烈的移动通信业而言,具有前瞻性目光的人士早已看到,初露端倪的买方市场正在形成。如何适应市场、创造市场,是移动通信企业面临的带有战略性的问题。移动通信商们应该清醒认识到,拥有目前的市场并不完全意味着必然占有市场,还必须依靠行之有效的方式去进行市场拓展,发展市场,创造市场,这个行之有效的方式就是建立和完善企业的市场营销管理体系。2市场营销管理体系的组成和细分从事过营销的人都知识,市场营销的表现是市场管理,市场营销管理的实质是需求管理。企业在开展市场营销的过程中,一般要设定一个在目标市场上预期要实现的交易水平。然而,实际需求水平可能低于、等于、或高于这个预期的需求水平,换言之,在目标市场上,可能没有需求、需求很小或超量需求,市场营销管理就是要对付这些不同的需求,市场营销管理体系就是要对市场营销管理进行科学有效组合。根据移动通信行业自身特点以及市场的发展情况来看,移动通信市场营销管理体系应包括五个方面:(1)市场需求管理;(2)市场营销网络管理;(3)市场推动管理;(4)市场营销环境管理;(5)市场营销组织管理。这个市场营销管理体系就是通过创造建立和保持与目标市场之间的有益交换和联系,以实现移动通信企业的各种目标并进行分析、计划、执行和控制的市场营销指挥系统,可以说,这个系统不仅是定价、分销、促销等单一活动的职能行使,而是一个目标市场运作的中枢神经系统,通过这个系统,企业不断观察市场,发现和评估各种变化因素,然后反馈企业,作为企业制定新战略和行动计划的基础,然后运用新的修正过的行动来消除阻碍目标实现的因素,并观察评价客户和竞争对此作出的反应,然后再反馈到企业使企业再次形成新的战略修正方案推向市场,这样形成良性循环,以达到不断适应市场,创造市场的目的。就移动通信市场营销管理体系的五个组成部分而言,既有机地结合,又独立工作,每一部分又包涵着丰富的细分内容。市场营销需求管理细分我们知道,市场营销管理的实质是需求管理。根据市场需求水平、时间和性质不同,市场需求一般有八种不同状况:(1)负需求;(2)无需求;(3)潜伏需求;(4)下降需求;(5)不规则需求;(6)充分需求;(7)过量需求;(8)有害需求。从市场的组成要素人口、购买力、购买欲望来看,目前移动通信市场需求状况基本处于充分需求和潜伏需求的阶段,是市场开拓者应好好把握的大好时机。市场营销需求管理就是要对市场的需求状况进行有效管理,充分做好市场调查研究,深入市场,广泛了解客户、顾客、分销商、供应商以及广告反应、行业信息、营销网络、促销效果等有关业内的综合情况,广泛搜集市场信息,摸准市场的变化,找准潜在市场及市场盲区和死角,做出详尽属实的市场调研分析报告,以便企业的企划者以此制定市场营销企划方案,制定新业务计划。可以说,市场营销需求管理是企业营销工作的一双眼睛。一般来说,市场营销需求管理包括目标市场分析和市场目标分析两个方面。(1)目标市场影响移动通信目标市场的因素较多,从市场定位、营销策略、促销政策、广告方式、产品价格、产品包装及外形到技术先进程度、购买形式、服务态度、营销网络建设、售后服务等方面都要认真考虑。目标市场变化不断,移动通信运营商也要依据市场的变化不断变化营销管理思路。从手机市场上我们可以看到,手机从当初的组织消费购买到如今的私人消费购买为主,目标市场的变化也引起供应商的努力,摩托罗拉从当初以行政机关领导为主到现在形色多样的各种层次手机,正是目标市场使然。移动通信商要在研究目前目标市场的综合情况时,不断把目光投向市场的新变化,进行市场细分与目标市场新选择,准确把握和预测市场需求的发展动态,才能做到有的放矢。(2)市场目标那些收入稳定、有一定的经济实力和地位的人群,固然是市场目标,但这些人早已是手机的拥有者,移动通信商关注的是新增长的消费层和高消费层新的消费变化。市场永远在变化,所有稳定都是暂时的,移动通信市场也不例外。不同的消费者有不同的变化,从行政机关公务员、企业老板到小业主、企业白领阶层、打工仔,不同年龄不同性别,需求不同,变化也不同,兴趣爱好各异,审美观点有别,需要市场开拓者仔细研究,区别对待,进行准确市场定位。这一点我们从外企的情况可以看出,摩托罗拉手机以厚重大方为主,为行政机关人员和高级管理者所看重;诺基亚以专业公司著称,倡导科技以人为本,平均不到一周时间推出新款,其先进的形象对新潮时尚人士和高级知识分子具有较强吸引力,而在全国各大媒体统一推出的《专业、全面、关怀》系列宣传篇,更是把诺基亚推向大众化市场;爱立信则以灵巧方便为高级商务人士所青睐;飞利浦更是以外形美观色彩明快吸引着广大青年消费者。我国的科键、波导、康佳则以工薪阶Mobile communications as a technology-intensive and knowledge-intensive high-tech industries, in a modern market economy, the space in the increasingly fierce competition and social development trend of information technology, we must attach great importance to marketing management, attention to marketing management system. To fully meet market demand the status and trends, planning, rational and efficient allocation of resources. To effectively meet the market demand, to gain a competitive advantage in accelerating the pace of marketing at the same time, efforts to establish and improve mobile communications marketing management system to continuously adapt to the new development of the situation. 1 domestic mobile communications marketing management status "Market" or words into the domestic enterprises in recent years, the current mobile communication enterprises set up by the marketing, distribution, the Ministry of operations, sales and market management, and so are the Department of the Ministry of the coverage of the market . From the camp after China Mobile, China Unicom, the Shanghai Everbright, telecommunications operators, such as the Great Wall of qualified operators, China Mobile Marketing to do more, in the original business on the basis of the Office and the development of shopping malls, Stores, hypermarkets and other forms of sales, gives people a sense of size and strength, but the market well-known, but the market is low brand loyalty; China Unicom late start, but not under market economy conditions late for the operators, only good at business The winner, China Unicom network marketing distributors to take the ideas from the industry to follow, but many imperfections often caused part of the response of consumers; several other carriers despite the very avant-garde marketing ideas, but restricted their market development than the factors , The market cold. It can be said that the current mobile communication business marketing management is Gexingqidao, too much short-term, long-term lack of unified planning. From the industry look at the entire market, China's mobile communication business has yet to truly master professional knowledge and operating skills marketing, on his attitude and behaviour of the market, the mobile telecommunications sector is still in the short-term sales target for the completion of using advertising, public relations, sales crossword , And other promotions based marketing-oriented stage, have not yet reached the market-oriented marketing stage. Of course, the reasons for China's communications industry has a monopoly stage of the long-term factors, the majority of market practitioners no sense of crisis. No market will not have a sense of crisis on the marketing sense of urgency, the market knowledge and marketing management efforts in the mechanism of