发布时间：
这个不用全部翻译的，只要选择自己需要的内容翻译。
翻译的外文文献可以是一篇，也可以是两篇，但英文字符要求不少于2万。选定外文文献后先给指导老师看，得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。
翻译的外文文献应主要选自学术期刊、学术会议的文章、有关著作及其他相关材料，应与毕业论文(设计)主题相关，并在中文译文首页用“脚注”形式注明原文作者及出处，外文原文后应附中文译文。
扩展资料：
外文翻译需要注意的问题
1、外文文献的出处不要翻译成中文，且写在中文译文的右上角（不是放在页眉处）；会议要求：名称、地点、年份、卷（期），等 。
2、作者姓名以及作者的工作单位也不用必须翻译。
3、abstract翻译成“摘要”，不要翻译成“文章摘要”等其他词语。
4、Key words翻译成“关键词” 。
5、introduction 翻译成“引言”(不是导言)。
6、注意排版格式，都是单排版，行距，字号小4号，等（按照格式要求）。
7、各节的标号I、II等可以直接使用，不要再翻译成“第一部分”“第二部分”，等。
8、里面的图可以拷贝粘贴，但要将图标、横纵指标的英文标注翻译成中文。
9、里面的公式、表不可以拷贝粘贴，要自己重新录入、重新画表格。
参考资料：百度百科-毕业论文
毕业论文外文翻译：将外文参考文献翻译成中文版本。
翻译要求：
1、选定外文文献后先给指导老师看，得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。
2、选择外文翻译时一定选择外国作者写的文章，可从学校中知网或者外文数据库下载。
3、外文翻译字数要求3000字以上，从外文文章起始处开始翻译，不允许从文章中间部分开始翻译，翻译必须结束于文章的一个大段落。
参考文献是在学术研究过程中，对某一著作或论文的整体的参考或借鉴。征引过的文献在注释中已注明,不再出现于文后参考文献中。外文参考文献就是指论文是引用的文献原文是国外的，并非中国的。
原文就是指原作品,原件，即作者所写作品所用的语言。如莎士比亚的《罗密欧与朱丽叶》原文是英语。
译文就是翻译过来的文字，如在中国也可以找到莎士比亚《罗密欧与朱丽叶》的中文版本，这个中文版本就称为译文。
主要标准
翻译是语际交流过程中沟通不同语言的桥梁。一般来说，翻译的标准主要有两条：忠实和通顺。
忠实
是指忠实于原文所要传递的信息，也就是说，把原文的信息完整并且准确地表达出来，使译文读者得到的信息与原文读者得到的信息大致相同。
通顺
是指译文规范、明白易懂，没有文理不通、结构混乱、逻辑不清的现象。
实践产生理论，欧美许多国家的翻译理论是五花八门的。从大的方面来看，可以分为两大派：一派是翻译可能论，一派是翻译不可能论。其实，完完全全百分之百的可能是没有的，完完全全百分之百的不可能也是没有的。
世界上一切翻译活动都是在这两个极端之间进行的。欧洲许多著名的人物，比如马丁·路德、M.阿诺德、.纽曼、.波斯特加特、H.白洛克、.诺克斯、V.那巴可夫等等，都对翻译提出了自己的理论。据《开塞尔世界文学百科全书》的意见，这些理论中有些是刚愎自用的。
就是引用一篇跟你的论文题目相关的英文文献，一般是附在论文后面，你所引用的文献就是原文，引用之后需要在原文之后跟着是你翻译出来的翻译稿，就是译文。一般要求都是在5000单词以上，我做毕业 论文的时候对英文文献的题目要求是只要是跟论文题目的所涉及的内容相关就可以。这些东西可以在学校图书馆里或者图书馆网络资料库里找到，就是翻译比较费力，走运的话可以找到带译文的稿子。
就是和你所写的论文有关的英文文献，并将它翻译成中文教你一个讨巧的办法，先找一篇字数差不多的中文文章，然后上GOOGLE的在线翻译把它翻译成英文，这样的话，中文也有了，英文也有了，岂不方便。
土木工程的key哀，速度，
你自己文章里涉及到哪片文献的话 自己从网上搜呀 不过最好是别人的论文 或者是网上已有的一篇小论文 然后自己翻成中文不就行了
意思是该参考文献来自国外。
参考文献是在学术研究过程中，对某一著作或论文的整体的参考或借鉴。征引过的文献在注释中已注明，不再出现于文后参考文献中。
按照字面的意思，参考文献是文章或著作等写作过程中参考过的文献。然而，按照GB/T 7714-2015《信息与文献 参考文献著录规则》”的定义，文后参考文献是指：“为撰写或编辑论文和著作而引用的有关文献信息资源。
参考文献的正确运用对学术论文的整体质量而言是至关重要的，但是，参考文献引用不当的问题还是层出不穷，严重影响了论文本身的质量，降低了基于此的各类评价指标的客观性和可信度。
扩展资料
参考文献的功能
参考文献是学术论文的重要组成部分，对于其本身有着不可替代的作用，相关论述已非常充分，在此不一一赘述了，只重申一下重点。
与作者而言，参考文献是论文科学选题的前提，是论证观点的有力支撑，是继承和传播前人研究成果的有效方式，保护和评价他人的劳动成果。
与学术期刊而言，参考文献可为编者审稿选稿提供参考借鉴，为自身的影响力扩散打造有利条件，可完成不同期刊之间的学术成果传递，节约宝贵有限的版面。
参考资料来源：百度百科-参考文献
参考资料来源：人民网-关于参考文献不当引用的表现及控制探析
毕业论文外文翻译：将外文参考文献翻译成中文版本。
翻译要求：
1、选定外文文献后先给指导老师看，得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。
2、选择外文翻译时一定选择外国作者写的文章，可从学校中知网或者外文数据库下载。
3、外文翻译字数要求3000字以上，从外文文章起始处开始翻译，不允许从文章中间部分开始翻译，翻译必须结束于文章的一个大段落。
参考文献是在学术研究过程中，对某一著作或论文的整体的参考或借鉴。征引过的文献在注释中已注明,不再出现于文后参考文献中。外文参考文献就是指论文是引用的文献原文是国外的，并非中国的。
原文就是指原作品,原件，即作者所写作品所用的语言。如莎士比亚的《罗密欧与朱丽叶》原文是英语。
译文就是翻译过来的文字，如在中国也可以找到莎士比亚《罗密欧与朱丽叶》的中文版本，这个中文版本就称为译文。
主要标准
翻译是语际交流过程中沟通不同语言的桥梁。一般来说，翻译的标准主要有两条：忠实和通顺。
忠实
是指忠实于原文所要传递的信息，也就是说，把原文的信息完整并且准确地表达出来，使译文读者得到的信息与原文读者得到的信息大致相同。
通顺
是指译文规范、明白易懂，没有文理不通、结构混乱、逻辑不清的现象。
实践产生理论，欧美许多国家的翻译理论是五花八门的。从大的方面来看，可以分为两大派：一派是翻译可能论，一派是翻译不可能论。其实，完完全全百分之百的可能是没有的，完完全全百分之百的不可能也是没有的。
世界上一切翻译活动都是在这两个极端之间进行的。欧洲许多著名的人物，比如马丁·路德、M.阿诺德、.纽曼、.波斯特加特、H.白洛克、.诺克斯、V.那巴可夫等等，都对翻译提出了自己的理论。据《开塞尔世界文学百科全书》的意见，这些理论中有些是刚愎自用的。
才给10分，问这么高难度的问题
文献可到OA图书馆查询。
1、 [会计学]公允价值计量属性应用研究2 摘 要本文主要针对新会计准则中重新引用公允价值计量的问题进行研究。首先介绍了公允价值的定义，并与其他的计量属性进行全面的比较。然后对准则中部分引入公允价值的条款进行阐述，结合我国现阶段的经济环境以及... 类别：毕业论文 大小：100 KB 日期：2008-10-27 2、 [会计学]公允价值计量属性应用研究1 摘 要公允价值一直是我国关注的一个热点，我国在使用公允价值计量的过程中，曾经有过惨痛的教训。在2006年2月颁布的新会计准则中，作为会计国际化的重要步骤，我国又一次在具体会计准则中多次使用公允价值，这... 类别：毕业论文 大小：98 KB 日期：2008-10-27 3、 [会计学]公允价值计量属性的理论与应用分析 摘 要2006年2月15日，我国财政部颁布了新的企业会计准则，其中：金融工具、投资性房地产、债务重组、资产减值、租赁和套期保值等方面采用了公允价值计量。然而，在实际工作中，公允价值的运用遇到了像利润操... 类别：毕业论文 大小：143 KB 日期：2007-08-29 :3cj./soft/
