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Western cuisine is a generalized term collectively referring to the cuisines of Europe and other Western countries. The term is used by Anglophone Asians to contrast with Asian styles of cuisines of Western countries are diverse by themselves, although there are common characteristics that distinguishes Western cooking from cuisines of Asian countries and others. Compared with traditional cooking of Asian countries, for example, meat is more prominent and substantial in serving-size, and Westerners traditionally have a far more in-depth knowledge concerning specific methods of preparing and serving different cuts of meat than Asian in particular is a common dish across the West. Similarly to some Asian cuisines, Western cuisines also put substantial emphasis on sauces as condiments, seasonings, or accompaniments (in part due to the difficulty of seasonings penetrating the often larger pieces of meat used in Western cooking). Many dairy products are utilized in the cooking process, except in nouvelle cuisine. Wheat-flour bread has long been the most common sources of starch in this cuisine, along with pasta, dumplings and pastries, although the potato has become a major starch plant in the diet of Europeans and their diaspora since the European colonization of the advertised to be specializing in generic Western cuisine in Asia tend to have menus containing a mixture of dishes mainly from France, the English-speaking world, and Germany. Since the early 1990s dishes from Italy and Spain have become more prominent on these restaurants' cuisine originated from the various regions of China and has become widespread in many other parts of the world — from Asia to the Americas, Australia, Western Europe and Southern Africa. In recent years, connoisseurs of Chinese cuisine have also sprouted in Eastern Europe and South Asia. American Chinese cuisine and Canadian Chinese food are popular examples of local varieties. Local ingredients would be adopted while maintaining the style and preparation cultural differences vary greatly amongst the different regions of China, giving rise to the different styles of food. There are eight main regional cuisines, or Eight Great are also featured Buddhist and Muslim sub-cuisines within the greater Chinese cuisine, with an emphasis on vegetarian and halal-based diets most dishes in Chinese cuisine, food is prepared in bite-sized pieces, ready for direct picking up and eating. Traditionally, Chinese culture considered using knives and forks at the table barbaric due to fact that these implements are regarded as weapons. It was also considered ungracious to have guests work at cutting their own food. Fish are usually cooked and served whole (or chunked), with diners directly pulling pieces from the fish with chopsticks to eat, unlike in some other cuisines where they are first filleted. This is because it is desired for fish to be served as fresh as possible, and more importantly, whole fish culturally signifies wholeness of things as it has a proper beginning (head) with an end (tail). It is common in many restaurant settings for the server to use a pair of spoons to divide the fish into servings at the table. Chicken is another meat popular in Chinese meals. While the chicken is cut into pieces, and similar to serving fish every single piece of the chicken is served including gizzards and head in order to signify a Chinese meal, each individual diner is given his or her own bowl of rice while the accompanying dishes are served in communal plates (or bowls) that are shared by everyone sitting at the table. In the Chinese meal, each diner picks food out of the communal plates on a bite-by-bite basis with their chopsticks. This is in contrast to western meals where it is customary to dole out individual servings of the dishes at the beginning of the meal. Many non-Chinese are uncomfortable with allowing a person's individual utensils (which might have traces of saliva) to touch the communal plates; for this hygienic reason, additional serving spoons or chopsticks （lit. common/public/shared chopsticks) may be made available. In areas with increased Western influence, such as Hong Kong, diners are provided individually with a heavy metal spoon for this purpose. The food selected is often eaten together with some rice either in one bite or in alternation.
摘要] 由于自然环境和物产不同,形成了东西方不同的文化,中西饮食便沿着各自的道路发展起来.传统的西方文化是一种畜牧文化和海洋文化,中国文化则是一种农耕文化和陆地文化,两种不同的文化反映出人们生产生活空间和方式的差异,其中饮食是具有代表性的一个方面,从菜单命名使用的词汇即可略见一斑.一、由于自然环境和物产不同,形成了东西方不同的文化,中西饮食便沿着各自的道路发展起来.传统的西方文化是一种畜牧文化和海洋文化,中国文化则是一种农耕文化和陆地文化,两种不同的文化反映出人们生产生活空间和方式的差异,其中饮食是具有代表性的一个方面,从文化命名使用的词汇即可略见一斑.两种饮食文化的差别主要表现在原料种类、烹饪方法、进餐方式、菜式命名等四个方面.(一)原料种类.西餐原料主要是动物类和海洋鱼类,辅以植物类,中餐原料主要是植物类和淡水鱼类,辅以动物类.随着社会发展和中西方交流的增加,两种饮食体系所使用的原料有趋同的趋势,但差别仍然比较明显.中国人视为珍馐美味的猫、狗、鸽子西方人是不会尝试的,而西方人习以为常的海洋鱼类、贝壳类可能为多数内地中国人见所未见,中国人的"食谱"范围比西方人的丰富得多.(二)烹饪方式.这是中西餐饮的一大差别,也是饮食文化差异的隐性因素.烹饪方法的差异又表现在三个方面:首先是原料的粗加工,所谓"食不厌精、脍不厌细",基础就是原料的粗加工,中餐对此十分讲究,加工后的原料形状多种多样,有整体(Whole)、块(Cubes)、片(Slices)、卷(Rolls)、条(Strips)、段(Segments)、丝(Shreds)、丁(Dice)、粒(Grains)、末(Mince)、蓉(泥)(Mash)、浆(Thickliq 2uid)、汁(Juice)等,西餐原料的处理则较为简单,一般有整体、块、片、丁、泥等几种形状;其次是火候,中式烹调讲究用火,三十多种加工方法许多是西餐中没有的,西餐烹调加工时间较短、火温适中;三是调味,中餐的复合味型多,要求原料入味,西餐则强调原料本味及调料的独立使用.(三)进餐方式.这是中西饮食文化差异的显性因素,也是中西方文化中的社会心理、价值观、民族习俗方面的差异在饮食上的表现.刀叉与筷子、圆桌与条桌等各不相同,在菜式和道数上双方虽然都有程式,但一分一合,互相对立,由此产生的宴请礼仪、饮酒方式、席间气氛也大不相同.(四)菜式命名.中餐讲究"作",西餐注重"吃",中菜命名讲究文雅、含蓄和吉利,注重表情、联想功能,寓情、寓意,便使用了多种修辞手法,除少量大众化菜肴以原料直接命名外,相当一部分菜是以创始人、景物、典故和传闻来命名的,这种命名方法的缺点是菜名与原料无明显关联,往往不知所云,如"八仙过海""、佛跳墙"等.西菜命名则直截了当,突出原料,极少使用类似中菜命名的修辞手段,虽少了艺术性,但多了实用性.当然,西菜命名也讲究高雅,但表现方法则是以法文命名."WhenwetalkofmeatonourtableweuseFrenchwords,(porc)(boeuf).Chickensbecomepoultry(poulet),andacalfbecomesveal(veau).EvenifourmenuswerenotwritteninFrenchoutofsnobbery,theEnglishweusedinthemwouldstillbeNormanEnglish."《(高级英语》P28)这是由于罗曼人曾经征服英国,英国农民在牧养牲畜时,讲的是盎格鲁-撒克逊英语,而这些牲畜被端到餐桌上给法国统治者享用时,就有了法语名称,相沿成习,它变成了一种高雅.另外,由于菜单源于法国以及法国饮食文化对西方饮食文化的深远影响,许多西餐菜肴自然用了法语名称,如:胡萝卜蓉汤(Pureealacrecy)、罗宋汤(Bor2schalaRusse)、芝士左口鱼(Fletanalamornay)等.二、中餐菜单英译的基本原则中餐曾有"食单"而无菜单,它和"番茄"、"洋芋"一样来自于西方,并很快融入中国饮食文化,形成了自己的特色,成为餐饮业不可或缺的一项"硬件".随着东西方文化交流的更加深入和广泛,来到中国的外宾越来越多,一张好的菜单就是一份高明的宣传单,一份本土化的菜单将使他们的中国之行更加完满.菜单最初只是厨师备忘的单子,但今非昔比,当今菜单有了更多功能:11向客人说明食品饮料的种类和价格,便于顾客挑选;21反映餐厅的经营方针,标志着餐厅商品的特色和标准;31是客人和接待者之间的沟通渠道;41是菜品研究的资料;51加强宣传,促进销售.小小菜单,作用多多.由于东西方文化和食物原料、制作方法存在诸多差异,菜单的翻译远不象想象的那么简单.影响菜单翻译的最重要因素是烹饪方法和菜式命名,翻译时应把握好二者的特点,既要符合西餐菜肴命名习惯,又要体现中餐特色,切忌望文生义或按字面含义直译.翻译过程中必须把握以下六个原则:第一,注重菜单的信息功能,保证菜名提供准确、足够的信息,而不能简单地按照中菜名称的修饰词而直译,以便外宾选择.如"麻婆豆腐"译成"Pockmarkedwoman'sbeancurd"、"八仙过海"译为"EightImmortalscrossingthesea"",鱼香肉丝"译为"Fish-flavorshreddedpork"就会使外宾茫然或误解.第二,要发挥菜单的促销作用.应借鉴中菜命名的艺术手法,尽量反映中餐烹饪特色,尤其对一些历史悠久、流传广泛的菜肴在翻译后还可以附加说明.这样既保留菜名信息,又引人兴趣,以达到吸引食客的目的.第三,把握中餐烹调方法的类别.为反映中餐对火候的讲究和其艺术性,可进行适当修饰.中餐烹调方法分类如下:烧、烧、烩、 、焖Braise炖、煨Stew煎、炸、酥Deep-fry爆、炒、熘、滑Stir-fry、Quick-fry干炒、干煸、焙Sauté煮、汆、涮、白灼Boil烧、烤、烘、 Roast、Barbecue、Broil、Bake蒸、腌、卤、酱、熏、酿、扒、烫、糟等有对等词,可一对一翻译,较特殊的做法如"油淋"可归入"煎炸"类,西餐没有拔丝方法,类似方法有Candy、Toffee.第四,尽量译出原料加工后的形状.原料形状在西餐中并不重要,但在中餐中却能反映出烹调的技艺水平,译文应予保留,确实累赘的,则可省略.第五,把握原料这一核心,无论中菜如何命名,均须翻译出原料,再加上烹调方法和味型等辅助因素.第六,避免文化冲突.中菜命名为了吉祥,借用了一些不能食用的物品或西方人忌讳食用的动物名,翻译时应按原料名直译,如果原料本身是西方人忌食的,这道菜可省略不译.如"翡翠鱼翅"、"红烧狮子头",真正的翡翠当然不能食用的,其实它就是蔬菜,而狮子西方人更不会食用,我们也是以其威武来形容"肉圆"罢了,直译会引起"血腥"的感觉.又如"脆皮乳鸽",将象征着和平的鸽子烹而食之,也是西方人不能接受的,所以最好把它略过.三、中餐菜名英译的具体探讨上面提出了中餐菜单英译的六原则,下面就一些中餐菜名英译进行具体探讨.11以原料命名的菜不加修辞,直译最为简便,烹饪方法不必译出.中菜汤类命名一般按此方法,翻译的处理就是"原料加汤".如:双冬牛肉-Beefwithmushroomandbambooshouts口蘑菜心-Mushroomswithcabbageheart青椒肉丝-Shreddedporkandgreenchili豆腐汤-Beancurdwithmushroomsoup21以烹调方法加原料命名.因为烹调方法是饮食文化的核心组成部分,翻译时必须译出烹调方法.中菜的一些烹调方法是西餐所没有的,有些则相近,翻译时用近义词亦可.如"干煸"在西餐中没有,其操作过程是:先用油炸原料,然后以少许油翻炒,迅速将油炒干后起锅,并不是加油直接炒.英语中有两个字与之意义相近,一是sauté--friedquicklyinapanwithalittlehotbutterorotherfat.意识是"快炸、煎";一是torrefy--todryuporparchwithheat(.)意识是"烘干、烤干、焙干",从制作过程看,sauté更合适些.如:炸蛋卷-Deep-friedeggrolls回锅肉-Slicedporkdoublysautéedinsoysauce干煸牛肉丝-Sautéedbeefshreds31烹调方式加原料和作料命名.作料是决定味型的最重要因素,翻译时也不能省略.如豉汁蒸带子,省略作料就成了清蒸,味道完全不同.酱爆肉去掉"soypaste",成了无任何特点的"煎肉",二者有天渊之别.其它如:豉汁蒸带子-Steamedscallopswithcuredsoybean酱爆肉-Quick-friedporkwithsoypaste茄汁石斑鱼-Deepfriedgaroupawithtomatosauce41风味菜肴.风味菜主要因其味型特点而得以广泛流传,所以除原料外,应译出风味,一些有确切起源地的菜,还应该加上地名.鱼香肉丝的确切译名应为"Stir-friedporkshredsSichuanstyle"或"Stir-friedporkshredsingarlicsauce",不能译为"Fish-flavorshreddedpork",是因为"鱼香"作为川菜的一种风味,使用了固定搭配的作料,与真正的鱼没有任何关系,译为"Fish-flavor",菜中并无"Fish",给人以误导之嫌.其他风味菜还有:湘味牛肉丝-SlicedbeefHunanstyle糖醋排骨-Friedporkchopinsweet-soursauce荷叶粉蒸肉-Steamedporkcoatedgroundriceonlotusleaf51以人名、地名命名的菜肴,一般全部译出,人名前最好加上头衔或职业,对那些知之甚少或译出后外宾不能理解的,则去人名加味型.东坡肉-PoetDongpo'sbraisedpork毛氏红烧肉-ChairmanMao'sstewedporkwithsoysauce北京烤鸭-Beijingroastedduck东江酿豆腐-BeancurdstuffedwithporkminceDongjiangstyle61用象形手法或借用典故、传说命名.这是中菜命名的一个特点,它集中反映了中国饮食文化的特色,具有很深的社会内涵,也是翻译的难点,处理方法是还其本原,译出主料、作料或做法,能兼顾修辞含义时则兼顾,切不可拘泥于原名而直译.翡翠鱼翅-Double-boiledshark'sfinwithve 2getable翡翠不能食用,仅是一个代称,指绿色的蔬菜,翻译时不能按字面译为"Jadeshark'sfin",否则外宾会莫名其妙.蚂蚁上树-Sautéedbeanvermicelliwithspicymeatsauce蚂蚁在中餐中虽可以入菜,但此蚂蚁非彼蚂蚁,而是用酱油和淀粉和过的肉末.直译可能引起外宾的惊诧.桔瓣鱼汆-Quick-boiledfishballsorangepet 2alshaped这道菜是指鱼汆外形似桔瓣,其实菜中无桔瓣,也无桔味,翻译时不可将之作为原料,译名中加"orangepetalshaped",是为了增加美感,增强促销功能.叫化鸡-Bakedchickenvagabondstyle或Bakedchickenwrappedwithmud此菜相传为乞丐创制,取名时以"叫化"代"乞丐",是一种美化,翻译时,以"vagabond"代"beg2gar",也是一种美化.后一译名比较实在,但少了前者的浪漫味道.麻婆豆腐-Beancurdwithmincedporkinhotsauce这道菜在我国广为流传",麻婆"成了一个特殊的称谓,外宾没有它的文化背景,翻译时只能取味型.如将之译为"Pockmarkswoman'sbeancurd",即使外宾理解,也失去了美感.霸王别姬-Steamedturtleandchickeninwhitesauce寿比南山-Steamedchickeninpumpkin连生贵子-Lotusnutsinsyrup这些纯为吉利的象征名称,不仅不能直译,也无法直译,所以只能还原处理.如为了促销,可对这些菜附加说明.71菜名含器具的可译出器具,也可直译原料,作为一种特殊的做法,以译出器具为佳.有加工作用的器具在西餐中是不会搬上桌子的,这也是中餐的一个特点,它表现了中餐的艺术性.器具一般有火锅、锅仔、铁板、沙锅、煲等.八珍火锅-Eightdelicacieshotpot锅仔甲鱼-Braisedturtleinminipot铁板牛柳-Vealslicesfriedonironplate汆圆粉丝煲-Stewedmeatballsandbeanver 2micelliincasserole以上探讨了中菜英译的一些基本方法.由于中国菜种系繁多,原料区别大,烹饪方法各具特色,菜名千差万别,翻译时还需具体研究,否则不能把握其特点,准确翻译也就无从谈起.四、菜单的编排除命名方面的差异外,在菜的分类和编排方式上二者也不相同,这是由于用餐方式和上菜顺序不同所引起的.中餐菜单按原料分类,呈纵向序列,西餐菜单按一次食用菜的道数编排,呈平行并列.中餐菜单菜肴的排列一般是按冷菜凉碟类、肉类、鱼类、海鲜类、禽类、蔬菜类、汤类、点心水果类、主食类的顺序进行,饮料酒类单列.西餐菜单菜肴的排列则按进食顺序安排,分为开胃菜类(APPETIZERS)、汤类(SOUPS)、色拉类(SAL2ADS)、主菜类(ENTREES)(包括肉类、鱼类、海鲜