competition only if they changed. On the mobile communications industry into the market economy status of the time and the market supply and demand situation, the practitioners of the concept and awareness of the rapid increase to rely on investigation, analysis, forecasts, marketing and other ways to guide the planning, development, to expand and meet the majority of consumer To demand for its services to complete, thereby achieve their overall long-term goal of marketing, despite the need to be given time, but this is the marketing needs and inevitable trend. From the development of the market, a seller's market to a buyer's market is often the changes in the market when the competition began, the increasingly fierce competition in the mobile communications industry, are forward-looking vision of people already see emerging is a buyer's market Formation. How to adapt to the market and create markets, is facing the mobile communications companies with strategic issues. Mobile communications have to be clearly recognized that the current market has not fully occupy the market will inevitably mean that, we must rely on effective ways to conduct market development, market development, market creation, the effective ways is to build and Improve enterprise marketing management system. 2 marketing management system and the breakdown of the composition Engaged in the marketing people have the knowledge, marketing is the performance of market management, marketing management, in essence, is demand management. In carrying out marketing enterprises in the process, to set a general target market in order to achieve the expected level of transactions. However, the level may be lower than actual demand, equal to or higher than the expected level of demand, in other words, the target market, may not demand, needs little or excessive demand, marketing management is to deal with these different needs, Marketing Management System is to the marketing management of scientific and effective combinations. According to the mobile telecommunications sector of its own characteristics and the development of the market situation, mobile communications marketing management system should include five areas: (1) market demand management, (2) marketing network management, (3) market-driven management, (4 ) Marketing environment management, (5) marketing organization and management. The marketing management system is established and maintained through the creation of target markets and between the exchange and useful links, mobile communication enterprises in order to achieve the objectives and analysis, planning, implementation and control of the marketing chain of command, it can be said that this System is not only pricing, distribution, marketing and other activities of the functions of a single exercise, but a target market operation of the central nervous system, through this system, enterprises have continuously observe the market, the detection and assessment of the changes, and then feedback enterprises, as enterprises develop New strategies and action plans based on, and then use the new revised action to eliminate obstacles to achieve the objectives, and to observe and evaluate customer response to this competition, and then back to the enterprises so that enterprises once again to form a new strategic programme that Into the market, such a virtuous circle, constantly adapting to the market to achieve, the purpose of creating the market. Marketing on the mobile communication management system of five components, the combination of both, working independently, each part also includes a breakdown of rich content. marketing demand management breakdown We know that marketing management is the essence of demand management. According to market demand, time and a different nature, the general market demand has eight different conditions: (1) negative demand (2) No demand, (3) latent demand (4) decreased demand (5) irregular demand; (6) the full demand (7) excessive demand (8) harmful demand. From the constituent elements of the market, purchasing power, the desire to purchase, the current mobile communication market demand situation is basically in full demand and potential demand for the stage, the market should take full advantage of the pioneers of opportunity. Marketing is to manage demand in the market demand for effective management, to make full market research studies, in-depth market, broad knowledge of clients, customers, distributors, suppliers and advertising response, industry information, marketing network, promotional effects On the comprehensive situation of the industry, extensive collection of market information, Mozhun market changes, and identify potential markets and market blind spots and dead