没，因为这样的得是这个相关专业的才可能既有外文文献又有中文翻译，你可以去Wiley-Blackwell 之类的外文期刊网上去找些外文文献，再做翻译。
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希望对你有帮助。仅供参考！
最近在玩轩辕传奇手游，记得从15级开始每日完成2大环炼宝任务，它是你获取银票和经验的主要来源之一，也是每日必做的任务；任务在轩辕城炼宝区域找到NPC冷少泉处领取任务，根据任务提示去到相应的地宫滑鼠右键放至背包内的宝鼎，在宝鼎周围（切记必须在宝鼎周围，超出宝鼎范围的话击杀怪物是不计数的
童鞋你好！ 这个估计需要自己搜寻了！ 网上基本很难找到免费给你服务的！ 我在这里给你点搜寻国际上常用的外文资料库： ---------------------------------------------------------- ISI web of knowledge Engineering Village2 Elsevier SDOL资料库 IEEE/IEE(IEL) EBSCOhost RSC英国皇家化学学会 ACM美国计算机学会 ASCE美国土木工程师学会 Springer电子期刊 WorldSciNet电子期刊全文库 Nature周刊 NetLibrary电子图书 ProQuest学位论文全文资料库 国道外文专题资料库 CALIS西文期刊目次资料库 推荐使用ISI web of knowledge Engineering Village2 ----------------------------------------------------------- 中文翻译得自己做了，实在不成就谷歌翻译。 弄完之后，自己阅读几遍弄顺了就成啦！ 学校以及老师都不会看这个东西的！ 外文翻译不是论文的主要内容！ 所以，很容易过去的！ 祝你好运！
直接下载 Microscopic traffic simulation: A tool for the design, *** ysis and evaluation of intelligent transport systems J Barcelo, E Codina, J Casas, JL Ferrer - Journal of Intelligent & , 2005 :aimsun./ Analysis of possibilities and proposals of intelligent transport system (ITS) implementation in Lithuania A Jarašūniene - Transport, 2006 :
已发请查收。
20条精选金融论文英语参考文献
[1] nelson, c. r. & siegel, a. f. parsimonious modeling of yield curves [j], journal of business 1987(4): 473—489.
[2] diebold，francis x and li, canlin..global yield curve dynamics and interactions: adynamic nelson-siegel approach[j],journal of econometrics,XX，10:351-363
[3] bliss, r. r.. testing term structure estimation methods [j]. advances in futures and options research, 1997，9:197-231
[4] tanner, e.，“exchange market pressures and monetary policy: asia and latin america in the 1990s” [c]5 working papers, imf,XX.
[5] so, r. w., “price and volatility spillovers between interest rate and exchange value of the us dollar”[j], global finance journal,XX (1) :95-107
[6] . testing continuous-time models of the spot interest rate [j], review of financial studies. 1996，9:385-426
[7] vasicek 0,fong h g term structure modeling using exponential splines. journal of finance[j], 1982，37:339-348
[8] duffle，d. and r. kan. a yield factor model of interest rates[j]，mathematical finance, 1. 1996，6: 379-406
[9] ait—sahalia,y and r. kimmel. estimating affine multifactor term structure models using closed-form likelihood expansions[c] ? working paper,nber,XX.
[10] engle，robert e autoregressive conditional heteroscedasticity with estimates of the variance of u. k inflation[j]. economica,1982，50:987—1008
[10]chen，., and l. scott “maximum likelihood estimation for a multi-factor equilibrium model of the term structure of interest rates,”. journal of fixed income, december, 1993，12: 14-31 .
[11] vasicek o. an equilibrium characterization of the term structure [j] ? journal of financial economics, 1977，5:177-188.
[12] j. c. cox, j. e. ingersoll，s. a. ross. a theory of the term structure of interest rates [j]. econometrica, 1985, 53： 385-407
[13] edmund m. a. kwaw and yen, resolving economic conflict between the united states and japan[m] . massachusetts institute of technolog. 1997: 189-220.
[14] swanson，r.，rogoff， it real the exchange rate-interest differential relation over the modern floating period[j] journal of finance, 1988，43: 359-382
[15] chan, k.，chan, karolyi, a.,intraday volatility in the stock index and stock index futures markets [j] review of financial studies 1991 (4) : 657-684.
[16] kutan, j. and s. zhou，"mean reversion of interest rates in the eurocurrency market[j], oxford bulletin of economics and statistics,XX，63: 459-473.