Diet idea the Europeans said that in the world has three big good food, in each edition has China and France, only then actually had different explanations about third, has said that was Italy, also had said that was countries' and so on Turkey, Tunisia or Morocco. Although reaches a stalemate, but everybody has a mutual recognition, the diet often can reflect the different nationality aspect and so on habits and customs and cultural thought differences. one time hosts the banquet in the Chinese restaurant, on the hotel vegetable very slowly, unconscious has passed for nearly two hours, but the vegetable has as if only then gotten up half. Is first time attends the Chinese meal banquet near a place woman, cannot bear asks me, your Chinese treats on these many vegetables? I said that must be many in China, usually is above 10. She is very surprised, including said that China's banquet too has been really rich, China's good food is very no wonder famous. But after a while, she also asks me, has a phenomenon to be very strange: The Chinese eats meal each time on that many vegetables, can be why long so thinly. But France enters the vegetable to be very each time few, but is why fatter than the Chinese? I am at a loss for words for a while, but thought that she asks how many truth a little, because that day shares a table several Chinese appear quite emaciated, but several French are all tall and sturdy. Thinks that spoke an own idea with her: China is a hospitable nationality, only then on a table vegetable had only then thought that has not neglected the visitor. Sometimes moreover the Chinese pays great attention the form, therefore in China's cooking, the vegetable style is ever changing, makes concrete is fastidious about the color fragrance to each vegetable matching. But European as if some, are inferior to China obviously actually in the vegetable variety change high and low free time, what but is fastidious is its nutrition matching and the protection. This is, the French diet idea important difference, how many also reflected the French chemical property standard difference. each people have the color which to color understanding oneself like, a country and the nationality are also same, likes to the different color being possible to reflect a national or the national esthetic appeal and the likes and dislikes tendency overall. has one time bumps into an EU commission's pair of professor husbands and wives, mentions China national dress which in the Shanghai APEC conference various countries' leader puts on, they said are attractive, but has a point to be not too clear, why do the Asian leaders mostly put on red, but the Western leader has chosen the blue color. I said that the color is leader designates. The Asian country has the same cultural context probably, red in the Chinese culture, is also possibly representing lucky, the wealth in the entire Asian culture and propitious pleasant, therefore the Asian leaders as if by prior agreement have chosen red. I ask in reply them, what does the blue color represent in the Western culture? They said the westerner to believe that the blue color represents is calm and is calm. thinks that I also said the East and West cultural difference was really too big, for example the dragon in China was nationality's symbol, but had one in Belgium's Mongolian Si Shize to hit the dragon festival, the dragon is regarded as the devil, has been massacred by fable in protection sacred · Michelle, therefore did specially hits the dragon festival to congratulate that eliminated the disaster shortcoming to thank Michelle. Professor husbands and wives also approves the East and West cultural difference hugeness, and approves the culture to need to exchange. in thinking mode West's cultural difference also displays in many aspects, but simple summarizes is not actually complex: Reflected that to the thinking mode in is abstract and the embodiment difference, reflected that to the life manner in as if may understand is more practical for the westerner, but Chinese how many stresses some mental feeling. For instance compares French word and Chinese writing, this point is very obvious. The Chinese writing makes the word to pay great attention the image much, what but in the French more pays great attention to consider is the use value. Looks like in Chinese the name card, in the French translates literally is the card which the visit uses, but the aircraft carrier calls in the French to carry airplane's warship and so on, is embarks from the actual uses makes the word. But presses the glass plate which likely the picture uses, we are also the words which makes from its use value angle, but the French has been more direct-viewing, the literal translation is “places above the picture”. reflects to the drawing in is so. Everybody knew that the traditional Chinese painting greatly opens big he, splashes ink enjoyably the human body proportion which and optics principle is fastidious with the European oil painting and so on completely belongs to the technical category which two have nothing to do with one another, is as if very difficult to have the common language. Sometimes the European not too can understand that sometimes we too abstract art expression means that we also will think European's artistic skill too practical duty, deficient divine and wonderful spirit. Looked that sometimes in many European drawing history has been presented for the classics religious theme painting, the Chinese while sighs its technique practical exquisite, also will sigh with emotion European master the imagination the deficiency: In order to explain that the angel is flying, must give these lovable young and clevers to add on a pair of wing. But our ancestor has not also drawn several thousand years, how many white clouds adds on nearby these beautiful female celestial, they have not flown? Has the ideal condition, has the imagination space. this is the cultural difference. But, the difference brings not always the difference, it gave culture masters of art to leave behind the broad creation space exactly, if could find an accurate combining site, not only that will give two nationalities, will also give the entire world to bring one kind to have forgives the significance the harmony and beautiful, for instance Zhao Wuji's painting manifested the inexhaustible charm which the culture blended 饮食观念 欧洲人都说世界上有三大美食，每一个版本里都有中国和法国的，只有关于第三家却说法不一，有说是意大利的，也有说是土耳其、突尼斯或摩洛哥等国的。尽管相持不下，但大家都有个共识，饮食常能反映出不同民族的生活习惯和文化思维等方面的差异。 一次在中餐馆举行宴会，饭店菜上得很慢，不知不觉中过去了近两个小时，但菜似乎才上了一半。临座的一位女士是第一次参加中餐宴会，忍不住问我，你们中国人请客都上这么多菜吗？我说，在中国还要多，通常是10道以上。她很惊讶，连说中国的宴会实在太丰富了，难怪中国的美食很有名。但过了一会儿，她又问我，有个现象很奇怪：中国人吃饭每次都上那么多菜，可为什么都长得那么瘦。而法国入每次菜很少，但为什么都比中国人胖呢？ 我一时语塞，但又觉得她问得多少有点道理，因为那天同桌的几个中国人都显得比较瘦弱，而几个法国人个个人高马大。想了想，和她讲了自己的一点想法：中国是个好客的民族，只有上了一桌子菜才觉得没怠慢客人。另外中国人有时候更注重形式，所以在中国的烹调里，菜的样式千变万化，具体到每一道菜又非常讲究色香味的搭配。而欧洲人似乎更实际一些，在菜的花色变化上下的工夫显然不如中国，但讲究的是其营养的搭配和保护。这是中、法饮食观念的重要差异，多少也反映出了中法文化性格的不同。 对色彩的认识 每个人都有自己喜欢的颜色，一个国家和民族也一样，对不同颜色的喜好从整体上可以反映出一个民族或者国家的审美情趣与好恶倾向。 有一次碰到欧盟委员会的一对教授夫妇，谈起上海APEC会议上各国领导人穿的中国民族服装，他们都说非常好看，但有一点不太明白，为什么亚洲领导人大多穿红色，而西方领导人则多选择了蓝色。我说颜色都是领导人自己选定的。大概亚洲国家有着相同的文化背景，红色在中国文化里，也可能在整个亚洲文化中都代表着幸运、财富和吉祥如意，所以亚洲领导人都不约而同地选择了红色。我反问他们，蓝色在西方文化里代表什么?他们说西方人认为，蓝色代表冷静和沉着。 想了想，我又补充说东西方文化差异实在是太大了，比如说龙在中国是民族的象征，而在比利时的蒙斯市则有一个打龙节，龙被视作恶魔，被传说中的保护神圣·米歇尔杀掉了，因此特意搞打龙节来庆贺除灾弊感谢米歇尔。教授夫妇也非常认同东西方文化差异的巨大，并认可文化需要交流。 思维方式 中西方的文化差异还表现在诸多方面，但简单加以概括其实并不复杂：反映到思维方式上是抽象和具象的差别，反映到生活态度上则似乎可以理解为西方人更加实用，而中国人则多少更偏重一些精神感受。比如把法语单词和中文文字加以比较，这一点就很明显。中国文字造词多注重形象，而法文里更多地注重考虑的是实用价值。像中文里的名片，法文里直译就是访问用的卡片，而航空母舰在法文里叫载飞机的军舰等等，都是从实际用途出发来造词的。而像压照片用的玻璃板，我们也是从其使用价值角度来造的词，但法国人就更加直观了，直译就是“放在照片上面的”。 反映到绘画上更是如此。大家都知道中国画的大开大阖、泼墨写意和欧洲油画讲究的人体比例和光学原理等完全是属于两个风马牛不相及的技术范畴，似乎很难有共同语言。欧洲人有时不太能够理解我们过于抽象的艺术表现手法，我们有时也会认为欧洲人的艺术技巧过于写实本分，缺乏灵气。看多了欧洲绘画史上被奉为经典的宗教题材画作，中国人有时在感叹其技法写实细腻的同时，也会感慨欧洲大师们想象力的贫乏：为了说明天使在飞，就非得给那些可爱的小精灵们加上一双翅膀。而我们的祖先不也画了几千年了吗，在那些美丽的仙女旁边加上几朵白云，她们不就飞起来了吗?多有意境，多有想象空间啊。 这就是文化的差异。但是，差异带来的并不总是分歧，它恰恰给文化艺术大师们留下了广阔的创作空间，如能从中找到一个准确的结合点，那不仅会给两个民族，而且也会给整个世界带来一种更具包涵意义的和谐与美丽，比如赵无极的画作就体现出了文化交融的无尽魅力。
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从特质看，中国饮食文化突出养助益充的营卫论（素食为主，重视药膳和进补），并且讲究“色、香、味”俱全。五味调和的境界说（风味鲜明，适口者珍，有“舌头菜”之誉），奇正互变的烹调法（厨规为本，灵活变通），畅神怡情的美食观（文质彬彬，寓教于食）等4大属性，有着不同于海外各国饮食文化的天生丽质。中国的饮食文化除了讲究菜肴的色彩搭配要明媚如画外，还要搭配用餐的氛围产生的一种情趣，它是中华民族的个性与传统，更是中华民族传统礼仪的凸现方式。从影响看，中国饮食文化直接影响到日本、蒙古、朝鲜、韩国、泰国、新加坡等国家，是东方饮食文化圈的轴心；与此同时，它还间接影响到欧洲、美洲、非洲和大洋洲，像中国的素食文化、茶文化、酱醋、面食、药膳、陶瓷餐具和大豆等，都惠及全世界数十亿人。