ends, make a detailed analysis of the case of market research reports in order to enterprises are planning to develop marketing planning programme, The development of new business plan. It can be said that marketing needs of enterprise marketing management is the work of the pair of eyes. In general, marketing demand management, including the target market analysis and objective analysis of two aspects of the market. (1) target market Impact of mobile communications market factors more objective, market positioning, marketing strategy, promotion policies, advertising, product prices, product packaging and appearance to the advanced level of technology, purchase forms, service and marketing network construction, service and other aspects To seriously consider. Target market changes constantly, mobile communication operators to market changes based on the changing marketing and management ideas. From the phone on the market, we can see that the phone from the original purchase of consumer organizations to today's mainly the purchase of private consumption, the target market also caused changes in the supplier's efforts, Motorola from the original mainly in the executive leadership to diverse now Xingse Various levels of mobile phones, the result is the target market. Mobile communications have to study the current target market in the comprehensive situation, keep eyes on the new changes in the market, market segmentation and target market of new options, accurate grasp of market demand and projected developments can be targeted. (2) target market Those who are stable, have a certain economic strength and status of the crowd, of course, is the target market, but these people have long been the owner of a mobile phone, mobile communications are concerned that the new growth of consumption and high consumption of the new changes in consumption. The market will never change, and stability are all temporary, mobile communications market is no exception. Different consumers have different changes, from the administrative organs of civil servants, owners of small business owners, corporate white-collar class, wage earners and age groups of different sex, different needs, different changes, different hobbies, aesthetic views are different, the needs of the market Portland careful study and treat them differently, accurate market positioning. This is the situation we can see that foreign invested enterprises, Motorola mobile phones mainly to heavy generous, for the executive officers and senior managers by value; Nokia to a professional company, science and technology to promote people-centered, less than a week the average time a new , Of its advanced image of the futuristic and intellectuals have strong appeal, and the reunification of the country the major media's "professional, comprehensive and caring" series of promotional articles, Geng Shiba popular Nokia push the market; love Ericsson while ingenious convenient for senior business people favor; Philips is a more attractive appearance bright colors to attract a large number of young consumers. China's key Branch, Bird, Konka while working order
Abstract: Chinese have experienced the pre-researches and partial satellite tests on the man carried cosmonautic vehicle, carried on the researches on environmental control and ecology protection subsystem in "Shenzhou" airships, carried on the researches on physical chemistry regenerating technical of environmental control and ecology protection & that of controlled ecology and ecology protection. This paper mainly introduces the research evolution of the technical of the environmental control and ecology protection system and analyses the technical characteristic about the environmental control and ecology protection : In this paper, we provide a new practical method to abstract noise model of INS/GNSS integrated navigation system for Kalman filter from measuring data, we first designed the experiment which based on the elaborate deduction, then we log the data of GNSS and made stationary test of the stochastic process, after that, we fit the model and estimate the parameter. This method, we think, can be used practically in other integrated navigation system.
