关于中国汉字的英文毕业论文

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The League secretary and monitor ___ asked to make a speech at Here is a pen, a few envelops and some paper for you. 3 谓语动词与前面的主语一致 当主语后面跟有with, together with, like, except, but, no less than, as well as 等词引起的短语时,谓语动词与前面的主语一致. The teacher together with some students is visiting the factory. He as well as I wants to go boating. 4 谓语需用单数 1) 代词each和由every, some, no, any等构成的复合代词作主语,或主语中含有each, every, 谓语需用单数. Each of us has a tape-recorder. There is something wrong with my watch. 2) 当主语是一本书或一条格言时,谓语动词常用单数. The Arabian Night is a book known to lovers of English. <一千零一夜>是英语爱好者熟悉的一本好书. 3) 表示金钱,时间.距离.价格或度量衡的复合名词作主语时,通常把这些名词看作一个整体,谓语一般用单数.(用复数也可,意思不变.) Three weeks was allowed for making the necessary preparations. Ten yuan is enough. 5 指代意义决定谓语的单复数 1) 在代词what, which, who, none, some, any, more, most, all等词的单复数由其指代的词的单复数决定. All is right. (一切顺利.) All are present. (所有人都到齐了.) 2) 集体名词作主语时,谓语的数要根据主语的意思来决定.如family, audience, crew, crowd, class, company, committee等词后用复数形式时,意为这个集体中的各个成员,用单数时表示该个集体. His family isn't very large. 他家不是一个大家庭. His family are music lovers. 他的家人都是音乐爱好者. 但集合名词people, police, cattle, poultry(家禽).militia(民兵).vermin等在任何情况下都用复数形式. Are there any police around 3)有些名词,如variety, number, population, proportion, majority 等有时看作单数,有时看作复数. A number of +名词复数+复数动词. The number of +名词复数+单数动词. A number of books have lent out. The majority of the students like English. 6 与后接名词或代词保持一致 1) 用half of, part of, most of, a portion of 等词引起主语时,动词通常与of后面的名词,代词保持一致. Most of his money is spent on books. Most of the students are taking an active part in sports. 2) 在一些短语,如 many a 或 more than one 所修饰的词作主语时,谓语动词多用单数形式.但由more than… of 作主语时,动词应与其后的名词或代词保持一致. Many a person has read the novel. 许多人都读过这本书. More than 60 percent of the students are from the city.百分之六十多的学生都来自这个城市. 主谓一致中的"表里不一"现象 和主语必须在人称和数上保持一致,最基本的原则是:单数主语用单数动词,复数主语用复数动词.但在实际使用当中情况比较复杂,现在学生常犯的主谓一致错误归纳整理如下 1,"more than one +名词"作主语时,谓语动词常用单数.例如: More than one teacher gets the flowers. 不止一个教师得到了花. 2, "many a +名词"作主语时,从意义上看是复数,但谓语动词常用单数.例如: Many a student has been sent to plant trees. 很多学生被派去植树. 3,"half of, the rest of, most of, all of及百分数或分数+of 等后接名词"作主语时,谓语动词形式根据of后的名词而定.例如: Three fourths of the surface of the earth is covered with water.地球表面四分之三为水所覆盖. 4,all指人时,动词用复数;all指物时,动词用单数.例如: "All are present and all is going well." 所有人全部到场了,一切进展顺利 5,what引导的主语从句,谓语动词可视表语而定:表语是单数名词时,动词用单数,相反,则用复数.例如: What they want to get are a number of good books.他们想得到的是大量的好书. 6,and连接的两个单数名词前若用each,every,no修饰,该名词短语作主语时,谓语动词用单数形式.例如: No book and no pen is found in the schoolbag.书包里没有书和钢笔. 