写作思路：可以从中国的历史上的饮食文化进行追溯描述，从古至今的饮食的传承与发展等等，比如“以和为美”与中国食文化，“意境美与中国食文化”等等。
正文：
食文化历史非常悠久，可追溯到新石器时代，就其内容来说非常广泛，包括烹饪基础理论、烹饪技法、食料食器、餐宴风俗、名厨名菜名楼以及“食文学”等。
中国食文化与中国传统美学的关系渊源流长，传统审美思想渗透到食文化的整个领域。因为中国饮食早已超越了维持生存的作用，不仅是为获得肉体存在的需要，而且是为了满足人们的精神快感的需求，它如同绘画、音乐一样有着丰富多样的形式，以及深厚的审美意境和优雅的和谐美。从古到今，许多文人墨客通过撰文诵咏美食。
陆游的《鹧鸪天》、苏轼的《老饕赋》、《猪肉颂》、《黄洲食诗帖》等。名画《朝熙载夜宴图》描写了当时唐代餐宴的盛景。画像砖《进食图》生动地描写了店小二送食的情景。这些是中华食文化艺术表现形式的典范。
“美”在中国传统艺术语言中得到了广泛的应用，“美”字的形成与食文化也有内在联系。古人认为，好吃就为美。后汉许慎的《说文解字》，对于“美”字采用了“羊大为美”的说法。“美，甘也，从羊从大，羊在六畜，主给膳也”“甘，美也，从口含一”。字的构成上“美”字也是“大”字与“羊”字的结合体。
从类审美意识的历史发展来看，人类对于美的感受是与味、声、色所引起的感官上的快感分不开的，其表现形式是直觉化的，二者都是属于自然感受的愉悦。美食所带来的味觉的快感中已蕴含了美感萌芽。羊作为六畜之一，主要是使用，也是美味的象征。
“羊大为美”体现了中华民族对于美的最原始的理解。中国也有许多文学艺术作品将味觉与艺术鉴赏联系在一起。如欧阳修：“近诗万古硬，咀嚼苦难嘬，又是如食橄榄，真味久愈在”（《六一诗话》），苏轼：“成酸杂众好，中有至味永”（《送参寥师》）。人们也常用“余香满口”形容优美的诗句，用“秀色可餐”来形容姑娘的美貌等等。
和谐观作为中国传统辩证的思维方式，是中华民族的传统审美根基。古人云“天地之道而美于和”，“天地之美，莫大于和”。“和”字从“禾”从“口”，“以和为美”的传统审美观念同样对中国食文化有着深远的影响，中国传统烹饪处处力求达到和谐的境地。
《周礼》中所说的“割烹煎和”，为“和”是贯穿烹饪全部过程的`。西周史伯提出了“五味以调口”，他认为“故先王以土与金木火杂，以成百物，是以和五味调口……声一无听，物一无闻，味一无味，物一不讲”（《国语·郑语》），史伯认为单一口味的菜肴算不上美味，只有各种味道和才是美味。春秋时齐国的晏婴也提出“和如美羹”，用美羹来说明君臣和谐的道理。
其实，以和为美不但要求是味觉感官上的和谐而且也是与身体健康相统一。早在先秦时期，中国人就已认识到摄取食物时偏好某一种味道或摄食过多均会引起疾病。《周礼·天官》就讲到，应该根据季节变化调节食物口味：“春多酸，夏多苦，秋多辛，冬多咸，调以滑甘。”只有每天摄入的食物与自然气候相调和，才能有健康的身体。
古人云：美食不如美器。菜肴与食器搭配生动地体现了“以和为美”审美的观念。清代著名诗人袁枚，是广集众美的烹调爱好者。纵观古今美食与美器搭配关系的一个精练总结。首先，人们很注重菜肴与食器在色彩上的对比统一的关系，没有对比会使人感到单调，对比过分强烈也会使人感到不和谐。
如将嫩黄色的蛋羹盛在绿色的莲瓣碗中，色彩格外清丽，产生了清爽悦目的艺术效果。还有，在纹饰上食的料形与器的图案也要求相得益彰。根据菜肴掌故选用图案与其内容相称的器皿，如中国名菜“贵妃鸡”盛在饰有仙女拂袖而舞图案的莲花碗中，会使人很自然地联想到善舞的杨贵妃酒醉百花亭的故事。
次之，菜肴与器皿在形态上体现了和谐的追求。如人们把八珍汤盛在水晶碗里，汤色莹澈见底，透过碗腹，各色八珍清晰可辨，使其增色不少。
中国菜很注重调味适度，宴席也讲究不同口味，不同菜肴与食器之间的相互搭配，有浓有淡，有甜有咸，色泽上对比变化，不但品种要多样，食器的造型和色彩也丰富多彩。这样，佳肴耀目，美器生辉，蔚为壮观的席面美景便会呈现在眼前，才能称之为美食。
意境美是中华民族在长期艺术实践中形成的一种审美思想境界。中国食文化同样具有蕴藉隽永，余味无穷的意境美。孔子说“食不厌精，脍不厌细”，中国菜讲究色、香、味俱全。人们同样重视菜的视觉形象所带来的优美意境，来满足精神上的快感和对现实生活的体味和享受。
许多菜不但味美，而且通过精美的造型和色彩创造意境，构成一种内在的含蓄的美感。比如《辋川图》是唐代诗人和画家王维的作品，被当时的美食家吸收做成了《辋川图》小样的拼盘。再如，在民间，各种岁时节令，婚丧嫁娶，生辰寿延等人们会做面塑礼花蒸制、供奉、食用，如过年的“如意年糕”，婚礼上的“鸳鸯饼”等等，用来祈求幸福，平安。
民间艺人们用大红、大绿等高纯度色彩，自然随意地涂出欢快、热烈的气氛。不但用笔泼辣帅气，无拘无束，同时造型生动，圆实朴厚。表现了劳动人民自然质朴的审美意境。中华美食不但注重口，而且构思立意独特，意味深长，注重所带来的意境。现代许多高档餐厅的菜名多以写意手法命名，用字典雅瑰丽，含意隽永深远，充满了诗情画意。如把白菇摆在青菜上叫“金钱满地”。
中国食文化历史悠远，名声远扬。中国食文化作为中华文明中一颗璀璨明珠，在世界上影响深远，让许多外国友人叹为观止。《易经·系辞上》讲道：“形而上者谓之道，形而下者谓之器，”从中国饮食这一有形的物，正反映出来了中华民族的审美格局，体现了华夏民族的文明形态，这一无形的道。
饮食文化论文人生在世，吃穿二事，很早我们就知道了这句话。人虽然作为高级动物，但仍需要与普通动物一样：“吃”。所以，零零总总令人眼花缭乱的各类美食也孕育而生，从古至今，长盛不衰。饮食行业也成为三百六十行常展长新的行当，而饮食业也形成了自己的独特的文化，说的更直接些就是一种“吃”的文化。 中国有着5000年的悠久历史，中国有着灿烂丰富、博大精深的饮食文化；中国人注重“天人合一”，中餐以食表意、以物传情的特点。所以也就使得中国传统的饮食美食都“食出有门”如中华饮食文化理论奠基人??孔子的《论语》中就有关于饮食“二不厌、三适度、十不食”的论述。直至两千年后的今日，仍具有极高的理论指导性。中华茶道始主??陆羽认为茶道在中华饮食文化中的地位几乎与酒等量齐观，他曾遍访名茶产区荐评品第，又精研泉水，次第品级。中华食文化之圣??袁枚其《随园食单》经历五十年才写成，成为中华饮食史上光前裕后之作，也有中华饮食文化“食经”的美誉。还有以味道治国的大臣??伊尹将饮食的“色、香、味、形”与治国相融合，所以就有了 “治国若烹小鲜”之说。 由此，这就形成了我们传统的饮食有“四重”的特点： 1、重食：古人就有：“民以食为天”之说，见面常问“吃过没有？”足见饮食文化的地位。 2、重养：以“五谷”养“六脏”，饮食中重视人体养生保健。 3、重味：中华饮食最注意食物的味，讲究“色、香、味、型”。各种味道差异构成各种菜系的基础。 4、重理：注意各种食物的搭配，以相生相克、相辅相成等阴阳调和之理性认识指导烹饪。 正是由于中华饮食讲究料、作、食等等的精细，内容丰富且博大精深，民族特色鲜明，既兼容又特别，从古到今，历代相传又推陈出新。 不同的饮食习惯造就了不同的饮食文化。中国人大而全的一贯作风，吃饭时自然是七大盘、八大碗，一是显示了富足，二是摆足了排场；近而各地比吃、全国争雄，最终形成了八大菜系，也就是吃方面八个不同的“高手”；说得虽有些低俗，但还是很能传情达意的。 因此，中华饮食文化就其深层内涵，可以简单概括成八个字：精致、悦目、坠情、礼数。这八个字，反映了饮食活动过程中饮食品质、审美体验、情感活动、社会功能等所包含的独特文化意蕴，也反映了饮食文化与中华优秀传统文化的密切联系。 精致；我们在得意时都喜欢在酒馆、餐厅里点几个精致小菜，或自己做几个精致小菜来犒赏自己与亲戚友人，而这时就需要吃出一种气氛、品位甚至是文化来。饮食既然作为一种文化，一种“吃”的文化，精品意识作为一种文化精神，却越来越广泛、越来越深入地渗透、贯彻到整个饮食活动过程中。选料、烹调、配伍乃至饮食环境，都体现着 “精致”。尤其是现在非常注重个人身体保健的现代社会，更是要求我们的饮食向精致化发展，使饮食中融入文化，透出文化，从而“吃”出文化来，避免和摒弃那种“过之屠门而大嚼”不雅行为和有损健康的不良习惯。 悦目；这是将“吃”的文化与内涵进行升华的高级阶段，体现了饮食文化的审美特征。中华饮食之所以能够征服世界，重要原因之一，就在于它美，它令食者有“三月不知肉味”的同时，更令人拍案叫绝和赏心悦目。这种悦目，是指中国饮食活动形式与内容的完美统一，是指它给人们所带来的审美愉悦和精神享受，首先是味道美。孙中山先生讲“辨味不精，则烹调之术不妙”，将对“味”的审美视作烹调的第一要义。 令人悦目的美味佳肴作为饮食文化的一个基本内涵，它是中华饮食的魅力之所在，悦目贯穿在饮食活动过程的每一个环节中。 坠情；这是对中华饮食文化社会心理功能的概括。因为菜系和饮食中蕴藏着各种感情在其中。做的人付出心血和真情用心去做，而吃者更是品味到自己喜欢的饮食则抱着的是一种感激与赞赏。吃吃喝喝，不能简单视之，它实际上是人与人之间情感交流的媒介，是一种别开生面的社交活动。一边吃饭，一边聊天，可以做生意、交流信息、采访。朋友离合，送往迎来，人们都习惯于在饭桌上表达惜别或欢迎的心情，感情上的风波，人们也往往借酒菜平息。这是饮食活动对于社会心理的调节功能。过去的茶馆，大家坐下来喝茶、听书、摆龙门阵或者发泄对朝廷的不满，实在是一种极好的心理按摩。 中华饮食之所以具有“抒情”功能，是因为“饮德食和、万邦同乐”的哲学思想和由此而出现的具有民族特点的饮食方式。对于饮食活动中的情感文化，有个引导和提升品位的问题。我们要提倡健康优美、奋发向上的文化情调，追求一种高尚的情操。 礼数；是指饮食活动的礼仪性。中国是礼仪之邦，而这种礼仪与礼数也渗透到了饮食当中。而饮食讲究“礼数”，这与我们的传统文化有很大关系。生老病死、送往迎来、祭神敬祖都是礼。《礼记?礼运》中说：“夫礼之初，始诸饮食。“礼数”中也讲究着一种秩序和规范，比如在重要场合坐席的方向、箸匙的排列、上菜的次序、有些菜的象征、来历等等都体现着“礼数”。 我们谈“礼数”，更应把它理解成一种精神，一种内在的伦理精神，这种精神，贯穿在饮食活动过程中，从而构成中国饮食文明的逻辑起点。 饮食中的精致、悦目、坠情、礼数分别从不同的角度概括了中华饮食文化的基本内涵，换言之，这四个方面有机地构成了中华饮食文化这个整体概念。但是，它们不是孤立地存在，而是相互依存、互为因果的，四者环环相生、完美统一，便形成中华饮食文化的最高境界。而中华饮食也是中华民族从古至今用嘴“吃”出来了一种文化，一种浓厚的中华饮食文化，这种文化已经得以前仆后继的不断弘扬，已经影响到了我们自己和身边，影响到了全世界的饮食行业。
饮食文化论文人生在世，吃穿二事，很早我们就知道了这句话。人虽然作为高级动物，但仍需要与普通动物一样：“吃”。所以，零零总总令人眼花缭乱的各类美食也孕育而生，从古至今，长盛不衰。饮食行业也成为三百六十行常展长新的行当，而饮食业也形成了自己的独特的文化，说的更直接些就是一种“吃”的文化。中国有着5000年的悠久历史，中国有着灿烂丰富、博大精深的饮食文化；中国人注重“天人合一”，中餐以食表意、以物传情的特点。所以也就使得中国传统的饮食美食都“食出有门”如中华饮食文化理论奠基人??孔子的《论语》中就有关于饮食“二不厌、三适度、十不食”的论述。直至两千年后的今日，仍具有极高的理论指导性。中华茶道始主??陆羽认为茶道在中华饮食文化中的地位几乎与酒等量齐观，他曾遍访名茶产区荐评品第，又精研泉水，次第品级。中华食文化之圣??袁枚其《随园食单》经历五十年才写成，成为中华饮食史上光前裕后之作，也有中华饮食文化“食经”的美誉。还有以味道治国的大臣??伊尹将饮食的“色、香、味、形”与治国相融合，所以就有了 “治国若烹小鲜”之说。由此，这就形成了我们传统的饮食有“四重”的特点：1、重食：古人就有：“民以食为天”之说，见面常问“吃过没有？”足见饮食文化的地位。2、重养：以“五谷”养“六脏”，饮食中重视人体养生保健。3、重味：中华饮食最注意食物的味，讲究“色、香、味、型”。各种味道差异构成各种菜系的基础。4、重理：注意各种食物的搭配，以相生相克、相辅相成等阴阳调和之理性认识指导烹饪。正是由于中华饮食讲究料、作、食等等的精细，内容丰富且博大精深，民族特色鲜明，既兼容又特别，从古到今，历代相传又推陈出新。不同的饮食习惯造就了不同的饮食文化。中国人大而全的一贯作风，吃饭时自然是七大盘、八大碗，一是显示了富足，二是摆足了排场；近而各地比吃、全国争雄，最终形成了八大菜系，也就是吃方面八个不同的“高手”；说得虽有些低俗，但还是很能传情达意的。因此，中华饮食文化就其深层内涵，可以简单概括成八个字：精致、悦目、坠情、礼数。这八个字，反映了饮食活动过程中饮食品质、审美体验、情感活动、社会功能等所包含的独特文化意蕴，也反映了饮食文化与中华优秀传统文化的密切联系。精致；我们在得意时都喜欢在酒馆、餐厅里点几个精致小菜，或自己做几个精致小菜来犒赏自己与亲戚友人，而这时就需要吃出一种气氛、品位甚至是文化来。饮食既然作为一种文化，一种“吃”的文化，精品意识作为一种文化精神，却越来越广泛、越来越深入地渗透、贯彻到整个饮食活动过程中。选料、烹调、配伍乃至饮食环境，都体现着 “精致”。尤其是现在非常注重个人身体保健的现代社会，更是要求我们的饮食向精致化发展，使饮食中融入文化，透出文化，从而“吃”出文化来，避免和摒弃那种“过之屠门而大嚼”不雅行为和有损健康的不良习惯。悦目；这是将“吃”的文化与内涵进行升华的高级阶段，体现了饮食文化的审美特征。中华饮食之所以能够征服世界，重要原因之一，就在于它美，它令食者有“三月不知肉味”的同时，更令人拍案叫绝和赏心悦目。这种悦目，是指中国饮食活动形式与内容的完美统一，是指它给人们所带来的审美愉悦和精神享受，首先是味道美。孙中山先生讲“辨味不精，则烹调之术不妙”，将对“味”的审美视作烹调的第一要义。令人悦目的美味佳肴作为饮食文化的一个基本内涵，它是中华饮食的魅力之所在，悦目贯穿在饮食活动过程的每一个环节中。坠情；这是对中华饮食文化社会心理功能的概括。因为菜系和饮食中蕴藏着各种感情在其中。做的人付出心血和真情用心去做，而吃者更是品味到自己喜欢的饮食则抱着的是一种感激与赞赏。吃吃喝喝，不能简单视之，它实际上是人与人之间情感交流的媒介，是一种别开生面的社交活动。一边吃饭，一边聊天，可以做生意、交流信息、采访。朋友离合，送往迎来，人们都习惯于在饭桌上表达惜别或欢迎的心情，感情上的风波，人们也往往借酒菜平息。这是饮食活动对于社会心理的调节功能。过去的茶馆，大家坐下来喝茶、听书、摆龙门阵或者发泄对朝廷的不满，实在是一种极好的心理按摩。中华饮食之所以具有“抒情”功能，是因为“饮德食和、万邦同乐”的哲学思想和由此而出现的具有民族特点的饮食方式。对于饮食活动中的情感文化，有个引导和提升品位的问题。我们要提倡健康优美、奋发向上的文化情调，追求一种高尚的情操。礼数；是指饮食活动的礼仪性。中国是礼仪之邦，而这种礼仪与礼数也渗透到了饮食当中。而饮食讲究“礼数”，这与我们的传统文化有很大关系。生老病死、送往迎来、祭神敬祖都是礼。《礼记?礼运》中说：“夫礼之初，始诸饮食。“礼数”中也讲究着一种秩序和规范，比如在重要场合坐席的方向、箸匙的排列、上菜的次序、有些菜的象征、来历等等都体现着“礼数”。我们谈“礼数”，更应把它理解成一种精神，一种内在的伦理精神，这种精神，贯穿在饮食活动过程中，从而构成中国饮食文明的逻辑起点。饮食中的精致、悦目、坠情、礼数分别从不同的角度概括了中华饮食文化的基本内涵，换言之，这四个方面有机地构成了中华饮食文化这个整体概念。但是，它们不是孤立地存在，而是相互依存、互为因果的，四者环环相生、完美统一，便形成中华饮食文化的最高境界。而中华饮食也是中华民族从古至今用嘴“吃”出来了一种文化，一种浓厚的中华饮食文化，这种文化已经得以前仆后继的不断弘扬，已经影响到了我们自己和身边，影响到了全世界的饮食行业。
only found one. hope that works~American table manners[edit] Table Layout * Bread plates are to the left of the main plate, beverage glasses are to the right. * Salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon. Dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.[edit] General Behavior * Chew with your mouth closed. * Do not talk at an excessively loud volume. * Refrain from coughing, sneezing or blowing nose at the table. * Never tilt back your chair while at the table, or at any other time. * Do not make unbecoming noises while eating. * Do not play with food or table utensils. * Do not single out or chastise someone who has shown poor table manners. * Do not put your elbows on the table or slouch. * Always ask the host or hostess to be excused before leaving the table. * Do not stare at anyone while he or she is eating. * Never talk on your phone at the table. If urgent, ask host or hostess to be excused, and go outside. Apologize when returned.[edit] Utensils * Do not eat food with your fingers unless you are eating foods customarily eaten with fingers, such as bread, french fries, chicken wings, pizza, etc. * The fork may be used either in the American (use the fork in your left hand while cutting; switch to right hand to pick up and eat a piece) or the Continental (fork remains in the left hand) fashion -- either is now acceptable. (See Fork etiquette) * The fork is used to convey any solid food to the mouth. * The knife blade should be placed on the edge of your plate when not in use. The blade should always face inward. * When you have finished eating soup, the spoon should be placed to the side of the saucer, not left in the bowl. * Keep your napkin on your lap. At more formal occasions all diners will wait to place their napkins on their laps until the host or hostess places his or her napkin on his or her lap * When eating barbecue or some other messy foods such as cracked crab, a 'bib' napkin may be provided for and used by adults. Usually these foods are also eaten by hand, and wet wipes or paper napkins should be used to clean the hands. * When using paper napkins, never ball them up or allow stains to show. * Use your silverware from the outside moving inward toward the main plate. (Salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon. Dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.)