1Wireless technology was little more than just a distant idea for the majority of ordinary consumers ten years ago. However, it has exploded over recent years with the use of 3G phones and wireless home computing increasingly would be foolish to suggest that wireless communication has reached its peak. Whilst mobile phones and home computing will continue to be the major focus in the quest for ever increasing sophistication within the technology, new applications are emerging company, Securecom Technologies, based in Ireland, have been at the forefront of harnessing wireless technologies in the area of personal safety. They already have a number of products in the marketplace designed to enable users to activate an alarm signal to a remote emergency centre wirelessly. Their Benefon range of applications are used by vulnerable elderly people, lone workers and VIPs to increase their sense of security and ability to effortlessly get in touch with help at the touch of the are now in the process of developing PERUSE1, which stands for 'Personal Safety System Utilising Satellite combined with Emerging Technologies'. The Peruse project will develop a Wireless Personal Alarm (WPA) solution which will be carried by or worn on a person and will allow the user to summon help at the touch of a button. When the alarm has been activated, the WPA will transmit a low power signal to a satellite communications headset which will forward a message to an authorised number. This will include the identity of the person in distress, as well as their current location. However, the ingenuity of the technology goes further as it will also have the potential to transmit the user's current state of health and local environmental is envisaged that the recipient of the users SOS signal will be a fully equipped Emergency Monitoring Centre to whom the user will have previously given full instructions as to the steps they would wish to have the Centre take on their behalf in the event of an are two core components that are in the development phase. The wireless personal alarm (WPA) and a 'dongle' which provides the handset for satellite communication use which will have a low power wireless link to the important issues here are that the two components will need to take into account size, cost, accuracy of location and battery autonomy. The main benefits will be that the device will be able to be worn or carried on a person discreetly. This makes it ideal for professions such as personal security, where the ability to communicate a message quickly and without fuss can often be of paramount importance. It will herald a new era in satellite communication. No longer will the user have to tap a keypad to enter a number nor will they have to move the handset for optimal signal strength prior to sending an emergence message. This technology will be invaluable to professions such as mountain rescue and will also be a tremendous benefit to those who enjoy hiking and climbing in the course of their leisure pursuits where conventional mobile phone technology can often be rendered are currently no known competitors for this potentially life saving technology for which Securecom has filed for both Irish and European Patent Applications. Prototypes have already been manufactured and pilot programmes and laboratory tests are well under (Ultra Wide Band)2 is another example of emerging wireless technology. Alongside traditional wireless uses, UWB can also detect images through solid objects, such as people on the opposite side of a wall. This has led to an equal number of supporters and UWB can be used for consumer applications in a similar fashion to Bluetooth technology such as cable elimination between a PC and its peripheral equipment, the more interesting applications focus on its 'radar 'like imagery. These applications could be used to find people trapped in a burning building, locating hostages and captors behind a thick wall and finding objects such as those that might be buried in the ground. Heightened security at airports and other public buildings can use UWB technology to detect weapons on people and bombs in luggage and packages. In this age of heightened security, post 9/11, the benefits of this emerging technology should not be few companies have started to develop UWB products, including XtremeSpectrum, Time Domain and Aether Wire. XtremeSpectrum is developing products to enable the sending and receiving of multiple streams of digital audio and video for both battery powered and other consumer devices such as digital cameras, DVDs, DVRs, camcorders, MP3 players and set top boxes. Time Domain has developed a UWB chip set targeting three core technologies: wireless communication, precision location and tracking, and high definition portable radar whilst Aether Wire is working on miniature, distributed-position location and low data-rate communication devices. One of its goals is to develop coin sized devices that are capable of localisation to centimetre accuracy over kilometre , privacy violation is one of the major concerns of the technology's opponents. Any technology that can 'see' through solid objects can be used for illegal purposes as well as legitimate ones. In theory, a UWB-enabled system could 'look through' the walls of a house to locate valuable