[17] park. information flows between non-deliverable forward (ndf ) and spot markets：evidence from korean currency [j]. pacific-basin finance journal，XX，9:363-377
[18] roberta. michael f，exchange rate regimes in an increasingly integrated world [j]，economy，XX，34:109-132
[19] prasad，e. ye. l_ the renminbi's role in the global monetary system[r], global economy and development at brookings,XX (2) : 169-185
[20] nelson c r, sigel a f. parsimonious modeling of yield curve [j]. journal of business, 1987，60:473- 489.
INTO THE STORMFOR much of the past year the fast-growing economies of the emerging world watched the Western financial hurricane from afar. Their own banks held few of the mortgage-based assets that undid the rich world’s financial firms. Commodity exporters were thriving, thanks to high prices for raw materials. China’s economic juggernaut powered on. And, from Budapest to Brasília, an abundance of credit fuelled domestic demand. Even as talk mounted of the rich world suffering its worst financial collapse since the Depression, emerging economies seemed a long way from the centre of the storm.过去一年的大部分时间里，高速发展的新兴国家一直在远处观望着西方国家的金融风暴。他们的银行仅持有少量抵押资产，而类似的资产已经破坏了发达国家的金融公司。商品出口商因为原材料的高价格而日渐富有。中国不可抗拒的经济力量已然开启，而且信贷刺激的内需从布达佩斯到巴西利亚都表现得非常充足。尽管大萧条后关于西方国家受难于金融崩塌的话题与日俱增，但新兴国家似乎距离金融风暴的中心还有一段距离。No longer. As foreign capital has fled and confidence evaporated, the emerging world’s stockmarkets have plunged (in some cases losing half their value) and currencies tumbled. The seizure in the credit market caused havoc, as foreign banks abruptly stopped lending and stepped back from even the most basic banking services, including trade credits.不过目前的情况不再是那样了，随着境外资本的流失和经济信心的消失，新兴国家股市暴跌（有些地区已经腰斩），本币迅速贬值。由于外国银行突然中断贷款，并且收缩了包括贸易信贷在内的基础银行服务，新兴国家的信贷市场突发混乱，并引发了一场浩劫。Like their rich-world counterparts, governments are battling to limit the damage (see article). That is easiest for those with large foreign-exchange reserves. Russia is spending $220 billion to shore up its financial services industry. South Korea has guaranteed $100 billion of its banks’ debt. Less well-endowed countries are asking for help. Hungary has secured a EURO5 billion ($ billion) lifeline from the European Central Bank and is negotiating a loan from the IMF, as is Ukraine. Close to a dozen countries are talking to the fund about financial help.新兴国家的政府和发达国家的政府一样都在为控制损失程度而奋斗。不过对于外汇储备充足的国家来说难度会小一些：俄罗斯斥资2200亿美元重振金融服务行业；韩国政府担保了1000亿美元的银行债务。而那些储备并不充足的国家正在四处求援：匈牙利成功向欧洲央行求得了50亿欧元（约66亿美元）的生命线，同时也在同国际货币基金组织协商借款事宜，同时向国际货币基金组织求援的还有乌克兰。近一打儿的国家在向基金组织求助。Those with long-standing problems are being driven to desperate measures. Argentina is nationalising its private pension funds, seemingly to stave off default (see article). But even stalwarts are looking weaker. Figures released this week showed that China’s growth slowed to 9% in the year to the third quarter-still a rapid pace but a lot slower than the double-digit rates of recent years.有持续问题的国家正棋行险招：阿根廷正在将私人养老金国有化，意图阻止违约的发生。即使强有力的国家也表现出虚弱一面：本周公布的数字表明今年中国的增长率在第三季度减缓为9%，虽然增速还算快，但是与近些年的两位数增率相比缓慢了不少。Blowing cold on credit对信贷没兴趣The various emerging economies are in different states of readiness, but the cumulative impact of all this will be enormous. Most obviously, how these countries fare will determine whether the world economy faces a mild recession or something nastier. Emerging economies accounted for around three-quarters of global growth over the past 18 months. But their economic fate will also have political consequences.众多新兴经济的意愿并不相同，但是累计在一起的影响力却非同一般。最明显的就是这些国家的表现将会决定世界经济所面临的是一个较为缓和的衰退还是更可怕的情况。在过去18个月的全球经济增长中，新兴经济贡献了75%。但是他们的经济命运也会有一些政治后果。In many places-eastern Europe is one example (see article)-financial turmoil is hitting weak governments. But even strong regimes could suffer. Some experts think that China needs growth of 7% a year to contain social unrest. More generally, the coming strife will shape the debate about the integration of the world economy. Unlike many previous emerging-market crises, today’s mess spread from the rich world, largely thanks to increasingly integrated capital markets. If emerging economies collapse-either into a currency crisis or a sharp recession-there will be yet more questioning of the wisdom of globalised finance.在类似东欧的很多地区，金融混乱目前的打击目标是软弱的政府；但强硬的政权同样会尝到苦果。一些专家认为中国每年需要7%的增长率来阻止社会动荡的发生。总体来说，如此争端必将影响全球经济一体化的讨论。与以往数次新兴经济危机不同，这次的混乱始于发达国家，很大程度上要归咎于一体化的资本市场。一旦新兴经济崩溃，无论是货币危机还是剧烈的经济萧条，大家对于金融全球化是否属明智之举会有更多的质疑。Fortunately, the picture is not universally dire. All emerging economies will slow. Some will surely face deep recessions. But many are facing the present danger in stronger shape than ever before, armed with large reserves, flexible currencies and strong budgets. Good policy-both at home and in the rich world-can yet avoid a catastrophe.幸运的是上述恐怖的场景没有发生在全球的每个角落：所有的新兴经济都会减缓发展速度，有一些也必将面临深度萧条；但是更多的国家在面临当下危机的时候却拥有比以往任何时候都强壮的形式，用充足的储备、弹性的货币和强大的预算武装自己。新兴国家及发达国家良好的政策可以避免大灾难的发生。One reason for hope is that the direct economic fallout from the rich world’s disaster is manageable. Falling demand in America and Europe hurts exports, particularly in Asia and Mexico. Commodity prices have fallen: oil is down nearly 60% from its peak and many crops and metals have done worse. That has a mixed effect. Although it hurts commodity-exporters from Russia to South America, it helps commodity importers in Asia and reduces inflation fears everywhere. Countries like Venezuela that have been run badly are vulnerable (see article), but given the scale of the past boom, the commodity bust so far seems unlikely to cause widespread crises.