[edit] Dining * A prayer or 'blessing' may be customary in some families, and the guests should join in even if they are not religious or do not follow the same religion. Most prayers are made by the host before the meal is eaten. Instead or in addition, a 'toast' may be offered [1]. * Do not start eating until (a) every person is served or (b) those who have not been served request that you begin without waiting. At more formal occasions all diners will wait to begin until the hostess or host lifts a fork or spoon. * When a dish is presented 'family style', the food is served to one's plate and then passed on to the next person. put the food on your left, take some and pass to the person next to you. * When serving, serve from the left and pick up the dish from the right. Beverages are both served and removed from the right. * Eat soup noiselessly and with the side of the spoon. * Tea or coffee should never be poured into the saucer to cool but should be sipped from the cup. Alternatively, ice may be used to cool either. * Seasoning ones meal prior to tasting can be considered rude and may insult the chef.[edit] At the end of the meal * It is acceptable in most places to not finish all of the food on your plate. * When finished with your meal, place your knife and fork with handles at the 4 o'clock position and the tines of the fork down to signal to the server you are done. * Except in a public restaurant, do not ask to take some of your uneaten food away from the meal after it ends, especially when having a formal dinner.[edit] British table manners * The fork is held in your left hand and the knife is held in your right. * You should hold your knife with the handle in your palm and your fork in the other hand with the prongs pointing downwards. * If you’re eating a dessert, your fork (if you have one) should be held in the left hand and the spoon in the right. * When eating soup, you should hold your spoon in your right hand and tip the bowl away from you, scooping the soup in movements away from yourself. * It is not acceptable to use your fingers at the table to eat or push food onto your fork. You may, however, eat some foods such as fruit, sandwiches, hamburgers, crisps, chips or pizza with your fingers. * If there are a number of knives or forks, then you should start from the outside set working your way in as each course is served. * Drinks should always be to the right of your plate with the bread roll to the left. * When eating bread rolls, break off a piece before buttering. Use your knife only to butter the bread, not to cut it. * You should not start eating before your host does or instructs you to do so. At larger meals, it is considered okay to start eating once others have been served. * When you’re finished, place your knife and fork together at five o’clock with your fork on the left (tines facing up) and knife on the right, with the knife blade facing in. This signals that you are finished. * Your napkin should never be screwed up. Nor should it be folded neatly as that would suggest that your host might plan to use it again without washing it - just leave is neatly but loosely. * Never blow your nose on your napkin. Place it on your lap and use it to dab your mouth if you make a mess. * It is considered rude to answer the telephone at the table. If you need to take an urgent call, excuse yourself and go outside. * Always ask for permission from the host and excuse yourself if you need to leave the table. You should place your napkin on your seat until you return. * If you must leave the table or are resting, your fork should be at eight o’clock and your knife at four o’clock (with the blade inwards). Once an item of cutlery has been used, it should not touch the table again. * The food should be brought to your mouth on the fork; you should sit straight and not lean towards your plate. * Dishes should be served from the right, and taken away from the right. Unless the food is placed on your plate at the table, then it should arrive from the left. * Drinks should be served from the right. * Never lean across somebody else’s plate. If you need something to be passed, ask the person closest to it. If you have to pass something, only pass it if you are closest to it and pass it directly to them if you can. * Salt & pepper should be passed together. * Do not take food from a neighbour’s plate and don’t ask to do so. * You must not put your elbows on the table. * If pouring a drink for yourself, offer to pour a drink for your neighbours before serving yourself. * If extra food is on the table, ask others first if they would like it before taking it yourself. * When chewing food, close your mouth and only talk when you have swallowed it. * Swallow all food before eating more or having a drink. * Do not slurp your food or eat loudly. Burping or sneezing at the table should be avoided, too. * Never pick food out of your teeth with your fingernails. * Try to eat all the food you are served. * Glasses served in a wine glass or other stemmed-glass should be held at the stem. * Always remember “regular” manners. Remember to say "please" and "thank you".[edit] Chinese table mannersThese are mostly concerned with the use of chopsticks. Otherwise generally Chinese table manners are rather more informal, what would be considered rude in other cultures such as talking with the mouth full may be acceptable but better not to do so. * Chopsticks must always be held in the correct manner. It should be held between the thumb and fingers of the right hand, * Chopsticks are traditionally held in the right hand only, even by the left-handed. Although chopsticks may now be found in either hand, a few still consider left-handed chopstick use improper etiquette. One explanation for the treatment of such usage as improper is that this can symbolise argument, as the chopsticks may collide between the left-handed and right-handed user. * When communal chopsticks are supplied with shared plates of food, it is considered impolite to use your own chopsticks to pick up the food from the shared plate or eat using the communal chopsticks. An exception to this rule is made in intimate family dinners where family members may not mind the use of one's own chopsticks to transfer food. * It is considered impolite to use the blunt end of the chopsticks to transfer food from a common dish to your own plate or bowl. Use the communal chopsticks instead. * Never wave your chopsticks around as if they were an extension of your hand gestures, bang them like drumsticks, or use them to move bowls or plates. * Decide what to pick up before reaching with chopsticks. Do not hover around or poke looking for special ingredients. After you have picked up an item, do not put it back in the dish. * When picking up a piece of food, never use the tips of your chopsticks to poke through the food as if you were using a fork. Exceptions include tearing larger items apart such as vegetables. In informal use, small, difficult to pick-up items such as cherry tomatoes or fishballs may be stabbed but this use is frowned upon by traditionalists. * Chopsticks can be rested horizontally on one's plate or bowl to keep them off the table entirely. A chopstick rest can also be used to keep the points off the table. * Never stab chopsticks into a bowl of rice, leaving them standing upwards. Any stick-like object facing upward resembles the incense sticks that some Asians use as offerings to deceased family members. This is considered the ultimate faux pas on the dining table. * Chinese traditionally eat rice from a small bowl held in the left hand. The rice bowl is raised to the mouth and the rice pushed into the mouth using the chopsticks. Some Chinese find it offensive to scoop rice from the bowl using a spoon. If rice is served on a plate, as is more common in the West, it is acceptable and more practical to eat it with a fork or spoon. The thumb must always be above the edge of the bowl. * It is acceptable to transfer food to people who have a close relation with you (. parents, grandparents, children or significant others) if you notice they are having difficulty picking up the food. Also it is a sign of respect to pass food to the elderly first before the dinner starts (part of the Confucian tradition of respecting seniors). * Traditionally, it is polite for the youngest members of the table to address each and everyone of the elderly members of the table before a meal starts and literally tell them to "eat rice", which means "go ahead and start the meal", to show respect. * The host should always make sure the guests drinks are sufficiently full. One should not pour for ones self, but should (if thirsty) offer to pour for a neighbor. When your drink is being poured, you should say "thank you" and/or tap your fingers on the table to show appreciation. * When people wish to clink drinks together in the form of a cheer, it is important to observe that younger members should clink the edge of their drink below the edge of an elder to show respect. * When eating food that contains bones, it is customary that the bones be spit out onto the table to the right of the dining plate in a neat pile.