7,当主语后面有as well as, with, along with, together with, but, like, rather than, except等引导的短语时,谓语动词要与最前面的主语保持一致.例如: My father as well as his workmates has been to Beijing. 我父亲和他的同事曾去过北京. 8,each作主语的同位语时, 谓语动词由主语来决定,与each无关.例如: They each have a bike. 他们每人有一辆自行车. 9,动词不定式,动词-ing形式短语作主语时,谓语动词常用单数.例如: Going out for a walk after supper is a good habit.晚饭后出去散步是一个好习惯. 10,the following作主语时,谓语动词的数与后面名词的数保持一致.例如: The following are good examples下面是一些好例子. 11,以-ics结尾的学科名词,如politics,physics,mathematics等作主语时,谓语动词用单数.以-s结尾的名词news, works, plastics等同属此类.例如: Politics is now taught in all schools. 现在各学校都开设政治课. 当以-ics结尾的学科名词表示"学科"以外的意义时，用作复数，如：mathematics（运算能力）politics(政治观点)economics（经济意义）等 12,有些用来表示由两个对应部分组成一体的名词复数(trousers, glasses,等)作主语时,前面若有"一条","一副","一把"之类的单位词,动词用单数;若没有单位词或单位词是复数,则谓语动词用复数.例如: The shoes are all right. 这些鞋子都很合适. 还有一些以-s结尾的名词通常用复数：arms（武器）.（记录）.remains（遗体）.thanks等 13,"one and a half +名词"作主语时,谓语动词要用单数.例如: One and a half apples is left on the table. 桌子上有一个半苹果. 14,"One or two more +复数名词"作主语时,谓语动词用复数.例如: One or two persons are sent there to help them do the work. 要派一两个人到那儿去给他们帮忙. 15,"one of+复数名词+ 定语从句"结构中,定语从句的谓语动词要用复数;而在"the only one of +复数名词+定语从句"的结构中,定语从句的谓语动词要用单数.例如: He is one of the students who get there on time.他是准时到达那里的学生之一. 16,表示时间,距离,金钱等的复数名词作主语表达一个整体概念时,谓语动词常用单数,但若强调数量,谓语动词可用复数.例如: One million dollars is a lot of money. 一百万美元是一大笔钱. 四、以-s结尾的名词作主语的主谓一致问题 英语可数名词的规则复数形式是在词尾加-s或-es，但是有一些以-s结尾的名词并不是可数名词。它们用法多样，造成了实际使用上的困难，以下详述了以-s结尾的名词作主语的主谓一致问题。 （一）以-s结尾的疾病名称作主语的主谓一致问题 （二）以-s结尾的游戏名称作主语的主谓一致问题 （三）以-s结尾的地理名称作主语的主谓一致问题 （四）以-ics结尾的学科名称作主语的主谓一致问题 （五）其它以-s结尾的名词的主谓一致问题 （一）以-s结尾的疾病名称作主语的主谓一致问题 以-s结尾的疾病名称作主语的主谓一致问题,如：arthritis,bronchitis,diabetes,mumps,phlebitis,rickets,这类以-s结尾的疾病名称作主语时，谓语动词通常用作单数。 例如： Arthritis causes great pain in the joints of the patient. （二）以-s结尾的游戏名称作主语的主谓一致问题 以-s结尾的游戏名称作主语时，谓语动词通常用作单数。 例如： Darts is basically a easy game. 但当Darts，Marbles等的意义为游戏器具而非游戏名称时，谓语动词通常用作复数。 例如： Three darts are thrown at each turn. All nine skittles were brought down by the good throw. （三）以-s结尾的地理名称作主语的主谓一致问题 某些以-s结尾的地理名称，如果是国名，如the United States，the Netherlands等，因其是单一政治实体，所以谓语动词用作单数。 例如： The United States was hit by the Great Depression in 1930s'. In early January 1996 the Netherlands was hit by its worst storm since 1976. 但如果是群岛、山脉、海峡、瀑布等地理名称作主语，谓语动词用作复数。例如： The West Indies are commonly divided into two parts. （四）以-ics结尾的学科名称作主语的主谓一致问题 某些以-ics结尾的学科名称作主语时，如physics,mathematics,mechanics, optics, acoustics, politics statistics, economics, linguistics, athletics等, 谓语动词通常用作单数。 例如： The third world economics is promising. Athletics is a required course for students of all grades. 但如果这类名词表示学科以外的其它含义，可作复数用。 例如： Athletics have been greatly encouraged at this college. （五）其它以-s结尾的名词的主谓一致问题 A.