至少有一个原因值得抱有希望：发达国家此次灾难的直接经济影响还是在可控的范围内。欧美锐减的需求对出口来说无疑是一个打击，特别是对亚洲和墨西哥。商品价格走低：原油价格与巅峰时期比较已经下降了60%，很多粮食和金属类商品跌幅更大。这两个现象有混合效果：尽管从俄罗斯到南美的商品（能源）出口企业备受打击，但却帮助了亚洲的商品（能源）进口商，并且缓和了各地对通胀的恐惧。委内瑞拉的情形一直很糟糕，也很脆弱；不过由于过去极度的繁荣，商品价格下跌目前还不会引发大范围传播的危机。The more dangerous shock is financial. Wealth is being squeezed as asset prices decline. China’s house prices, for instance, have started falling (see article). This will dampen domestic confidence, even though consumers are much less indebted than they are in the rich world. Elsewhere, the sudden dearth of foreign-bank lending and the flight of hedge funds and other investors from bond markets has slammed the brakes on credit growth. And just as booming credit once underpinned strong domestic spending, so tighter credit will mean slower growth.比商品价格更令人震惊的事情发生在金融领域。由于资产价格的下降，财富水平正在被挤压缩水。以中国房价为例，目前已经开始下跌。尽管新兴国家的消费者比发达国家的负债水平低很多，上述情况还是会挫伤国内的经济信心。在其他方面，国外银行借款骤然匮乏、对冲基金以及其他投资者逃离债券市场，这些因素给信贷增长踩了一脚急刹车。正如发达的信贷曾经强力支撑国内支出那样，信贷紧缩将意味着增长放缓。Again, the impact will differ by country. Thanks to huge current-account surpluses in China and the oil-exporters in the Gulf, emerging economies as a group still send capital to the rich world. But over 80 have deficits of more than 5% of GDP. Most of these are poor countries that live off foreign aid; but some larger ones rely on private capital. For the likes of Turkey and South Africa a sudden slowing in foreign financing would force a dramatic adjustment. A particular worry is eastern Europe, where many countries have double-digit deficits. In addition, even some countries with surpluses, such as Russia, have banks that have grown accustomed to easy foreign lending because of the integration of global finance. The rich world’s bank bail-outs may limit the squeeze, but the flow of capital to the emerging world will slow. The Institute of International Finance, a bankers’ group, expects a 30% decline in net flows of private capital from last year.需要再次重申的是，冲击的表现会因国家的不同而有所区别。多亏中国和海湾产油国经常项目下的巨额顺差，新型经济整体还不断的向发达国家输送资本。但是80 多个国家的财政赤字已经超过GDP的5%，其中的多数是那些依靠国外救助过活得贫困国家；不过也有一些依靠私人资本的大国。对于类似土耳其和南非的国家来说，突然减缓的境外融资迫使其进行大幅调整。东欧的情况特别令人担忧，那里的不少国家赤字水平已经达到了两位数。另外，象俄罗斯这样处于顺差的国家，其银行也逐渐适应了可以轻易从外国取得的贷款，原因自然是全球金融一体化。发达国家的救助计划也许可以限制财富被挤压的水平，但资本流向新兴世界的速度无疑会减慢。国际金融研协会预测私人资本的净流量比去年回减少30%。A wing and a prayer飞行之翼与祈祷者This credit crunch will be grim, but most emerging markets can avoid catastrophe. The biggest ones are in relatively good shape. The more vulnerable ones can (and should) be helped.信贷紧缩必将令人生畏，不过多数新兴市场可以躲过一劫，最大的市场形势还相当不错。比较脆弱的市场可以（也应该）得到帮助。Among the giants, China is in a league of its own, with a $2 trillion arsenal of reserves, a current-account surplus, little connection to foreign banks and a budget surplus that offers lots of room to boost spending. Since the country’s leaders have made clear that they will do whatever it takes to cushion growth, China’s economy is likely to slow-perhaps to 8%-but not collapse. Although that is not enough to save the world economy, such growth in China would put a floor under commodity prices and help other countries in the emerging world.在那些坚强的巨人中，中国卓然不群：手握2万亿美元的储备，经常项下的顺差状态，与国外银行罕有关联，过剩的预算给推动支出留有足够空间。鉴于国家领导人已经明确表示将不惜一切代价为经济增长减速缓冲，中国的经济增长应该会减缓到大约8%的水平，但是决不会崩溃。虽然这不足以挽救世界经济，但是该增长率将会为商品价格建底并帮到新兴世界的其他国家。The other large economies will be harder hit, but should be able to weather the storm. India has a big budget deficit and many Brazilian firms have a large foreign-currency exposure. But Brazil’s economy is diversified and both countries have plenty of reserves to smooth the shift to slower growth. With $550 billion of reserves, Russia ought to be able to stop a run on the rouble. In the short-term at least, the most vulnerable countries are all smaller ones.其他的经济大国会受到更大的冲击，不过应该可以禁受住风暴侵袭。印度的财政赤字巨大，巴西很多公司面临巨大的外汇风险。但巴西经济已经实现多样化，同时上述两个国家拥有充足的储备来平稳过渡到缓慢的增长。俄罗斯掌握着5500亿美元的储备，应该能够阻止对卢布的抢购。至少在短期内，小国家才是最弱不禁风的。There will be pain as tighter credit forces adjustments. But sensible, speedy international assistance would make a big difference. Several emerging countries have asked America’s Federal Reserve for liquidity support; some hope that China will bail them out. A better route is surely the IMF, which has huge expertise and some $250 billion to lend. Sadly, borrowing from the fund carries a stigma. That needs to change. The IMF should develop quicker, more flexible financial instruments and minimise the conditions it attaches to loans. Over the past month deft policymaking saw off calamity in the rich world. Now it is time for something similar in the emerging world.受到紧缩信贷压力进行的调整必然带来痛苦，但快速的国际援助是明智之举，因为这会让结果很不相同。一些新兴国家已经向美联储求援以缓解流动性问题；有一些则希望中国可以拯救他们与水火。更佳的求救路线莫过于国际货币基金组织，因为它掌握大量的专门知识和2500亿美元的可出借款项。不幸的是人们认为向基金借款有辱其名，国际货币基金组织应该推出更快捷、更灵活的金融工具，同时实现借贷条件最小化。过去数月中，机敏的决策驱散了发达国家的灾难。现在也正是新兴世界发生类似事情的时候了。
纯英文的行不行啊？
othing in literature can long s
感谢等待，现为你提供忠实反映原文的正确译文。今后如有经济学方面的问题，欢迎提问后通知一声，会尽量抽时间帮你忙的。我们在第五栏里既包括了资本总额，也包括了会计标准。资本总量的系数与零再没有区别，其幅度降至第一栏资本总额的五分之一。当我们用国内私营部门的信贷取代资本总量时（系数不详），也获得了类似的结果。这表明，会计标准囊括了载于资本化措施中的发展情况信息。因此，我们将在本文下面部分采用会计标准作为我们衡量发展的尺度。不过，读者足可以放心，从质量上来说，所得出的结果跟使用资本化措施来衡量发展的结果是类似的。