油炸法国人（薯条）
饮食文化传统的英国人非常重视餐桌上的礼仪 懂得这些得人被视为有教养的人 细节很多 在这里就简略的解释一下 剩下的需要在实践中体会与英国人交流中学习刀叉的摆置用餐中为八字形，如果在用餐中途暂时休息片刻，可将刀叉分放盘中，刀头与叉尖相对成“一”字形或“八”字形，刀叉朝向自己，表示还是继续吃。如果是谈话，可以拿着刀叉，无须放下，但若需要作手势时，就应放下刀叉，千万不可手执刀叉在空中挥舞摇晃。应当注意，不管任何时候，都不可将刀叉的一端放在盘上，另一端放在桌上。刀与叉除了将料理切开送入口中之外，还有另一项非常重要的功用：刀叉的摆置方式传达出“用餐中”或是“结束用餐”之讯息。而服务生是根据这种信息判断客人的用餐情形，以及是否收拾餐具准备接下来的服务，所以希望能够记住正确的餐具摆置方式。特别要注意的是刀刃侧必须面向自己。用餐结束后，可将叉子的下面向上，刀子的刀刃侧向内与叉子并拢，平行放置于餐盘上。接下来的摆置方式又分为英国式与法国式，不论哪种方式都可以，但最常用的是法国式：尽量将柄放入餐盘内，这样可以避免因碰触而掉落，服务生也较容易收拾。出席结婚餐宴时，不论怎么将餐具摆成“用餐中”的位置，只要主要宾客用餐结束，就应立即把所有的料理收起。所以宴会时，切记皆以主要宾客为中心进行。在宴会中，每吃一道菜用一副刀叉，对摆在面前的刀叉，是从外侧依次向内取用，因为刀叉摆放的顺序正是每道菜上桌的顺序。刀叉用完了，上菜也结束了。中途需要谈话或休息时，应该将刀叉呈八字形平架在盘子两边；反之，刀叉柄朝向自己并列放在盘子里，则表示这一道菜已经用好了，服务员就会把盘子撤去。前菜或是甜点等，如果是可以直接用叉子叉起食用的料理，没有必要刻意地一定使用刀子。在家庭内的餐会或是与朋友之间的轻松聚餐，像沙拉或是蛋包饭之类较软的料理，也可以只使用叉子进餐。但是在正式的宴席上使用刀叉，能给人较为优雅利落的感觉。另外，在欧洲等地，常可看见有人右手拿叉子，左手则拿着面包用餐。不管吃得怎么利落优雅，这样用餐也只能在家庭或大众化的店中，而在高级餐厅内是绝对行不通的。没用过的刀子，就原样放在桌上即可，服务生会自动将它收走。刀叉的拿法两只一组使用刀、叉为正式的用法，右手拿刀，左手拿叉，刀用来切割食物，叉用于送食物入口。应该注意的是，叉子和勺子可入口，但刀子不能放入口中，不管它上面是否有食物。叉子的拿法是将食指伸直按住叉子的背部。刀子除了与叉子同样拿法外，还可以用拇指与食指紧紧夹住刀柄与刀刃的接合处。可依料理选择较容易进餐的方法。用拇指抵住侧边，再将食指伸直，分别按住刀叉的背部，用力夹紧。这是吃肉类料理或较硬的料理时所使用的方式。以拇指与食指捏住刀柄与刀刃的接合处，其他的手指再轻轻地扣住刀柄，叉子的拿法则与上述相同。这是吃鱼类料理或是较软的料理时所使用的方式。如果以全部手指握住的话，会破坏整体平衡，利用拇指与食指握住才是拿刀叉的要诀。调味料用汤匙是法国料理中较独特的餐具。虽然以前就已经存在，不过最近才逐渐普及。一段时期，法国料理中流行较浓稠的酱料，即使用刀也可以取得调味酱料，但是其后则流行较清淡的酱料，所以为了取得调味酱料，只好将调味料用汤匙再次改良。当以汤匙或调味料用汤匙代替刀时，须右手拿汤匙，左手拿叉。汤匙的握法则与握笔方法相同。用调味料用汤匙切食物时，握法与刀相同。不过在取调味酱料时，握法则须与汤匙的拿法相同。食物切好后，在盘子上将料理与酱料一起舀起食用。 可以全部切好后再以右手拿叉子吃吗？如果是家里或是气氛较轻松的店内，这是没有关系的，不过在高级餐厅内最好尽量避免。在高级餐厅内，将叉子换到右手就餐，也一样是不合时宜的。不习惯用左手拿叉子，也许会感到很困难，不过一旦能够灵活使用，就更能体会到用餐的乐趣。刀叉的用法刀叉有不同规格，按照用途不同，其尺寸的大小也有区别。吃肉时，不管是否要用刀切，都要使用大号的刀。吃沙拉、甜食或一些开胃小菜时，要用中号刀，叉或勺一般随刀的大小而变。 料理上桌后的基本动作，即是“右手拿刀切开，然后左手拿叉将料理叉起”。以叉子压住料理的左端，固定，顺着叉子的侧边以刀切下约一口大小的料理后，叉子即可直接叉起料理送入口中，简单说即是“以叉子压住后再以刀切开”。 两侧手肘过高会使刀叉角度过大，而呈直立状态；相反地，如果手肘过低将使刀叉呈倒下状态，所以没有办法好好地将料理切开。将肩膀与手腕放松，两臂不要张开，刀与餐盘的角度保持在15度左右。这里归纳成7个要点：面向料理端正坐好；肩膀与手腕放松；两臂贴着身体；手肘不要过高或过低；刀叉与餐盘呈倾斜角；以叉将料理紧紧按住；轻轻地移动刀子，压住时可用力。这样一来，不但能轻易地将食物切开，而且姿势看起来也相当地优雅。刀的移动方式也有要领。首先用力于左手的叉子，再轻轻地移动刀子。注意，将刀子拉回时不可用力，而是在往前压下时用力，这样才能利落地将食物切开。两侧手肘过高时，将会使刀与叉的角度过大，而无法利落地将食物切开。刀与叉也不可以过分倾斜。叉子可依料理的特性，自由地变换拿法以方便用餐。当叉起食用时，叉子的背面必须向上，不过，如果是舀起食用时，叉子应面向上方使用。英美人的饮食习惯不一样。吃肉菜时，英国人左手拿叉，叉尖朝下，把肉扎起来，送入口中，如果是烧烂的蔬菜，就用餐刀把菜拨到餐叉上，送入口中。美国人用同样的方法切肉，然后右手放下餐刀，换用餐叉，叉尖朝上，插到肉的下面，不用餐刀，把肉铲起来，送入口中，吃烧烂的蔬菜也是这样铲起来吃。 如有淋上调味酱的料理，也可以利用刀子刮取调味酱，再以汤匙或调味酱，用汤匙将料理与酱料一起送入口中。如以叉子叉住，再用汤匙淋上调味酱后食用，则是错误的动作，因为这样一来，在料理送往口中时，酱料会滴滴答答落得到处都是，搞得一团糟。以叉子舀起料理时，以左手持用叉子，将食物置于叉子正面的叉腹上送入口中。在与朋友聚餐的轻松场合，如果不须用到刀子，可以用右手拿叉子进餐。当盘子内的细碎食物聚集时，可利用刀子挡着，再以叉子靠近舀起。利用汤匙代替刀子也是可以的。以叉子将料理聚集到汤匙上，再以汤匙将食物送入口中。 吃沙拉的时候，将大片的生菜叶用叉子切成小块，如果不好切可以刀叉并用。一次只切一块，不要一下子将整碗整盘的沙拉都切成小块。如果沙拉是一大盘端上来则使用沙拉叉。如果和主菜放在一起则要使用主菜叉来吃。如果沙拉是主菜和甜品之间的单独一道菜，通常要和奶酪和炸玉米片等一起食用。先取一两片面包放在你的沙拉盘上，再取两三片玉米片。奶酪和沙拉要用叉子食用而玉米片则用手拿着吃。 吃芦笋的时候，如果要吃的芦笋菜中有汤汁，先切成小块，再用刀叉食物。如果芦笋很大而且需要蘸汁，先把头切下，然后分开来食用，以防滴汁和掉渣。也可以用手拿着茎柄，蘸汁吃。对于小的芦笋完全可以用手拿着蘸汁食用。 土豆片和土豆条是用手拿着吃的，除非土豆条里有汁，那样的话要使用叉子。小土豆条也可拿着吃，但用叉会更好。如果土豆条太大，不好取用，就用叉子叉开，不要挂在叉上咬着吃。把番茄酱放在盘子边上，用手拿或用叉子叉着小块蘸汁吃。烤土豆在食用时往往已被切开，如果没有则用刀从上部切入，用手或叉子将土豆掰开一点，加入奶油或酸奶、奶油和小青葱、盐和胡椒粉，每次加一点。你可以带皮食用。 已设置好的餐具不可随意改变位置，不过如果你是左撇子，在吃的时候可将刀叉互相更换使用。只是在用餐完毕后，餐具必须依右撇子的人的用法放置，将刀叉的柄向右放置于餐盘上。这么做的原因，主是要为了不给服务人员造成困扰。刀与叉的拿法两只一组使用刀、叉为正式的用法右手拿刀，左手拿叉，与筷子同样的是以两只为一组，刀用来切割食物，叉用于送食物入口。应该注意的是，千万别用刀取食物送入嘴里。 叉子的拿法为将食指伸直按住叉子的背部。刀子除了与叉子同样拿法外，还可以用拇指与食指紧紧夹住刀柄与刀刃的接合处。可依料理选择较容易进餐的方法。用拇指抵住侧边，再将食指伸直，分别按住刀叉的背部，用力夹紧。这是吃肉类料理或较硬的料理时所 使用的方式。以拇指与食指捏住刀柄与刀刃的接合处，其他的手指再轻轻地扣住刀柄。叉子的拿法则与上述相同。这是吃鱼类料理或是较软的料理时所使用的方式。如果以全部手指握住的话，会破坏整体平衡，利用拇指与食指握住才是拿刀叉的要决。调味料是汤匙是法国料理中较独特的餐具。虽然以前就已经存在，不过最近才逐渐被普及。一段时期，法国料理中流行较浓稠的酱料，即使用刀也可以取得调味酱料，但是其后则流行较清淡的酱料，所以为了取得调味酱料，只好现调味料用汤匙再次改良。当以汤匙或调味料用汤匙代替刀时，须右手拿汤匙，左手拿叉。汤匙的握法则与握笔方法相同。用调味料用汤匙切食物时，握法与刀相同。不过在取调味酱料时，握法则须与汤匙的拿法相同。食物切好后，在盘子上将料理与酱料一起舀起食用。 可以全部切好后再以右手拿叉子吃吗？如果是家里或是气氛较轻松的店内，这是没有关系的，不过在高级餐厅内最好尽量避免。例如，在高级料理店内，是绝不会像在自己家里一样，把饭碗拿到嘴边，大口大口地吃饭。类似地在高级餐厅内，将叉子换到右手餐，也一样是不合时宜的。不习惯用左手拿叉子，也许会感到很困难，不过一旦能够灵活使用，就更能体会到用餐的乐趣
Diet idea the Europeans said that in the world has three big good food, in each edition has China and France, only then actually had different explanations about third, has said that was Italy, also had said that was countries' and so on Turkey, Tunisia or Morocco. Although reaches a stalemate, but everybody has a mutual recognition, the diet often can reflect the different nationality aspect and so on habits and customs and cultural thought differences. one time hosts the banquet in the Chinese restaurant, on the hotel vegetable very slowly, unconscious has passed for nearly two hours, but the vegetable has as if only then gotten up half. Is first time attends the Chinese meal banquet near a place woman, cannot bear asks me, your Chinese treats on these many vegetables? I said that must be many in China, usually is above 10. She is very surprised, including said that China's banquet too has been really rich, China's good food is very no wonder famous. But after a while, she also asks me, has a phenomenon to be very strange: The Chinese eats meal each time on that many vegetables, can be why long so thinly. But France enters the vegetable to be very each time few, but is why fatter than the Chinese? I am at a loss for words for a while, but thought that she asks how many truth a little, because that day shares a table several Chinese appear quite emaciated, but several French are all tall and sturdy. Thinks that spoke an own idea with her: China is a hospitable nationality, only then on a table vegetable had only then thought that has not neglected the visitor. Sometimes moreover the Chinese pays great attention the form, therefore in China's cooking, the vegetable style is ever changing, makes concrete is fastidious about the color fragrance to each vegetable matching. But European as if some, are inferior to China obviously actually in the vegetable variety change high and low free time, what but is fastidious is its nutrition matching and the protection. This is, the French diet idea important difference, how many also reflected the French chemical property standard difference. each people have the color which to color understanding oneself like, a country and the nationality are also same, likes to the different color being possible to reflect a national or the national esthetic appeal and the likes and dislikes tendency overall. has one time bumps into an EU commission's pair of professor husbands and wives, mentions China national dress which in the Shanghai APEC conference various countries' leader puts on, they said are attractive, but has a point to be not too clear, why do the Asian leaders mostly put on red, but the Western leader has chosen the blue color. I said that the color is leader designates. The Asian country has the same cultural context probably, red in the Chinese culture, is also possibly representing lucky, the wealth in the entire Asian culture and propitious pleasant, therefore the Asian leaders as if by prior agreement have chosen red. I ask in reply them, what does the blue color represent in the Western culture? They said the westerner to believe that the blue color represents is calm and is calm. thinks that I also said the East and West cultural difference was really too big, for example the dragon in China was nationality's symbol, but had one in Belgium's Mongolian Si Shize to hit the dragon festival, the dragon is regarded as the devil, has been massacred by fable in protection sacred · Michelle, therefore did specially hits the dragon festival to congratulate that eliminated the disaster shortcoming to thank Michelle. Professor husbands and wives also approves the East and West cultural difference hugeness, and approves the culture to need to exchange. in thinking mode West's cultural difference also displays in many aspects, but simple summarizes is not actually complex: Reflected that to the thinking mode in is abstract and the embodiment difference, reflected that to the life manner in as if may understand is more practical for the westerner, but Chinese how many stresses some mental feeling. For instance compares French word and Chinese writing, this point is very obvious. The Chinese writing makes the word to pay great attention the image much, what but in the French more pays great attention to consider is the use value. Looks like in Chinese the name card, in the French translates literally is the card which the visit uses, but the aircraft carrier calls in the French to carry airplane's warship and so on, is embarks from the actual uses makes the word. But presses the glass plate which likely the picture uses, we are also the words which makes from its use value angle, but the French has been more direct-viewing, the literal translation is “places above the picture”. reflects to the drawing in is so. Everybody knew that the traditional Chinese painting greatly opens big he, splashes ink enjoyably the human body proportion