objects and could detect when the occupants are not at home. Supporters, however, could rightly point out that this is a dilemma shared by many technologies that are used to enhance public safety - the juggling act between increased security versus decreased personal freedom. It could be argued that baggage searches at airports via x-ray and metal detection are common examples of us giving up privacy for better security, a price most people are willing to other area is more at the forefront of the emergence of innovation in wireless technology than space exploration. Future missions to nearby planets like Mars will require space communication technologies that can provide an interplanetary satellite and navigation infrastructure via space systems that are far more compact and efficient than seen ever before. A longer term commitment will be necessary to resolve the challenges of efficient planetary communication due to the increase in distances involved as space exploration ventures further out into the solar system. To support planetary exploration, techniques developed for Earth-bound usage will be transferred to other planets as well. Exploration of Mars, for example, will require a high accuracy positioning capability such as a 'Martian GPS' as an aid to exploratory roving very day, the 'Mars Spirit' space rover continues to send data back to Earth, almost 18 months after it touched down on the red planet, surviving more than 4 times its expected mission length. One day it is highly likely that we may see astronauts walking on Mars carting around wi-fi enabled PCs. In a remote Arizona meteor crater, NASA has already begun testing a mobile wi-fi system that could enable those on a Mars mission to easily deploy wireless data connectivity at a transmission rate of just more than a megabit per second over a 2 square mile area, and then change that coverage area at will through the use of mobile access points, making it entirely feasible to explore different terrain on any given Networks3 developed the technology which NASA has adopted whereby the astronauts could have inter-connectivity via a three node mesh network. They would first establish a base communications station near their spacecraft and then set up an Ethernet connection between that base and a main access point. Then each node in the network would pick up its wireless connectivity from the access is still in its infancy and there is some way to go before astronauts would be strutting their stuff on Mars and communicating wirelessly with one and other and with mission control in this , the Mars Spirit space rover is still sending back images and data from the red planet today, relying heavily on wireless technology to do so. It may appear that these vehicles have been designed solely for the purpose of space exploration but closer scrutiny reveals applications that could also be modified and used on Earth. Unlike, say, a car manufacturing robot which knows where and when the engine or body appears on the assembly line, the Mars rovers are working in an unstructured and unknown environment. As a result, the rovers have had to learn about their new home through their own sensors, including a set of nine cameras on each rover. The rovers have two navigation cameras for a 3D view of their surroundings, two hazard avoidance cameras for a 3D view of nearby terrain and panoramic cameras to capture the images of the planet's surface. However, the rovers cannot just look around them, process the images and know where to go. Neither can the mission controllers on Earth grab a joystick and start steering the rovers whilst watching images being beamed back from thousands of miles away. A key reason is processing power. The central processor in each rover has a top speed of 20 MHz. Instead, during the Martian night, while a rover is 'asleep', a team on Earth with much more powerful computers programs its activities for the day ahead, and then sends basic instructions on where to go and how to get there. Along with taking pictures, each rover is examining the planet with several instruments on a robotic arm. The arms have 'shoulder', 'elbow' and 'wrist' joints for manoeuvrability and are equipped with four sensors: a microscopic camera for close up pictures of rocks, an alpha particle x ray spectrometer for determining the mineral content of rocks, another spectrometer for detecting iron and a rock abrasion tool for cutting through the layer of oxidation that forms on the surfaces of Martian rocks. As with the movement of the rovers, the arms are controlled mostly via prepared commands from mission observers have noted that some of these applications may prove useful here on Earth. For example, a robotic arm that doesn't require real time