以-s结尾的由两部分组成的物体名称作主语 英语中有一些通常以-s结尾的由两部分组成的物体名词，如glasses, pincers,pliers,scissors, shorts,suspenders,trouse等 集合名词的主谓一致 集合名词作主语时,主谓一致关系是一个较为复杂的问题.对此类问题我们可以从"数"的角度分为四类. 1)单数—复数型.凡是有复数词尾变化形式的集合名词都属于此类.如:a class—classes; a family—families; a government—governments; an army—armies; a people—peoples; a group—groups; a crowd—crowds; a crew—crews等.这类集合名词强调的是整体性,即当作一个整体或多个整体来看待.属于这类集合名词的单数作主语时,谓语动词用单数;复数形式作主语时,谓语动词用复数. 【例如】 A big crowd often gathers on the square every morning. The government has decided to pass the bill. There are huge crowds in the streets on Sunday. There are many English-speaking peoples in the world. 但应注意,这类集合名词的单数形式有时表示复数概念,所以这些集合名词的单数形式也可归为"单复同形型"中. 2)单数型.这类集合名词表示的是人或事物的整体,即把这类人或事物的全部包括在内,所以只有单数形式.如作主语,谓语动词常用单数.这类名词常见的有:humanity, mankind, proletariat等. 【例如】The proletariat is the greatest class in the history of mankind. In the fields of production and scientific experiment, mankind makes constant progress. 3)复数型.这类集合名词在形式和内容上是相互矛盾的,就是说它们只有单数形式,但表达的都是复数概念.它强调的是集体中的个体性.这类名词有:police, cattle, faculty, flock, machinery, vermin, personnel等.它们作主语时,谓语动词要用复数. 【例如】The police have caught the murder. Our personnel are very highly trained. The vermin are very dangerous. 4)单复同形型.这类集合名词的单数形式既可表示单数也可表示复数.作主语时,用单数动词或复数动词均可,有时意义区别不大. 【例如】The school teaching staff are (is) excellent. The public is (are) requested not to litter in the park. The teaching profession claim(s) to be badly paid. 这类集合名词常见的有:class, family, team, crew, board, herd, committee, party, jury, enemy, audience等. 根据说话人的心理意向若把这个集合名词所代表的人或事物看作一个整体,就认为是单数,用单数动词;若把它所代表的人或事物看作若干个个体的话,就认为其为复数,用复数动词. 试比较:The football team is playing well. 那个足球队打得非常漂亮. The football team are shavings bath and are then coming back here for tea. 足球队员们正在洗澡,然后来这里吃茶点. The family is a very happy one.那个家庭是一个非常幸福的家庭. That family are very pleased about the news of William's success. 全家人对威廉的成功都感到很高兴. 主谓一致( Subject-Verb Concord ) 主谓一致的问题看上去似乎很简单,其实使用起来却不是那么容易,有时候甚至很复杂. 这是因为在不同情况下,处理这一问题所依据的原则各不相同.就其在现代语法中的基本原则而言,通常有三个不同角度的着眼点:1,语法一致 2,意义一致 3,就近原则. 主谓一致的原则是指,主语和谓语从语法形式上取得一致:主语是单数形式,谓语也采取单数形式;主语是复数形式,谓语亦采取复数形式.例如: A grammar book helps you learn something about the rules of a language. (主语是单数形式,谓语也采取单数形式) 语法书帮助你学习语言的某些规则. Grammar books help you learn something about the rules of a language. (主语是复数形式,谓语也采取复数形式) 语法书帮助你学习语言的某些规则. 主语和谓语从语法形式上取得一致的问题远不只上述的那么简单,有许多方面的情况需要去具体地对待: #不定式,动名词,以及从句作主语时应看作单数,谓语动词用单数.例如: Reading often means learning .读书常意味是学习. To read English aloud every morning does you a lot of good.每天早晨朗读英语有许多好处. What he said has been recorded .