which and optics principle is fastidious with the European oil painting and so on completely belongs to the technical category which two have nothing to do with one another, is as if very difficult to have the common language. Sometimes the European not too can understand that sometimes we too abstract art expression means that we also will think European's artistic skill too practical duty, deficient divine and wonderful spirit. Looked that sometimes in many European drawing history has been presented for the classics religious theme painting, the Chinese while sighs its technique practical exquisite, also will sigh with emotion European master the imagination the deficiency: In order to explain that the angel is flying, must give these lovable young and clevers to add on a pair of wing. But our ancestor has not also drawn several thousand years, how many white clouds adds on nearby these beautiful female celestial, they have not flown? Has the ideal condition, has the imagination space. this is the cultural difference. But, the difference brings not always the difference, it gave culture masters of art to leave behind the broad creation space exactly, if could find an accurate combining site, not only that will give two nationalities, will also give the entire world to bring one kind to have forgives the significance the harmony and beautiful, for instance Zhao Wuji's painting manifested the inexhaustible charm which the culture blended 饮食观念 欧洲人都说世界上有三大美食，每一个版本里都有中国和法国的，只有关于第三家却说法不一，有说是意大利的，也有说是土耳其、突尼斯或摩洛哥等国的。尽管相持不下，但大家都有个共识，饮食常能反映出不同民族的生活习惯和文化思维等方面的差异。 一次在中餐馆举行宴会，饭店菜上得很慢，不知不觉中过去了近两个小时，但菜似乎才上了一半。临座的一位女士是第一次参加中餐宴会，忍不住问我，你们中国人请客都上这么多菜吗？我说，在中国还要多，通常是10道以上。她很惊讶，连说中国的宴会实在太丰富了，难怪中国的美食很有名。但过了一会儿，她又问我，有个现象很奇怪：中国人吃饭每次都上那么多菜，可为什么都长得那么瘦。而法国入每次菜很少，但为什么都比中国人胖呢？ 我一时语塞，但又觉得她问得多少有点道理，因为那天同桌的几个中国人都显得比较瘦弱，而几个法国人个个人高马大。想了想，和她讲了自己的一点想法：中国是个好客的民族，只有上了一桌子菜才觉得没怠慢客人。另外中国人有时候更注重形式，所以在中国的烹调里，菜的样式千变万化，具体到每一道菜又非常讲究色香味的搭配。而欧洲人似乎更实际一些，在菜的花色变化上下的工夫显然不如中国，但讲究的是其营养的搭配和保护。这是中、法饮食观念的重要差异，多少也反映出了中法文化性格的不同。 对色彩的认识 每个人都有自己喜欢的颜色，一个国家和民族也一样，对不同颜色的喜好从整体上可以反映出一个民族或者国家的审美情趣与好恶倾向。 有一次碰到欧盟委员会的一对教授夫妇，谈起上海APEC会议上各国领导人穿的中国民族服装，他们都说非常好看，但有一点不太明白，为什么亚洲领导人大多穿红色，而西方领导人则多选择了蓝色。我说颜色都是领导人自己选定的。大概亚洲国家有着相同的文化背景，红色在中国文化里，也可能在整个亚洲文化中都代表着幸运、财富和吉祥如意，所以亚洲领导人都不约而同地选择了红色。我反问他们，蓝色在西方文化里代表什么?他们说西方人认为，蓝色代表冷静和沉着。 想了想，我又补充说东西方文化差异实在是太大了，比如说龙在中国是民族的象征，而在比利时的蒙斯市则有一个打龙节，龙被视作恶魔，被传说中的保护神圣·米歇尔杀掉了，因此特意搞打龙节来庆贺除灾弊感谢米歇尔。教授夫妇也非常认同东西方文化差异的巨大，并认可文化需要交流。 思维方式 中西方的文化差异还表现在诸多方面，但简单加以概括其实并不复杂：反映到思维方式上是抽象和具象的差别，反映到生活态度上则似乎可以理解为西方人更加实用，而中国人则多少更偏重一些精神感受。比如把法语单词和中文文字加以比较，这一点就很明显。中国文字造词多注重形象，而法文里更多地注重考虑的是实用价值。像中文里的名片，法文里直译就是访问用的卡片，而航空母舰在法文里叫载飞机的军舰等等，都是从实际用途出发来造词的。而像压照片用的玻璃板，我们也是从其使用价值角度来造的词，但法国人就更加直观了，直译就是“放在照片上面的”。 反映到绘画上更是如此。大家都知道中国画的大开大阖、泼墨写意和欧洲油画讲究的人体比例和光学原理等完全是属于两个风马牛不相及的技术范畴，似乎很难有共同语言。欧洲人有时不太能够理解我们过于抽象的艺术表现手法，我们有时也会认为欧洲人的艺术技巧过于写实本分，缺乏灵气。看多了欧洲绘画史上被奉为经典的宗教题材画作，中国人有时在感叹其技法写实细腻的同时，也会感慨欧洲大师们想象力的贫乏：为了说明天使在飞，就非得给那些可爱的小精灵们加上一双翅膀。而我们的祖先不也画了几千年了吗，在那些美丽的仙女旁边加上几朵白云，她们不就飞起来了吗?多有意境，多有想象空间啊。 这就是文化的差异。但是，差异带来的并不总是分歧，它恰恰给文化艺术大师们留下了广阔的创作空间，如能从中找到一个准确的结合点，那不仅会给两个民族，而且也会给整个世界带来一种更具包涵意义的和谐与美丽，比如赵无极的画作就体现出了文化交融的无尽魅力。
摘要] 由于自然环境和物产不同,形成了东西方不同的文化,中西饮食便沿着各自的道路发展起来.传统的西方文化是一种畜牧文化和海洋文化,中国文化则是一种农耕文化和陆地文化,两种不同的文化反映出人们生产生活空间和方式的差异,其中饮食是具有代表性的一个方面,从菜单命名使用的词汇即可略见一斑.一、由于自然环境和物产不同,形成了东西方不同的文化,中西饮食便沿着各自的道路发展起来.传统的西方文化是一种畜牧文化和海洋文化,中国文化则是一种农耕文化和陆地文化,两种不同的文化反映出人们生产生活空间和方式的差异,其中饮食是具有代表性的一个方面,从文化命名使用的词汇即可略见一斑.两种饮食文化的差别主要表现在原料种类、烹饪方法、进餐方式、菜式命名等四个方面.(一)原料种类.西餐原料主要是动物类和海洋鱼类,辅以植物类,中餐原料主要是植物类和淡水鱼类,辅以动物类.随着社会发展和中西方交流的增加,两种饮食体系所使用的原料有趋同的趋势,但差别仍然比较明显.中国人视为珍馐美味的猫、狗、鸽子西方人是不会尝试的,而西方人习以为常的海洋鱼类、贝壳类可能为多数内地中国人见所未见,中国人的"食谱"范围比西方人的丰富得多.(二)烹饪方式.这是中西餐饮的一大差别,也是饮食文化差异的隐性因素.烹饪方法的差异又表现在三个方面:首先是原料的粗加工,所谓"食不厌精、脍不厌细",基础就是原料的粗加工,中餐对此十分讲究,加工后的原料形状多种多样,有整体(Whole)、块(Cubes)、片(Slices)、卷(Rolls)、条(Strips)、段(Segments)、丝(Shreds)、丁(Dice)、粒(Grains)、末(Mince)、蓉(泥)(Mash)、浆(Thickliq 2uid)、汁(Juice)等,西餐原料的处理则较为简单,一般有整体、块、片、丁、泥等几种形状;其次是火候,中式烹调讲究用火,三十多种加工方法许多是西餐中没有的,西餐烹调加工时间较短、火温适中;三是调味,中餐的复合味型多,要求原料入味,西餐则强调原料本味及调料的独立使用.(三)进餐方式.这是中西饮食文化差异的显性因素,也是中西方文化中的社会心理、价值观、民族习俗方面的差异在饮食上的表现.刀叉与筷子、圆桌与条桌等各不相同,在菜式和道数上双方虽然都有程式,但一分一合,互相对立,由此产生的宴请礼仪、饮酒方式、席间气氛也大不相同.(四)菜式命名.中餐讲究"作",西餐注重"吃",中菜命名讲究文雅、含蓄和吉利,注重表情、联想功能,寓情、寓意,便使用了多种修辞手法,除少量大众化菜肴以原料直接命名外,相当一部分菜是以创始人、景物、典故和传闻来命名的,这种命名方法的缺点是菜名与原料无明显关联,往往不知所云,如"八仙过海""、佛跳墙"等.西菜命名则直截了当,突出原料,极少使用类似中菜命名的修辞手段,虽少了艺术性,但多了实用性.当然,西菜命名也讲究高雅,但表现方法则是以法文命名."WhenwetalkofmeatonourtableweuseFrenchwords,(porc)(boeuf).Chickensbecomepoultry(poulet),andacalfbecomesveal(veau).EvenifourmenuswerenotwritteninFrenchoutofsnobbery,theEnglishweusedinthemwouldstillbeNormanEnglish."《(高级英语》P28)这是由于罗曼人曾经征服英国,英国农民在牧养牲畜时,讲的是盎格鲁-撒克逊英语,而这些牲畜被端到餐桌上给法国统治者享用时,就有了法语名称,相沿成习,它变成了一种高雅.另外,由于菜单源于法国以及法国饮食文化对西方饮食文化的深远影响,许多西餐菜肴自然用了法语名称,如:胡萝卜蓉汤(Pureealacrecy)、罗宋汤(Bor2schalaRusse)、芝士左口鱼(Fletanalamornay)等.二、中餐菜单英译的基本原则中餐曾有"食单"而无菜单,它和"番茄"、"洋芋"一样来自于西方,并很快融入中国饮食文化,形成了自己的特色,成为餐饮业不可或缺的一项"硬件".随着东西方文化交流的更加深入和广泛,来到中国的外宾越来越多,一张好的菜单就是一份高明的宣传单,一份本土化的菜单将使他们的中国之行更加完满.菜单最初只是厨师备忘的单子,但今非昔比,当今菜单有了更多功能:11向客人说明食品饮料的种类和价格,便于顾客挑选;21反映餐厅的经营方针,标志着餐厅商品的特色和标准;31是客人和接待者之间的沟通渠道;41是菜品研究的资料;51加强宣传,促进销售.小小菜单,作用多多.由于东西方文化和食物原料、制作方法存在诸多差异,菜单的翻译远不象想象的那么简单.影响菜单翻译的最重要因素是烹饪方法和菜式命名,翻译时应把握好二者的特点,既要符合西餐菜肴命名习惯,又要体现中餐特色,切忌望文生义或按字面含义直译.翻译过程中必须把握以下六个原则:第一,注重菜单的信息功能,保证菜名提供准确、足够的信息,而不能简单地按照中菜名称的修饰词而直译,以便外宾选择.如"麻婆豆腐"译成"Pockmarkedwoman'sbeancurd"、"八仙过海"译为"EightImmortalscrossingthesea"",鱼香肉丝"译为"Fish-flavorshreddedpork"就会使外宾茫然或误解.第二,要发挥菜单的促销作用.应借鉴中菜命名的艺术手法,尽量反映中餐烹饪特色,尤其对一些历史悠久、流传广泛的菜肴在翻译后还可以附加说明.这样既保留菜名信息,又引人兴趣,以达到吸引食客的目的.第三,把握中餐烹调方法的类别.为反映中餐对火候的讲究和其艺术性,可进行适当修饰.中餐烹调方法分类如下:烧、烧、烩、 、焖Braise炖、煨Stew煎、炸、酥Deep-fry爆、炒、熘、滑Stir-fry、Quick-fry干炒、干煸、焙Sauté煮、汆、涮、白灼Boil烧、烤、烘、 Roast、Barbecue、Broil、Bake蒸、腌、卤、酱、熏、酿、扒、烫、糟等有对等词,可一对一翻译,较特殊的做法如"油淋"可归入"煎炸"类,西餐没有拔丝方法,类似方法有Candy、Toffee.第四,尽量译出原料加工后的形状.原料形状在西餐中并不重要,但在中餐中却能反映出烹调的技艺水平,译文应予保留,确实累赘的,则可省略.第五,把握原料这一核心,无论中菜如何命名,均须翻译出原料,再加上烹调方法和味型等辅助因素.第六,避免文化冲突.中菜命名为了吉祥,借用了一些不能食用的物品或西方人忌讳食用的动物名,翻译时应按原料名直译,如果原料本身是西方人忌食的,这道菜可省略不译.如"翡翠鱼翅"、"红烧狮子头",真正的翡翠当然不能食用的,其实它就是蔬菜,而狮子西方人更不会食用,我们也是以其威武来形容"肉圆"罢了,直译会引起"血腥"的感觉.又如"脆皮乳鸽",将象征着和平的鸽子烹而食之,也是西方人不能接受的,所以最好把它略过.三、中餐菜名英译的具体探讨上面提出了中餐菜单英译的六原则,下面就一些中餐菜名英译进行具体探讨.11以原料命名的菜不加修辞,直译最为简便,烹饪方法不必译出.中菜汤类命名一般按此方法,翻译的处理就是"原料加汤".如:双冬牛肉-Beefwithmushroomandbambooshouts口蘑菜心-Mushroomswithcabbageheart青椒肉丝-Shreddedporkandgreenchili豆腐汤-Beancurdwithmushroomsoup21以烹调方法加原料命名.因为烹调方法是饮食文化的核心组成部分,翻译时必须译出烹调方法.中菜的一些烹调方法是西餐所没有的,有些则相近,翻译时用近义词亦可.如"干煸"在西餐中没有,其操作过程是:先用油炸原料,然后以少许油翻炒,迅速将油炒干后起锅,并不是加油直接炒.英语中有两个字与之意义相近,一是sauté--friedquicklyinapanwithalittlehotbutterorotherfat.意识是"快炸、煎";一是torrefy--todryuporparchwithheat(.)意识是"烘干、烤干、焙干",从制作过程看,sauté更合适些.如:炸蛋卷-Deep-friedeggrolls回锅肉-Slicedporkdoublysautéedinsoysauce干煸牛肉丝-Sautéedbeefshreds31烹调方式加原料和作料命名.作料是决定味型的最重要因素,翻译时也不能省略.如豉汁蒸带子,省略作料就成了清蒸,味道完全不同.酱爆肉去掉"soypaste",成了无任何特点的"煎肉",二者有天渊之别.其它如:豉汁蒸带子-Steamedscallopswithcuredsoybean酱爆肉-Quick-friedporkwithsoypaste茄汁石斑鱼-Deepfriedgaroupawithtomatosauce41风味菜肴.风味菜主要因其味型特点而得以广泛流传,所以除原料外,应译出风味,一些有确切起源地的菜,还应该加上地名.鱼香肉丝的确切译名应为"Stir-friedporkshredsSichuanstyle"或"Stir-friedporkshredsingarlicsauce",不能译为"Fish-flavorshreddedpork",是因为"鱼香"作为川菜的一种风味,使用了固定搭配的作料,与真正的鱼没有任何关系,译为"Fish-flavor",菜中并无"Fish",给人以误导之嫌.其他风味菜还有:湘味牛肉丝-SlicedbeefHunanstyle糖醋排骨-Friedporkchopinsweet-soursauce荷叶粉蒸肉-Steamedporkcoatedgroundriceonlotusleaf51以人名、地名命名的菜肴,一般全部译出,人名前最好加上头衔或职业,对那些知之甚少或译出后外宾不能理解的,则去人名加味型.东坡肉-PoetDongpo'sbraisedpork毛氏红烧肉-ChairmanMao'sstewedporkwithsoysauce北京烤鸭-Beijingroastedduck东江酿豆腐-BeancurdstuffedwithporkminceDongjiangstyle61用象形手法或借用典故、传说命名.这是中菜命名的一个特点,它集中反映了中国饮食文化的特色,具有很深的社会内涵,也是翻译的难点,处理方法是还其本原,译出主料、作料或做法,能兼顾修辞含义时则兼顾,切不可拘泥于原名而直译.翡翠鱼翅-Double-boiledshark'sfinwithve 2getable翡翠不能食用,仅是一个代称,指绿色的蔬菜,翻译时不能按字面译为"Jadeshark'sfin",否则外宾会莫名其妙.蚂蚁上树-Sautéedbeanvermicelliwithspicymeatsauce蚂蚁在中餐中虽可以入菜,但此蚂蚁非彼蚂蚁,而是用酱油和淀粉和过的肉末.直译可能引起外宾的惊诧.桔瓣鱼汆-Quick-boiledfishballsorangepet 2alshaped这道菜是指鱼汆外形似桔瓣,其实菜中无桔瓣,也无桔味,翻译时不可将之作为原料,译名中加"orangepetalshaped",是为了增加美感,增强促销功能.叫化鸡-Bakedchickenvagabondstyle或Bakedchickenwrappedwithmud此菜相传为乞丐创制,取名时以"叫化"代"乞丐",是一种美化,翻译时,以"vagabond"代"beg2gar",也是一种美化.后一译名比较实在,但少了前者的浪漫味道.麻婆豆腐-Beancurdwithmincedporkinhotsauce这道菜在我国广为流传",麻婆"成了一个特殊的称谓,外宾没有它的文化背景,翻译时只能取味型.如将之译为"Pockmarkswoman'sbeancurd",即使外宾理解,也失去了美感.霸王别姬-Steamedturtleandchickeninwhitesauce寿比南山-Steamedchickeninpumpkin连生贵子-Lotusnutsinsyrup这些纯为吉利的象征名称,不仅不能直译,也无法直译,所以只能还原处理.如为了促销,可对这些菜附加说明.71菜名含器具的可译出器具,也可直译原料,作为一种特殊的做法,以译出器具为佳.有加工作用的器具在西餐中是不会搬上桌子的,这也是中餐的一个特点,它表现了中餐的艺术性.器具一般有火锅、锅仔、铁板、沙锅、煲等.八珍火锅-Eightdelicacieshotpot锅仔甲鱼-Braisedturtleinminipot铁板牛柳-Vealslicesfriedonironplate汆圆粉丝煲-Stewedmeatballsandbeanver 2micelliincasserole以上探讨了中菜英译的一些基本方法.由于中国菜种系繁多,原料区别大,烹饪方法各具特色,菜名千差万别,翻译时还需具体研究,否则不能把握其特点,准确翻译也就无从谈起.四、菜单的编排除命名方面的差异外,在菜的分类和编排方式上二者也不相同,这是由于用餐方式和上菜顺序不同所引起的.中餐菜单按原料分类,呈纵向序列,西餐菜单按一次食用菜的道数编排,呈平行并列.中餐菜单菜肴的排列一般是按冷菜凉碟类、肉类、鱼类、海鲜类、禽类、蔬菜类、汤类、点心水果类、主食类的顺序进行,饮料酒类单列.西餐菜单菜肴的排列则按进食顺序安排,分为开胃菜类(APPETIZERS)、汤类(SOUPS)、色拉类(SAL2ADS)、主菜类(ENTREES)(包括肉类、鱼类、海鲜
从这几篇 英语 作文 中，可以适当了解到中西饮食 文化 的巨大差异。下面是我给大家带来中西饮食文化差异英语作文，供大家参阅!