human control might be good for disabled people who use wheelchairs and can't control a joystick with their hands. Using its own sensors, it could reach out and get things for the person in the wheelchair, for addition, a robot that can deal with new and unknown environments might save manufacturers money. In current factories with 'robotic' workers, when the company shifts to making a new product, the whole factory floor has to be reconfigured and the robots reprogrammed to deal with the new arrangement. A robot that could use feedback from sensors to figure out where things are could adapt to changes by itself, saving the company the time and effort of building a new structured environment and reprogramming the all the emerging technologies around and, inevitably, with more to come, the inevitable hurdle will be one of convergence and integration as the IT industry seeks to develop the tools that will be most sought after. Inevitably, there will be winners and , there is no doubt that the wireless phenomenon is reshaping enterprise connectivity worldwide and is definitely here to stay. Business needs information mobility for better customer interaction. Employees will be even more equipped to perform their job functions from their workplace of choice and, though this sounds like utopia, a societal change from office based to 'wherever they feel like being' based might conjure up an horrific vision of the future for company leaders who have enjoyed the traditions of having all their employees working from under the same major issue has to be one of security. There are many issues when it comes to security over wireless networks. Wireless networks do not follow the rules of traditional wired networks. Many times, the signals are carried far beyond the physical parameters they are meant to be controlled within making it easier to intercept signals and capture will also be the question posed of what happens to the have nots? - Those people and developing countries in particular that don't have the resources to wirelessly interact with others. The same thing could be said about the Internet itself but satellites could alleviate that problem far more quickly than the ability to put broadband connections in every office and home throughout the major hurdle has to be that business and society can only adapt at a certain pace. Technology evolves far more quickly and there may be many a product developed for which the demand is not yet there. But the mobile phone and PC market driven by what the consumer wants will determine what the future of wireless there is no question that wireless communication is here to stay and will grow even of the new wireless technologies abound. Consumers are setting up wireless local area networks (WLANS) in their homes. These allow multiple computers to hook up to one fast internet connection or laptop users to connect from the comfort of their sofa or back garden patio. Away from home, 'Hotspots' that permit wireless connection to the internet are popping up everywhere, in book stores, coffee shops, airports and even pubs. Within the next year, airlines are expected to announce the availability of wi-fi during flights. However, until there is increased competition in the market place, this new epoch will be there for the privileged few as opposed to the mass market who will still be relying solely on their mobile phones for wireless connectivity on the move. It remains to be seen whether the new generation of 3G phones has arrived too late to push aside wi-fi and it's even conceivable that mobile phone companies could one day find themselves obsolete unless they look for new ways to attract and retain issues like security, along with the problems of cost, intrusion on privacy and identifying such things as hotspot locations is not going to hold wireless communication and technology back. In the end, there will always be solutions to problems and wi-fi is no different in this Reed, an adjunct professor at MIT's Media Lab in Cambridge, Massachusetts has been studying the future of wireless communications. He draws a comparison with the new wi-fi revolution with that of the 'paperless society' which was often mooted in offices and homes all over the world with the advent of the PC. He said, The market will push us towards a wireless future. People love paper but I can't find a single person who can say that about more wi-fi systems are developed which will, in turn, drive the cost down it will become an increasingly less disruptive way to communicate in the future and it will become very difficult for anything else out there to compete with is used by millions of people every minute. For many people the Internet is a "room" that is situated somewhere behind their computer