Macroeconomics is a sub-field of economics that examines the behavior of the economy as a whole, once all of the individual economic decisions of companies and industries have been summed. Economy-wide phenomena considered by macroeconomics include Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and how it is affected by changes in unemployment, national income, rate of growth, and price levels. In contrast, microeconomics is the study of the economic behaviour and decision-making of individual consumers, firms, and industries. Macroeconomics can be used to analyze how to influence government policy goals such as economic growth, price stability, full employment and the attainment of a sustainable balance of payments. Macroeconomics is sometimes used to refer to a general approach to economic reasoning, which includes long term strategies and rational expectations in aggregate behavior. Until the 1930s most economic analysis did not separate out individual economics behavior from aggregate behavior. With the Great Depression of the 1930s, suffered throughout the developed world at the time, and the development of the concept of national income and product statistics, the field of macroeconomics began to expand. Particularly influential were the ideas of John Maynard Keynes, who formulated theories to try to explain the Great Depression. Before that time, comprehensive national accounts, as we know them today, did not exist . One of the challenges of economics has been a struggle to reconcile macroeconomic and microeconomic models. Starting in the 1950s, macroeconomists developed micro-based models of macroeconomic behavior (such as the consumption function). Dutch economist Jan Tinbergen developed the first comprehensive national macroeconomic model, which he first built for the Netherlands and later applied to the United States and the United Kingdom after World War II. The first global macroeconomic model, Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates LINK project, was initiated by Lawrence Klein and was mentioned in his citation for the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1980. Theorists such as Robert Lucas Jr suggested (in the 1970s) that at least some traditional Keynesian (after British economist John Maynard Keynes) macroeconomic models were questionable as they were not derived from assumptions about individual behavior, although it was not clear whether the failures were in microeconomic assumptions or in macroeconomic models. However, New Keynesian macroeconomics has generally presented microeconomic models to shore up their macroeconomic theorizing, and some Keynesians have contested the idea that microeconomic foundations are essential, if the model is analytically useful. An analogy might be that the fact that quantum phisics is not fully consistent with relativity theory doesn´t mean that realtivity is false. Many important microeconomic assumptions have never been proved, and some have proved wrong. The various schools of thought are not always in direct competition with one another - even though they sometimes reach differing conclusions. Macroeconomics is an ever evolving area of research. The goal of economic research is not to be "right," but rather to be accurate. It is likely that none of the current schools of economic thought perfectly capture the workings of the economy. They do, however, each contribute a small piece of the overall puzzle. As one learns more about each school of thought, it is possible to combine aspects of each in order to reach an informed synthesis. The traditional distinction is between two different approaches to economics: Keynesian economics, focusing on demand; and supply-side (or neo-classical) economics, focusing on supply. Neither view is typically endorsed to the complete exclusion of the other, but most schools do tend clearly to emphasize one or the other as a theoretical foundation. • Keynesian economics focuses on aggregate demand to explain levels of unemployment and the business cycle. That is, business cycle fluctuations should be reduced through fiscal policy (the government spends more or less depending on the situation) and monetary policy. Early Keynesian macroeconomics was "activist," calling for regular use of policy to stabilize the capitalist economy, while some Keynesians called for the use of incomes policies. • Supply-side economics delineates quite clearly the roles of monetary policy and fiscal policy. The focus for monetary policy should be purely on the price of money as determined by the supply of money and the demand for money. It advocates a monetary policy that directly targets the value of money and does not target interest rates at all. Typically the value of money is measured by reference to gold or some other reference. The focus of fiscal policy is to raise revenue for worthy government investments with a clear recognition of the impact that taxation has on domestic trade. It places heavy emphasis on Say's law, which states that recessions do not occur because of failure in demand or lack of money. • Monetarism, led by Milton Friedman, which holds that inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon. It rejects fiscal policy because it leads to "crowding out" of the private sector. Further, it does not wish to combat inflation or deflation by means of active demand management as in Keynesian economics, but by means of monetary policy rules, such as keeping the rate of growth of the money supply constant over time. • New Keynesian economics, which developed partly in response to new classical economics, strives to provide microeconomic foundations to Keynesian economics by showing how imperfect markets can justify demand management. • Austrian economics is a laissez-faire school of macroeconomics. It focuses on the business cycle that arises from government or central-bank interference that leads to deviations from