The Food Culture Difference Between China and West Studying food cultural differences, we can find out a joint enhancing the communication between China and the west through a comprehensive study of the subject. It may be a great help to the communication of the Chinese and western cultures.
Diet is actually the contents of our daily lives. It has special status in the Chinese culture, and it also has a great distinction between China and the west. As one of the world ancient nations, China’s diet has a history almost as long as that of Chinese civilization. But in western countries, ancient thinkers devoted less attention to the food problem than the Chinese philosophers differences in concepts, targets, patterns, attribution and nature had reflected the different dietary culture in the different state characteristic.
Differences in Concepts
Chinese diet is a sense of beauty diet and pays attention to the "color, flavor, taste " regardless of the nutrition . Chinese people hanker on a diet is just the “mood” that is difficult for one to say anything. Even using the "color, flavor, shape and implement "which people often said to make the" realm "reification, is still difficult to crown all.
The major differences of eating culture between the West and China
use of tableware
As we all know, chopsticks is our traditional tableware. We use chopsticks and spoon mostly and cups,plates,bowls and saucers are western use knife and eat..Their knifes can be divided into consumption knife, meat knife, friet knife, butter knife, fish knife and so on. The also have many kinds of forks like consumption fork, fish fork, and lobster fork.
way to cook
China has very rich kind of cooking methods, such as braising, quick boiling, scaling, stewing, gradual simmering, slow red cooking, steaming, decoction and so on, up to more than thirty kinds. Besides, the dishes cooked with these methods are numerous. That is why Chinese feel it is very interesting to cook, while the Westerners emphasize too much on scientific diet and the collocation of nutrition. They cook according to scientific disciplines all the time, which is mechanized and monotonous, therefore without any joy.
order of saving dishes
In a Chinese banquet cold dishes are the first served, next the hot dishes and the main course come with the following of soup, then follows the main food or desserts. Fruits often come the last. In a western banquet the serving order is different. The first course of Western dinner is appetizer. Appetizers have specific flavors, mainly salty or sour. They are few in amount but high in qualities. Different from Chinese dinners, the second course of Western dinner is soup. Western soup can be divided into four kinds, clear soup, cream soup, vegetable soup and cool soup which can be divided into more kinds. The third course of a Western dinner is non-stable dish. Usually, aquatic products, eggs, bread is called non-stable dish. The fourth course of Western dinner is the main course, which contains meat and bird species. The fifth course of Western dinner is dishes made of vegetables. Westerners often eat raw vegetables, so vegetables are often made into salad. The six course of Western dinner is dessert, such as pudding, pancakes, ice cream, cheese and fruits. The last course contains beverage, coffee or tea.
The Western diet culture difference
Western diet due to geographical characteristics, influence of
climate factors such as environment, customs, appears in the ingredients, flavors, cooking methods, different degrees of differences in eating habits. It is because of these differences, diet has a strong regional character. Differences between Chinese and Western culture makes a difference of Chinese and Western food culture, and this difference from the West in ways of thinking and policy. Chinese focus on "Heaven", Westerners focus on "people-oriented".
Nutrition and delicious(营养与美味)
Due to West philosophy thought of different, Westerners Yu diet heavy science, heavy science is emphasizes nutrition, so Western diet to nutrition for highest guidelines, eating like for a bio of machine added fuel, special emphasizes food of nutrition components, protein, and fat, and carbohydrates, and vitamin and the various inorganic elements of content is match expedient, calories of supply is right, and these nutrition components is can for eating who full absorption, has no other side effects. Knowledge of these problems are cooking, and how color,
fragrance and taste of the dishes, it is first requested. Sanhedrin Premier diet in Western countries--France, its food culture in many ways and we
approximate, but access to nutritional problems, will open the distance between the two sides.
Five flavors mixed with the operation aimed at the pursuit of delicious cooking in China, during the processing of the hot frying and slow fire attack for a long time may cause destruction of the nutritional components of food. France is also the pursuit of delicious cooking, but at the same time not forgetting "nutrition" that premise, consistently delicious is that they do not care nutrition for the taking. Especially modern cooking trends occurred in the 1960 of the 20th century, with special emphasis on health, diet, to the pursuit of light oil, emphasized the use of fresh raw materials, stressed during the cooking process to
maintain original nutrition and taste, so vegetables are eaten raw. So that the Western diet nutrition is universal。
To be fair, when it comes to nutritional problems also hit the biggest weakness of the Chinese food。
While we pay attention to diet, a healing cuisine, food, attention to diet to keeping fit, but we cook in search of delicious as the first
requirement, resulting in many nutrient losses in the process. Chinese chefs to participate in cooking contest in the world in recent years, others set out clearly a vegetable nutritional components on the side, we come up with this material. People ask questions, also flounder at some
moment, greatly eat the suffering which cannot be told to others!
We have always been primary purpose is as a pursuit of delicious eating. Folk saying "to eat for days, fresh taste first." When people praise the food and always says "smell good", but that is because we feel the color, flavor and sensory organs "eyes, nose and mouth" up and down the order. People in the "color, smell and taste", has always been the "" character "King".
Because of the extreme importance to the Chinese people, as well as the carrier of Chinese food just tastes, such as recognized luxury menu your cake and the sauce, shark fin, sea cucumber, hump, similar to its main constituents are cheap pork skin gelatin, itself is delicious, fresh soup to feed it, feed it, then use it to feed the people. Did this is not the flavor carriers to the core﹖
The Chinese emphasis on taste, is reflected in everyday conversation, such as family banquet, as soon as the main dish on the side table, the owner often say with modesty: "the meal well, not necessarily your taste. "He would never say:" does not have much nutritional value of vegetables, not enough calories。”
Cook about nutrition in the West at the expense of taste, at least for
primary purpose is not to taste enjoy. They to cold drink table, iced of cold wine also to then plus ice, and tongue surface throughout of taste neural once iced, will greatly lost taste of sensitivity, gradually to cannot differentiation taste; that with blood of steak and white fish, and white meat, raw of vegetable, white water Cook beans, and cook potatoes, although has "taste" and does not into "road", all are reflect has Western people on taste of ignored. They refuse to use monosodium glutamate, is sufficient to prove that such people are not aware of, and are not "known view" guest of honour!
Based on the importance of nutrition, Westerners more raw
vegetables, not just raw tomatoes, cucumber, lettuce, is the cabbage, onion, broccoli (broccoli) are also eaten raw. So their "salad" is like a plate of rabbit feed, make it difficult for us to accept. Modern Chinese people also talk about nutrition and health, know vegetables upon heating, vitamins, is destroyed, so we all for Mong Kok hot fries. It also bring down the content of vitamins, but not completely lost, but taste was more than delicious rabbit feed. Nutrition and taste of Chinese modern
gastronomy to the pursuit of optimal balance under balance, of course, is also a "happy medium"。
Standard and optional(规范与随意)
Westerners in the diet emphasize science and nutrition, has acted strictly in accordance with the standard of science of the whole process of cooking, steak tastes the same from New York to San Francisco, steak dishes are only a limited number of tomato, potato, lettuce. In addition, standardized amount of cooking requires sauce added accurate to the gram, cooking time is accurate to seconds. In addition in 1995 of the first issue of the digest was published overseas the eating in the Netherlands were also described in the article "Netherlands people's kitchens equipped with scales, liquid measuring cups, timers, scales, Spice rack size line up neatly on a standard bottle dozens of kinds of seasonings, like a chemical laboratory. ”
Chinese cooking and very different, not only the major cuisine has its own flavor and characteristics, is of the same cuisine with a menu, side dishes and a variety of spices used in the match, also according to the chef's personal characteristics are different. Is the same Chef a menu, despite its own generating method, but may vary according to different seasons, different, eat different identity, to be adjusted (such as rich in winter, light in the summer, the wedding to be colorful, funeral banquet taboos red Qiong Han to kill oil-greedy should be concentrated and thick sauce, gormandizer dine together should be fresh and unique). Also Cook your own tele mood changes, some kind of impromptu playing. Therefore, Chinese cooking is not only not emphasizing the second and g
standardization, but also places particular emphasis on randomness.
On the randomness of the food processing, first causing the Chinese recipes to space again and expanding: variety of raw materials, cutting skill variety, variety of spices, cooking methods and diverse and cross combination, a raw material can be made of several dozen types of dozens of kinds of dishes. For example, most commonly used raw
chicken, Cantonese cuisine chef hands, making dozens of road as well as hundreds of dish-LEGO. Other raw materials as well. And in is rich in a species raw materials of local, often can to this a raw materials made into table of Banquet, as Beijing of "full duck I", Yanbian of "full dog I", Guangdong of "full fish I", and "full Ho I", Changsha Li He WINS of "full cattle I", Beijing some halal restaurant of "full sheep I" and Beijing sand pot home of "full pig I", misery are reflected has China cooking of arbitrary derived out feast of dish type.
Machinery and interest(机械性与趣味性 )
Due to the standardization of Western dishes make, Cook became a mechanical work. Old KFC fried chicken recipe ingredients, and oil temperature, time of fried chicken, also must act strictly according to the specifications, and Chef's work becomes an extremely monotonous mechanical work, he is like an automated assembly line worker, or even by a robot that took its time. In addition, Westerners eat first aimed at
nutrition, as long as enough nutrition standards, others to be tolerant, thus today potatoes, steak, steak potatoes tomorrow, chefs in Diners in a very tolerant attitude of non-critical, repeated the day of mechanical work, of course, no fun at all.
In China, the cooking is an art, as female writer San Mao hotel in the desert article says: "I have always been on the family are hated, but the cooked dish is very interested, some onion, a few slices of meat,
scrambled out of a dish, I very much appreciate the art. "Cooking is an art, it is, like the other arts, reflects the rigor and the unity of off the cuff, so cooking has a very strong interest in China, even with certain games, attracted to food for the life of the Chinese people.
Fun cooking is traditional in China, drawing of Han dynasty
unearthed in the kitchen, would like an acrobatic troupe performed scenes. In the beauty of Du Fu's "machete fenlun" poetry, mention of this on the back of a knife a lot of bells, and is said to be the former chef of the Tang dynasty can be used while cutting the tinkle of music is played. Unfortunately, this tool and surgeon's skills have been lost.
Mongolian hot pot, and with similar spicy hot pot, Guangdong, Sichuan seafood hot pot is widely loved, in the fresh and hot, eat at ease,
and it moved to the main part of the cooking table, for people to
experience the fun of cooking over dinner. Also Xian with mutton soup, steamed bun of the very hard, to guests yourself broke to pieces, seems to eat than Cook chopped up and enjoy. Beijing-style "barbecue season" barbecue was disappointing, an exclamation he ' ll never be, is that it also changed it yourself "gentleman's not his fists". This modified, modified to have lost all interest in Sth., eating is not hard, it is not know how fun cooking in China, arbitrary orders out of the tragedy of such a pursuit of joy of cooking, Chef is definitely not in the West. Western motto is "work while you work, game game", it appears from the dichotomy of their mechanism, games are in dereliction of duty, game is to lose money on the sale, are "I don't." Advocates for a holistic and Chinese, "working in the game, a game in which", is the world.
Cooking Chinese have always regarded as a lot of fun, and to engage in this work to enrich the lives of positive performance. Youdaoshi "there is paradise, there are kitchen" cooking in China, just as with music, dance, poetry, painting, with improving the life realm of great significance.
So, in the final analysis is the difference between the perceptual and the rational. However, the difference seems to be changed with the development of science of fuzzy. More and more Chinese people to not only pay attention to color, smell and taste of the food, and pay more attention to the health and nutrition. Particularly experienced after SARS.