screens in a cyberspace. Though the Internet exists for about a decade it has become the medium of the new network society. The popular and commercial spreading of the Internet has been exceedingly significant - promoting changes in almost every sphere of human activity and society. From the very beginning of the Internet in 1991, it has completely changed the way firms do business, as well as the way customers buy and use products and services. The Internet gives extra opportunities for marketing. The spreading of the Internet has been so impetuous that it has been the point for well-grounded analysis. The Internet, virtual reality, can or cannot have negative effects on our culture and society? This paper is concentrated on the Internet phenomenon and on the spreading of the Internet culture and its effects on people. The first ideas appeared in the 1950s. In the 1980s, technologies that became the basis of the modern Internet began to spread worldwide. In the 1990s the World Wide Web was used all over the world. The infrastructure of the Internet spread all over the world and the modern world wide network of computers have appeared. It spread amidst the western countries, then came into the developing countries and created a worldwide admittance to communications and data and a digital divide in admittance to this new infrastructure. While studying the amount of Internet users, the Internet had 30 million users on 10 million computers linked to over 240,000 networks in about 100 states. The last figures indicate the fact that International Data Corp values that 40 million people are home web users in the USA in 1999, which consists of 15% of the population. “Le Monde” in 1998 published that 100 million people use the Internet all over the world. Jupiter Communications estimates that active Internet users - 4 to 5 million USA customers - shop regularly on the Internet by 2000, which represents 3% of Internet is a very attractive marketing tool with the possibility to customize pages, as well as new promotional systems, giving firms the possibility of communication and promotion effectively by adapting to consumers’ likings. Interactive traits of the Internet permit asking customers their likings, and then the firm can adapt product offers and promotions to these likings. It provides the effective recruit of new customers. For instance, some car manufacturers ask Internet users for concrete information and in return give potential customers a $1,000 discount coupon or a free CD player coupon. 这里有很多,不知是通讯的具体什么方面,看看这里,找你想要的吧
参考文献可以在百度学术中找到。参考文献规范格式一、参考文献的类型参考文献(即引文出处)的类型以单字母方式标识,具体如下:M——专著 C——论文集 N——报纸文章J——期刊文章 D——学位论文 R——报告对于不属于上述的文献类型,采用字母“Z”标识。对于英文参考文献,还应注意以下两点:①作者姓名采用“姓在前名在后”原则,具体格式是: 姓,名字的首字母. 如: Malcolm Richard Cowley 应为:Cowley, .,如果有两位作者,第一位作者方式不变,&之后第二位作者名字的首字母放在前面,姓放在后面,如:Frank Norris 与Irving Gordon应为:Norris, F. & .;②书名、报刊名使用斜体字,如:Mastering English Literature,English Weekly。二、参考文献的格式及举例1.期刊类【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[J].刊名,出版年份,卷号(期号):起止页码.【举例】[1] 王海粟.浅议会计信息披露模式[J].财政研究,2004,21(1):56-58.[2] 夏鲁惠.高等学校毕业论文教学情况调研报告[J].高等理科教育,2004(1):46-52.[3] Heider, . The structure of color space in naming and memory of two languages [J]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 1999, (3): 62 – .专著类【格式】[序号]作者.书名[M].出版地:出版社,出版年份:起止页码.【举例】[4] 葛家澍,林志军.现代西方财务会计理论[M].厦门:厦门大学出版社,2001:42.[5] Gill, R. Mastering English Literature [M]. London: Macmillan, 1985: .报纸类【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[N].报纸名,出版日期(版次).【举例】[6] 李大伦.经济全球化的重要性[N]. 光明日报,1998-12-27(3).[7] French, W. Between Silences: A Voice from China[N]. Atlantic Weekly, 1987-8-15(33).4.论文集【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[C].出版地:出版者,出版年份:起始页码.【举例】[8] 伍蠡甫.西方文论选[C]. 上海:上海译文出版社,1979:12-17.[9] Spivak,G. “Can the Subaltern Speak?”[A]. In & L. Grossberg(eds.). Victory in Limbo: Imigism [C]. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988, .[10] Almarza, . Student foreign language teacher’s knowledge growth [A]. In and (eds.). Teacher Learning in Language Teaching [C]. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1996. .学位论文【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[D].出版地:保存者,出版年份:起始页码.【举例】[11] 张筑生.微分半动力系统的不变集[D].北京:北京大学数学系数学研究所, 1983:.研究报告【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[R].出版地:出版者,出版年份:起始页码.【举例】[12] 冯西桥.核反应堆压力管道与压力容器的LBB分析[R].北京:清华大学核能技术设计研究院, 1997:.条例【格式】[序号]颁布单位.条例名称.发布日期【举例】[15] 中华人民共和国科学技术委员会.科学技术期刊管理办法[Z].1991—06—058.译著【格式】[序号]原著作者. 书名[M].译者,译.出版地:出版社,出版年份:起止页码.三、注释注释是对论文正文中某一特定内容的进一步解释或补充说明。注释前面用圈码①、②、③等标识。四、参考文献参考文献与文中注(王小龙,2005)对应。标号在标点符号内。多个都需要标注出来,而不是1-6等等 ,并列写出来。最后,引用毕业论文属于学位论文,如格式55.学位论文【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[D].出版地:保存者,出版年份:起始页码.【举例】[11] 张筑生.微分半动力系统的不变集[D].北京:北京大学数学系数学研究所, 1983:1-7.