the natural rate of interest. • Post-Keynesian economics represents a dissent from mainstream Keynesian economics, emphasizing the role of uncertainty and the historical process in macroeconomics. • New classical economics. The original theoretical impetus was the charge that Keynesian economics lacks microeconomic foundations -- . its assertions are not founded in basic economic theory. This school emerged during the 1970s. This school asserts that it does not make sense to claim that the economy at any time might be "out-of-equilibrium". Fluctuations in aggregate variables follow from the individuals in the society continuously re-optimizing as new information on the state of the world is revealed. Later yielded an explicit school which argued that macro-economics does not have micro-economic foundations, but is instead the tool of studying economic systems at equilibrium. 宏观经济学是一种分场经济学的行为,研究是在整个经济中,一旦所有的个人的经济决策,为公司和产业被。宏观经济学认为经济现象包括国内生产总值(GDP)以及它是如何变化影响失业的国民收入的)经济成长率、价格水平。相反,微观经济学研究的就是经济行为和决策的个体消费者,公司和行业。宏观经济学可以用来分析如何影响政府的政策的目标,比如经济增长,价格稳定,充分就业和获取可持续国际收支差额。宏观经济学有时用来指一个经济理论的主要途径,包括长期战略的期望和理性综合行为。直到30年代为止,大部分的经济分析没有独立的个人经济综合行为举止。与1930年代的经济大萧条,遭受了在所有发达国家,发展国民收入的概念和产品的统计数据,但是研究领域的宏观经济学开始扩展。具有特殊影响力的想法是,约翰•梅纳德凯恩斯理论,努力向他们解释制定了经济大萧条。在那时候,综合国民经济核算,如同我们知道他们今天,是不存在的。经济学的一个挑战是一场斗争调和宏观经济政策和微观经济政策,模型。开始于20世纪50年代,macroeconomists发达micro-based模型的宏观经济行为(如消费函数)。1月Tinbergen荷兰经济学家第一个全面发展国家宏观经济模型,该模型他第一次建成为荷兰和后应用于美国和英国二战之后。第一个全球宏观经济模型,沃顿计量预测伙伴联系工程项目,发生在劳伦斯发起克莱恩和被提及他的嘉奖经济学诺贝尔经济学奖1980年。理论家如罗伯特·卢卡斯认为(是在上世纪70年代),认为至少有一些传统的凯恩斯(英国经济学家约翰梅纳德凯恩斯)宏观经济模型都是可疑的,因为他们不是来源于假设的个人行为,虽然现在还不清楚这些失败在微观经济的假定,或是对宏观经济模型。然而,最新凯恩斯主义的宏观微观模型提出了大致以支持他们的宏观经济理论有争议,一些凯恩斯主义者的想法,微观经济基础是必要的,如果模型是分析有用的。打个比方可能是,这样的事实,即量子phisics并不完全符合相对论´,并不代表没有realtivity是假的。许多重要的微观经济假设从来没有被证明,而有些人的证明是错误的。各种各样的思想学派并不总是在彼此的直接竞争,尽管他们有时会达到不同的结论。宏观经济学是一种前所未有的领域的研究。研究经济学的目标不是"正确",而是是精确的。很有可能是学校目前尚无一个经济思想完全捕捉运作方式的经济。不过,他们的贡献每一小块整体难题。当你学会更多关于每个思想学派,它能把方面的每一个为了达到一个通知的合成。传统的区别是留给经济学两种不同的方法,重点凯恩斯经济学和供方需求;(或古典)经济学、关注供应。也都是典型的观点完全排除其他,但大多数学校都往往清晰地强调一个或另一个是的理论基础。•凯恩斯经济学交融在总需求,以解释失业率和商业周期。商业周期波动,应减少通过财政政策(政府花费或多或少根据实际情况)和货币政策。早期凯恩斯主义的宏观经济学是“活动家,定期使用《召唤的政策稳定资本主义经济,虽然有些凯恩斯主义要求使用收入政策。•供给的经济学的作用很明显地在当前货币政策与财政政策。关注于货币政策应该是完全对价格的钱所确定的货币供应的需求的特点,为了金钱。它提倡货币政策,直接目标钱的价值,不目标利率。典型的钱的价值在于用参考金或其他参考。财政政策的重点是提高政府农业投资价值的收入为一个明确的认识税收的影响在国内贸易。它设置了过度强调了说的法律,它表明不会发生经济衰退需求下降、因为没有缺钱。•货币主义的带领下,由弗里德曼,认为始终通货膨胀是一种货币现象。财政政策拒绝,因为会导致“挤退”的私人生活。此外,它不希望对抗通货膨胀或通货紧缩采用主动需求管理在凯恩斯经济学,通过货币政策规则,即坚持的增长速度恒定的钱。凯恩斯•新经济发达的部分原因是为了适应新古典经济学、致力于提供凯恩斯现代经济学的微观经济基础显示出了市场的不完善就能名正言顺的需求管理等。•奥地利经济学是个自由放任主义的学校的宏观经济。它侧重于商业周期,而政府或中央银行的干扰导致偏离自然失业率的兴趣。•Post-Keynesian经济学所代表了凯恩斯经济学主流的作用,强调历史过程中不确定性和宏观经济。•新古典经济学。原理论动力的费用是凯恩斯经济学缺乏有效的微观经济基础——亦即其断言不成立于基本经济理论。这所学校出现在20世纪70年代。这所学校断言它是没有道理的主张经济会随时out-of-equilibrium”。波动的总变量遵从的在这个社会的个人不断re-optimizing新信息的状态的世界就会显现出来。后来取得了一个显式学校一样,认为宏观经济学没有微观经济基础,反而学习经济系统的工具在平衡。
Analysis of current situation and development approach on domestic peasant the economic deeply developing in the modern world,corporation's competitions have been from past quality and price competition into corporation image and service strategy in this competition play a crucial fact show shortage which major peasant business don't understand brand strategy well,but fortunate,there are some companies strive for vast potential for future development via brand strategy."Beijing Wangzhihe Food Co,Ltd is a good this paper example for "Wangzhihe", sum up experiences through analysis of brand strategy ,and putforward the significant way to comsummate brand strategy;Wangzhihe;peasant business;way 自己翻的 你看看吧
有很多的同学在写英语 作文 的时候，也会写一些经典的议论文，我整理了相关范文，希望会对大家有所帮助！
英语作文范文带中文翻译
Many years ago, the movie about the youth became very popular, every year, we can see many hot movies about the protagonist’s passed youth. People like to recall their passed youth, which makes such movies sell good. But I find the common things about these movies, all the protagonists’ youth are about fighting, love and other negative things. I understand the directors’ intention, they want to tell people youth is not perfect and having pities. Of course movie is exaggerating, the real youth is about studying, at least, most people have worked so hard to get into their ideal colleges. What the movies describe make up some people’s youth, for which they don’t have the chance to experience. We should not be misled by these movies, for the teenagers, their job is to study, so that they can have a bright future.
【翻译】很多年以前，关于青春的电影很受欢迎，此后每年，我们都可以看到很多热门电影是关于主人公逝去的青春。人们喜欢回忆他们逝去的青春，这才是让这类电影好卖的原因。但是我发现了这些电影的共同点，那就是所有的主人公的青春都是关于大家，恋爱和其他消极的东西。我明白导演们的意图，他们想要告诉人们青春是不完美的，存在遗憾。当然电影是夸张化的，真正的青春是关于学习，至少，大部分人是如此努力的学习，为了进入理想的大学。电影所刻画的弥补了一些人的青春，对于他们没有机会去体验这些东西。我们不应该被电影误导，对于青少年来说，他们的工作是学习，这样他们才能有一个美好的未来。
高中英语作文范文80词
I like English. I think I can share my English learning method with you. First of all, develop interest on English. My way to make it is to watch movies from abroad. At first, I will watch the movie with subtitle. Then I will remove the subtitle, only English left. Gradually, show great interest in English. Secondly, recite vocabularies. Vocabulary is the necessary foundation to start learn English. This time you have to force yourself to remember words. Thirdly, understand basic grammar thoroughly. It is hard for me to understand the meaning of a sentence if I don’t know the basic grammar. Last but not least is to speak more. The basic purpose to learn a language is to communicate. So talk in English as much as you can. And don’t worry about losing face, because everyone makes mistakes. Those are my methods.