你可以从以下几点着手： 一．餐桌礼仪概述 1. 餐桌礼仪在中西方文化发展中的地位与作用. 二. 各国间不同的饮食文化 1. 我国饮食文化的发展及餐桌礼仪的形成. 2. 英、法、美、意等国家的饮食文化发展及餐桌礼仪的形成. 3. 用我国的典型食品北京烤鸭与西方国家的火鸡进行对比从而进一步比较两者差异. 4. 从差异中寻求中西文化间的共同点. 5. 形成中西方文化差异的根源. Table Manners The main difference between Chinese and W estern eating habits is that unlike the West, where everyone has their own plate of food, in China the dishes are placed on the table and everybody shares. If you are being treated by a Chinese host, be prepared for a ton of food. Chinese are very proud of their culture of food and will do their best to give you a taste of many different types of cuisine. Among friends, they will just order enough for the people there. If they are taking somebody out for dinner and the relationship is polite to semi-polite, then they will usually order one more dish than the number of guests ( people, five dishes). If it is a business dinner or a very formal occasion, there is likely to be a huge amount of food that will be impopssible to finish. A typical meal starts with garlic. These are followed by the main courses, hot meat and vegetable dishes. Finally a soup is brought out, which is followed by the starchy "staple"food, which is usually rice or noodles or sometimes dumplings. Many Chinese eat rice (or noodles or whatever) last, but if you like to have your rice together with other dishes, you should say so early on. One thing to be aware of is that when eating with a Chinese host, you may find that the person is using their chopsticks to put food in your bowl or plate. This is a sign of politeness. The appropriate thing to do would be to eat the whatever-it-is and say how yummy it is. If you feel uncomfortable with this, you can just say a polite thank you and leave the food there, and maybe cover it up with a little rice when they are not looking. There is a certain amount of leniency involved when dealing with Westerners. So you won't be chastised. Eating No-no's Traditionally speaking, there are many taboos at Chinese tables, but these days not many people pay attention to them. However, there are a few things to keep in mind, especially if you are a guest at a private home. 1) Don't stick your chopsticks upright in the rice bowl. Instead,lay them on your dish. The reason for this is that when somebody dies, the shrine to them contains a bowl of sand or rice with two sticks of incense stuck upright in it. So if you stick your chopsticks in the rice bowl, it looks like this shrine and is equivalent to wishing death upon a person at the table! 2) Make sure the spout of the teapot is not facing anyone. It is impolite to set the teapot down where the spout is facing towards somebody. The spout should always be directed to where nobody is sitting,usually just outward from the table. 3) Don't tap on your bowl with your chopsticks. Beggars tap on their bowls, so this is not polite. Also, in a restaurant, if the food is coming too slow people will tap their bowls. If you are in someone's home, it is like insulting the cook. Eat Local You can get expensive, delicious meals in any of the large hotels, but if you are looking for atmosphere, you have to go to a local joint. Not only is it cheaper, but you can get a good look at the locals and what normal people are like. And what the food lacks in presentation is made up for in the taste. Some restaurants have English menus, but don't count on it. A good way to choose dishes is to look at what othes are eating and point at it for the waitress. The other option is to play "Myatery Dinner," where players randomly point at items in the menu and wait for the surprise dishes to come. Whoever orders the braised dog heart with scallions in shark vomit sauce wins! If you bring your Guide with you, however, you can use the food guide in the back of the book to choose some safe and delicious fare. Also, be sure to sample the local brew, Yanjing Beer. Drining Gan Bei!(cheers!) Alcohol is a big part of eating in Beijing. Especially when dining with Chinese hosts, you can expect the beer to flow freely and many beis to be gan-ed.(Gan Bei literally means "dry the glass")Besides beer, the official Chinese alcoholic beverage is bai jiu, high-proof Chinese liquor made from assorted grains. There are varying degrees of bai jiu, and some are quite good. The Beijing favorite is called Er Guo Tou, which is a whopping 56% alcohol. More expensive and less formidable are Maotai and Wuliangye, which go for about 300-400 yuan per bottle. In comparison, Er Guo Tou costs a modest 4or 5 yuan per ping(bottle). If you are not a drinker, or don't feel up to the challenge, just say "wo bu hui he jiu"(I don't drink). It is generally acceptable to use Coke or tea as an alcohol substitute.
论文答辩陈述稿
在社会的各个领域，大家都写过论文，肯定对各类论文都很熟悉吧，论文对于所有教育工作者，对于人类整体认识的提高有着重要的意义。你知道论文怎样写才规范吗？以下是我为大家收集的论文答辩陈述稿，仅供参考，大家一起来看看吧。
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你们好！
我叫，我的论文题目是《XXX》。
我的研究缘于我的困惑，就是师生关系怎么会变成现在这个样子？这是很多一线教师很感兴趣却又极力回避的问题，感兴趣的原因是和我有同样的困惑，极力回避却是由于现实教育教学环境的制约。基于这一点，我觉得这篇论文的价值就在于能够把这样一个话题摆上台面进行研究和摸索，并提出了自己的初步构想。
论文先破后立。首先从教育教学活动的现状出发，发现师生关系存在的问题并分析产生的原因；接着建构互动共进的新型师生关系，提出其实施途径，并特别强调网作为主阵地的语文课堂中建构互动共进师生关系的实施方法。一种方案的优劣必须有反馈和评价，最后我又提出评价原则，建构评价体系，并展示在教学中努力实践的部分成果。
这篇论文的写作其实是我工作十年来对师生关系的思考和总结，很多资料直接来自于我的教学反思和教育日志，更多的是感性认识，缺乏必要的理论支撑。对困惑的研究，澄清了一些认识，解决了一些问题，但又产生了更多的困惑，比如如何付诸实施，实施效果到底如何等等，都有待进一步的深入研究，所以，这项研究远远没有结束，或者说才只是一个开始。
谢谢！
尊敬的各位导师：
大家好！我叫xx，来自xx公司。
我毕业论文的题目是：《国有大中型企业的公司制改造问题研究》。下面我就把论文的基本思路向各位导师汇报如下：改革开放是前无古人的伟大创举，始于1978年的国企改革作为建设有中国特色社会主义伟大实践的重要组成部分大致经历了三个阶段。这三个阶段由浅入深、由表及里、先易后难、循序渐进，是“摸着石头过河”这一名人名言的生动写照。这也成为自己撰写本文的指导思想。本文先对这三个历史阶段进行了简要概述，接着在引入了公司制改造所涉及的产权和公司法人治理结构两大部分概念之后，进入文章重点。本着提出问题、分析问题、解决问题这一基本思路，文章首先提出了目前国有大、中型企业公司制改造存在的五个方面的问题，接着以自己所在公司为例，理论联系实际，逐一进行分析。
在此基础上结合当前国企改革形势，以公司制企业赖以生存的基础、公司制企业的核心、共产党这一中国唯一执政党在国企中的定位三大方面提出了进一步进行公司制改造的措施。即：实施产权结构多元化；规范公司法人治理结构；正确处理“新三会”与“老三会”的关系。作为关于国企公司制改造众多论文中的一篇，本文可谓沧海一粟。虽然自己翻阅了许多资料、进行了不懈努力，使这篇文章既是自己自考全部历程中所思、所学在这一问题上的'运用、总结；也成为进一步改造自身主观认识的起点，但由于水平有限、时间性仓促，其中观点尚不成熟、不系统之处，敬请各位专家、导师指正。
谢谢大家！
尊敬的各位评委老师：
你们好！
我叫xxx。国际贸易专业，这次我所撰写的论文答辩题目是《国外对华反倾销及中国的对策》，我的指导老师是厦门大学经济学院国际经济与贸易系黄梅波教授。从确定选题、拟定题纲、完成初稿，到最后定稿，我得到了黄老师精心细致的指导，使我很快掌握了论文的写作方法，并能在较短的时间里迅速完成论文的写作。不管今天答辩的结果如何，我都会由衷的感谢指导老师的辛勤劳动，感谢各位评委老师的批评指正。
选择《国外对华反倾销及中国的对策》作为我论文的写作题材：一方面我对国外对我国的反倾销有较多的关注，在大专毕业时所写的就是以之相关的论文题目。另一方面国外对我国采取的反倾销措施使我国的受牵连企业损失较为严重，且近年来涉案金额越来越大。为此本文主要从反倾销的特征，形成原因和我国的对策三大方面来论述。在叙述反倾销的特征中应用了较多的近两年的案例和相关的数据来论证。在反倾销形成原因上主要是从内外因上进行分析的。再者对于反倾销的对策方面主要从政府，行业协会，企业三个方面对策进行说明。
本篇论文已经完成，虽然不是很尽人意，还有许多的地方需要更全面的改进，但总的来说，在撰写的过程中，我真实地学到了许多东西，更进一步丰富了自己的知识，自己的认识也有了相当的提高。谢谢！下面请各位老师提出宝贵的意见。
01 毕业论文答辩自述稿第一段：介绍自己的基本情况和论文名称；第二段介绍自己选题原因；第三段简要介绍论文结构；第四段简述结论；最后致谢，提出自己论文的不足。 毕业论文答辩自述稿结构如下: 第一段：介绍自己的基本情况和论文名称； 第二段：介绍自己选题原因； 第三段：简要介绍论文结构(这一部分视时间而定,可做删减)； 第四段：简述结论； 最后：致谢,提出自己论文的不足； 如果时间不够，只讲部分就可以了。 答辩自述稿示例： 尊敬的各位老师： 上午/下午好！ 我是xxx学院xxx专业的xxx，我的论文题目是《我国小微型企业生存状况的探讨》，这篇论文是在我的指导老师XXX老师的悉心指点下完成的，在这段时间里，X老师对我的论文进行了详细的修改和指正，并给予我许多宝贵的意见和建议。在这里，我对他表示我最真挚的感谢和敬意！下面我将这篇论文的选题背景、研究意义、结构及主要内容、存在的不足向各位老师作简要的陈述，恳请各位老师批评指导。 首先，我想谈谈为什么选这个题目及这篇文章的研究意义。 其次，我想谈谈这篇文章的结构和主要内容。 我的论文主要分为以下X个部分： 第一部分XXXX 第二部分XXXX 第三部分XXXX 我的论文结论是：XXXX 最后，我想谈谈这篇文章存在的不足。 在这篇论文的写作过程中，我尽可能多的收集资料，虽然从中学到了许多有用的东西，也积累了不少经验，但由于自己学识浅薄，认识能力不足，在理解上有诸多偏颇和浅薄的地方；也由于理论功底的薄弱，存有不少逻辑不畅和辞不达意的问题；加之时间紧迫和自己的粗心，与老师的期望相差甚远，许多问题还有待于进一步思考和探索，借此答辩机会，万分恳切的希望各位老师能够提出宝贵的意见，多指出这篇论文的错误和不足之处，我将虚心接受，从而进一步深入学习研究，使该论文得到完善和提高。 以上是我的论文答辩自述，敬请各位评委老师提出宝贵的意见。谢谢！
答辩的准备工作学生可以从下列问题（第4~10题）中，根据自己实际，选取二三个问题，作好汇报准备，（第1~3题必选）。时间一般不超过10分钟。内容最好烂熟于心中，不看稿纸，语言简明流畅。1．为什么选择这个课题（或题目），研究、写作它有什么学术价值或现实意义。2．说明这个课题的历史和现状，即前人做过哪些研究，取得哪些成果，有哪些问题没有解决，自己有什么新的看法，提出并解决了哪些问题。3．文章的基本观点和立论的基本依据。4．学术界和社会上对某些问题的具体争论，自己的倾向性观点。5．重要引文的具体出处。6．本应涉及或解决但因力不从心而未接触的问题；因认为与本文中心关系不大而未写入的新见解。7．本文提出的见解的可行性。8．定稿交出后，自己重读审查新发现的缺陷。9．写作毕业论文（作业）的体会。10．本文的优缺点。总之，要作好口头表述的准备。不是宣读论文，也不是宣读写作提纲和朗读内容提要。学生答辩注意事项1．带上自己的论文、资料和笔记本。2．注意开场白、结束语的礼仪。3．坦然镇定，声音要大而准确，使在场的所有人都能听到。4．听取答辩小组成员的提问，精神要高度集中，同时，将提问的问题——记在本上。5．对提出的问题，要在短时间内迅速做出反应，以自信而流畅的语言，肯定的语气，不慌不忙地—一回答每个问题。6．对提出的疑问，要审慎地回答，对有把握的疑问要回答或辩解、申明理由；对拿不准的问题，可不进行辩解，而实事求是地回答，态度要谦虚。
毕业答辩稿该如何去写我们在上传论文定稿后就可以为答辩开始准备了，要保证论文答辩的质量和效果，关键在答辩者一边。因此论文作者要顺序通过答辩，在提交了论文之后，不要有松一口气的思想，而应抓紧时间积极准备论文答辩。写好答辩稿。那么该怎么写好一篇答辩稿呢？首先，要写好毕业论文的简介，主要内容应包括论文的题目，指导教师姓名，选择该题目的动机，论文的主要论点、论据和写作体会以及本议题的理论意义和实践意义。其次，要熟悉自己所写论文的全文，尤其是要熟悉主体部分和结论部分的内容，明确论文的基本观点和主论的基本依据；弄懂弄通论文中所使用的主要概念的确切涵义，所运用的基本原理的主要内容；同时还要仔细审查、反复推敲文章中有无自相矛盾、谬误、片面或模糊不清的地方，有无与党的政策方针相冲突之处等等。如发现有上述问题，就要作好充分准备——补充、修正、解说等。只要认真设防，堵死一切漏洞，这样在答辩过程中，就可以做列心中有数、临阵不慌、沉着应战。第三，要了解和掌握与自己所写论文相关联的知识和材料。如自己所研究的这个论题学术界的研究已经达到了什么程度?目前，存在着哪些争议?有几种代表性观点?各有哪些代表性著作和文章?自己倾向哪种观点及理由；重要引文的出处和版本；论证材料的来源渠道等等。这些方面的知识和材料都要在答辩前做到有比较好的了解和掌握。第四，论文还有哪些应该涉及或解决，但因力所不及而未能接触的问题，还有哪些在论文中未涉及到或涉及到很少，而研究过程中确已接触到了并有一定的见解，只是由于觉得与论文表述的中心关联不大而没有写入等等。对上述内容，作者在答辩前都要很好地准备，经过思考、整理，写成提纲，记在脑中，这样在答辩时就可以做到心中有数，从容作答。