我喜欢英语。我觉得我可以和你分享一下我的英语学习方法。首先，培养对英语的兴趣。我的方法是看国外电影。一开始，我会留着字幕一起看。之后我就会不看字幕，只留英文。渐渐地，我对英语表现出极大的兴趣。其次，背诵词汇。词汇是学习英语的必要根基。这一点你只能强迫自己去背了。第三，完全理解基本语法。如果我不懂基本语法，我会很难理解一整个句子的意思。最后但并非最不重要的是要多说。学习语言的基本目的就是进行沟通。因此，尽可能多的用英语交谈。不要担心丢脸，因为每个人都会犯错误的。这些就是我的方法。
英语作文100词左右带翻译——珍惜时间
Chinese Spring Festival celebrating the end of winter and the warmth of spring. It began in the last day of the lunar year, end in the 15th day of lunar New Year, also is the Lantern Festival. During the Spring Festival, people use red lantern and Spring Festival couplets decorate a house, put on all kinds of colored clothes, often
An English proverb says that time is money. I consider it (this) wrong. Why? Because we all know that we can earn money be work but can not in any way get back time (in anyway). For this reason, we may (can) say that time is more valuable than money.
Many people do not know the value of time. It (this) is indeed a great pity. We must bear (keep) in mind that wasting time is equal to wasting your life.
【翻译】英国有句谚语说，时间就是金钱。我认为这是不对的。为什么？因为我们大家都知道我们能够用工作赚钱，但无论如何却无法把时间争取回来。基于此种理由，我们可以说时间比钱钱更宝贵。
许多人不知爱惜时光。这确实是可惜的。我们必须记住浪费时间等于浪费生命。
Summary of the study on construction project management methodology: is the largest number of construction projects, the most typical "projects", construction project management practice is one of the important sources of project management theory with integrated project management system of project management theory and practical experience provide theories for construction project management tools, making increasingly systematic and scientific management of construction projects. Tags: 1, raised issues of project management and overview of project management is becoming a modern social address "one-off questions" effective tools that a kind of professional qualification, wide application in the process of social, economic and rapid development is that it provides a new way. Modern social economic total constantly increased, economic globalization, and information trend increasingly enhanced, development speed speed up, process complex, new of industry, and field constantly appears, products development cycle shortened, led increasingly more of "one-time", and no precedent can through of task of appears, especially enterprise and management social public affairs of Government, more faced was increasingly complex of from market and at home and abroad Affairs of various problem, involves of factors, and interests main increasingly more, these problem General of management approach difficult to solution or successfully solution, and from construction project and the military, and space exploration, field of project management method by upgrade for project management theory and thought, provides has solution social economic development non-General problem of means. You can think, lies in its development and application of project management method. Widely promoted popular project management in China in recent years, the ascendant, and we introduce, universal focus, should not be a complicated theories, concepts, procedures, and should be concise, applicable and effective way. Regardless of the economic structure changes, construction remains the main carrier of China's economic development. In comprehensively building a comfortably well-off society and development in China under the background of the Northwest, Northeast, become important means for economic revitalization in many parts of the project. Some cities even proposed "project will flourish cities" slogan. Rely mainly on the application of new scientific and technological achievements in economic progress, relying on the content-type extension, depend on the situation of knowledge innovation, rely on an extensive project is not a suitable means of revitalizing the economy, has been in China for failure to pay the investment decision of enormous cost, so using the scientific method on engineering construction project management, including assessment of argumentation, is the important condition of the building can achieve the desired purpose of the project. Project management methods are not only specific methods, including thought. Party of 16 session third plenary made people, and can continued of science development view, "people", and "can continued" of a basic content is science and technology, and economic, and environment, and social of coordination development, project construction do for development economic of important means, not only cost huge, and on around environment has larger effect, so must meet can continued, and coordination development requirements, this is project management of important guiding ideology one. Methodology is the study of methods. Comprehensively building a comfortably well-off society and development in Northwest and northeast of real background might set off a new round of upsurge of construction, sustainable and coordinated development of scientific concept of development put certain constraints on the construction of macro-control, this method should be implemented in construction project management. Project management is not only for the purposes of achieving specific objectives (duration, quality and cost), should also do project construction and coordination of environmental, social or risk repeating previous errors, mistake, got out of the investment mistakes. This is also a project management method to rise to "methodology" meaning one. Project management of theory so far has can said is is complete of, this not only performance in rich diverse of theory results as various project management books (including translation) of launched, more performance in this area has has own of "knowledge system", as United States Project Management Association (PMI) Yu 1987 made and by 1996, and 2000 amendment of "project management knowledge system", international project management Association 1997 launched has "project management personnel ability benchmark", China double method society for the project management Research Committee also Yu 2001 launched China project management knowledge system under. Each of these knowledge systems project management body of knowledge is divided into a number of areas, elements, modules, China knowledge system "methods and tools" concept, other systems do not have on the topic independent of the method, but throughout all stages of project management, processes, fields. Various project management works also focus on content, stage of project management, program, organization of expositions devoted to rare. Of course, this does not mean to ignore, perfection but summary, concentrate on methods of research and contribute to the popularization and application of project management project management role into full play.建设工程项目管理的方法论研究摘要：建设工程项目是数量最多、最典型的“项目”，建设工程项目管理的实践是项目管理理论的重要渊源之一，融合了项目管理实践经验的系统的项目管理理论又为建设工程项目管理提供了理论工具，使得建设工程项目管理日益系统化、科学化。 关键词：项目管理 工程1、问题的提出及现状综述 项目管理之所以成为一种现代社会解决“一次性问题”的有效工具以至于一种职业资格，在社会事务、经济过程中广泛应用并且迅速发展，就在于它提供了一种新的方法。现代社会经济总量不断增加，经济全球化、信息化趋势日益增强，发展速度加快，过程复杂，新的行业、领域不断出现，产品开发周期缩短，导致越来越多的“一次性”、无先例可循的任务的出现，尤其是企业和管理社会公共事务的政府，更面临着日趋复杂的来自市场和国内外事务的各种问题，涉及到的因素、利益主体越来越多，这些问题常规的管理办法难以解决或圆满解决，而来自建设工程项目及军事、空间探索等领域的项目管理方法经提升为项目管理理论和思想，提供了解决社会经济发展中非常规问题的手段。可以认为，项目管理的发展与应用在于它的方法。项目管理在中国广泛推广普及是近几年的事，方兴未艾，而我们引进、普及的重点，不应是繁琐的理论、概念、程序，而应该是简明、适用、有效的方法。 不论经济结构如何变化，工程项目建设仍是我国经济发展的主要载体。在我国目前全面建设小康社会、开发西北、振兴东北的背景下，项目建设成为许多地区经济振兴的重要手段。有的城市甚至提出“项目兴市”的口号。在经济进步主要依靠新科技成果应用、依靠内涵式扩展、依靠知识创新的形势下，靠粗放式项目建设并不是合适的振兴经济的手段，我国也一直在为投资决策的失误付出巨大代价，所以利用科学方法对工程建设项目进行管理，包括评估论证，将是项目建设能否达到预期目的的重要条件。 工程项目管理方法不仅是具体方法，也包括思想。党的十六届三中全会提出以人为本、可持续的科学发展观，“以人为本”、“可持续”的一个基本内容就是科学技术、经济、环境、社会的协调发展，工程项目建设做为发展经济的重要手段，不仅耗资巨大，而且对周围环境有较大影响，所以必须满足可持续、协调发展要求，这也是工程项目管理的重要指导思想之一。方法论是对方法的研究。全面建设小康社会、开发西北、振兴东北的现实背景可能掀起新一轮工程建设热潮，可持续、协调发展科学发展观对工程项目建设提出了一定制约的宏观控制，这一点要落实到建设项目管理的方法上。工程项目管理的目的不仅是实现具体的目标（工期、质量、费用），也应做到项目建设与环境、社会的协调，否则可能重蹈以前投资失误、失策、失控的覆辙。这也是工程项目管理方法上升到“方法论”的意义之一。 项目管理的理论至今已可以说是很完备的，这不仅表现在丰富多样的理论成果如各种项目管理书籍（包括翻译）的面世，更表现在这个领域有了自己的“知识体系”，如美国项目管理协会（PMI）于1987年提出并经1996、2000年修订的“项目管理知识体系”，国际项目管理协会1997年推出了“项目管理人员能力基准”，中国双法研究会项目管理研究委员会也于2001年推出《中国项目管理知识体系》。上述各知识体系将项目管理知识划分为若干领域、要素、模块，中国的知识体系有“方法与工具”概念，其他体系未有关于方法的独立专题，而是贯穿于项目管理的各个阶段、过程、领域。各种项目管理著作也多侧重于对项目管理内容、阶段、程序、组织等的论述，对于方法的专门论述不多见。当然这并不意味着对方法的忽略，但对方法的总结、集中研究与完善有助于项目管理的推广应用的项目管理作用的充分发挥。
In the 20th century, bridge construction technology evolved and was fueled by the Industrial Revolution. At the turn of the century, steel bridges were riveted together, not bolted; concrete bridges were cast in place, not precast; and large bridge members were built from lacing bars and smaller sections, not rolled in one piece. Plastic had not yet been invented. Construction techniques such as post-tensioning, slurry walls, soil freezing, and reinforced earth walls had not yet been conceived. Surveying was performed mechanically since infrared, optical technology was still 75 years away. Bridge construction is changing as the new millennium begins. New construction techniques and new materials are emerging. There are also new issues facing the bridge building industry relative to the research needs associated with these new techniques and materials. LONG-SPAN BRIDGES Suspension Bridges While suspension bridge building was conducted at a modest pace throughout the 20th century, an unprecedented number of spans of remarkable record lengths were built in the Far East and Denmark. Both the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge in Japan and the Great Belt Bridge in Denmark were completed in 1998. The Akashi Kaikyo Bridge is the largest suspension bridge in the world, with a span of 1991 m, and the Great Belt Bridge is the second largest, with a span of 1624 m. While spans lengths have increased nearly fivefold during the course of this century, they may have reached their physical limits with today’s materials. Research will be necessary to develop the new, ultra-high-strength steel wire or carbon fiber wire required to build the longer main suspension cables that will make it possible to increase span lengths to beyond 2000 m. As we enter the new millennium, rehabilitation and ongoing maintenance of the existing suspension bridges must continue as well. Recent rehabilitation measures for the main cables and suspension systems of these bridges have uncovered degradation through corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement. Research is needed to determine the remaining useful service life of suspension bridge cables and what measures can be taken to slow or halt the degradation process. Transportation in the New Millennium 2 Other components of long-span bridges, existing and new, are being revolutionized as technology moves forward. Advances in deck technology are producing stronger, lighter decks. Orthotropic and exodermic decks are becoming increasingly popular on long-span structures as a means of reducing dead load. Bearings, joint systems, and seismic retrofitting components are becoming increasingly efficient as more large-scale testing facilities are built.在20世纪,桥梁施工技术,是由进化而来的 工业革命。随着新世纪的到来,钢桥受到铆接在一起,而不是 螺栓、混凝土桥梁被扔在的地方,不是预制、大型桥梁成员 从系酒吧和小的部分,不卷在一块。塑料尚未 发明了。制作等施工工艺、浆墙、土壤冻结, 加筋土墙尚未怀了孕。测量进行机械 自从红外、光学技术仍然是75年。 大桥建设是新千年开始转变。新建筑 技术和新材料正在浮出水面。也有新的解决面临的桥 建筑行业的相关研究的需要,这些新技术 材料。 大跨度桥梁 悬挂的桥梁 虽然悬索桥建设进行了整个20速度不快 世纪,前所未有的跨越了卓越的长度是建在记录 远东和丹麦。双方在日本明石海峡大桥正式通车,伟大的带桥 在丹麦是在一九九八年完成。这个明石海峡大桥正式通车是世界上最大的悬架 在这个世界上,与桥梁的m,1991年是中国的第二大带桥, 用一段1624)。 虽然已经增加了近5倍长度的跨世纪的过程中, 他们已经达到了他们的物理极限与今天的材料。研究将 必须发展新的、ultra-high-strength钢丝、碳纤维丝要求 建立了悬索,将不再主要可能增加到跨度的长度 超出2000米。 当我们进入新千年、康复和持续的维护现有的 悬索桥必须继续。最近的戒毒措施为主要 电缆悬架系统与这些桥梁发现退化 氢脆腐蚀,。研究还剩下的 寿命悬索桥电缆和什么措施可以减缓或 停止退化的过程。 在新千年的运输 其他组件的大跨度桥梁,现有的和新的,正在发生了革命性的变化 技术的进步。提出了在甲板上技术生产强的,更轻的 甲板。正交各向异性和exodermic牌是大跨度越来越受欢迎 作为一种手段,降低结构自重荷载。轴承、联合系统和抗震能力 越来越多的有效成分是更大规模的测试设备 建造。 50分！！~~谢谢 参考资料：我的大脑