他说的话已被录音了. ## 不定代词one, every, each, everybody, everyone, one of, no one, nothing, nobody, someone, somebody, either, neither, many a 等作主语或是修饰主语时应看作单数,谓语动词用单数.例如: Neither of my sisters likes sports .我的妹妹中没人喜欢运动. Many a student takes a walk on campus after dinner.许多学生晚饭后常在校园里散步. Every boy and girl shows great interest in extra-curriculum activities .每个男孩和女孩对课外活动都表现出很大的兴趣. ### 表示国家,机构,事件,作品等名称的专有名词作主语时应看作单数,谓语动词用单数.例如: One Thousand And One Nights tells people lots of mysterious bits of folklore . 《一千零一夜》给人们讲了许多神秘的民间传说. The United States is leading the world in science and technology . 美国常在世界科技方面领先. The United Nations play an important role in the international affairs . 联合国在国际事务中起着重要作用. #### a portion, a series of, a kind of, the number of等与名词构成名词短语作主语时应看作单数,谓语动词用单数.例如: A series of high technology products has been laid out in the exhibition. 一系列高科技产品已在展览上展出. The number of printing mistakes in some recent books often surprises people even to death. 近来一些书籍里印刷错误的数量让人吃惊得要命. A substantial portion of the reports is missing .这些报告都没有提及实质问题. A kind of rose in the garden smells very pleasant.这座花园里有一种玫瑰香气怡人. ##### 由some, several, both, few, many, a number of 等词修饰主语,或是由它们自身作主语时应看作复数,谓语动词用复数.另外,由and连接两个主语时,谓语一般用复数.例如: On the seashore, some people are playing volleyball and some are lying in the sun. 海边,有些人在打排球,有些人躺着晒太阳. Both of us are fond of watching football games .我们俩都喜欢看足球赛. A number of will-be graduates are voluntarily going to work in the West of China. 许多即将毕业的学生打算自愿去中国西部工作. ###### 有些短语,如:a lot of, most of, any of, half of , three fifths of, eighty percent of, some of, none of, the rest of , all of等后接不可数名词,或是单数形式的名词作主语时应看作单数,谓语动词用单数;但如果后接可数名词的复数形式作主语时应看作复数,谓语动词用复数.例如: A lot of money in the shop was stolen yesterday when the electricity was suddenly cut off. 昨天突然断电时,那家商店丢失了许多钱. A lot of books about Investment Fund have been published recently. 最近出版了许多关于投资基金的书籍. 意义一致( Notional Concord ) 这一原则是指,从意义着眼来解决主谓一致问题.有时主语形式上为单数,但意义上却是复数,那么谓语依意义也用复数形式;而有时主语形式上为复数,但意义上却是单数,那么谓语依意义亦用单数形式. 1) 当主语后面接由as well as, as much as, accompanied by, including, in addition to, more than,no less than, rather than, together with等引导的词组时,其谓语动词的形式要依主语的单复数而定.在这样的句子里,这些词所引导的词组不影响主语自身的单,复数形式,它们在句子里其实是状语.也就是说,我们完全可以将这些词组搬到句首或是放到句末去.从表面上我们也可以看出,它们与主语之间有","隔开.例如: Petroleum, along with fuel gas, has recently risen in price. 最近石油和燃料煤气的价格上涨了. The teacher, with all his students, is going to have a picnic this weekend.老师打算这个周末与学生们一起去野炊. The students, together with their teacher , are going to have a picnic this weekend.学生们打算这个周末与他们的老师一起去野炊. The warehouse, with all its stockings, was burned last night. 昨晚,那个仓库连同其所有的货物一起被烧毁了. 我们完全可以将上面句子中的那些词组都分别搬到句首或是放到句末去,因为它们在句子里是状语: Petroleum has recently risen in price, along with fuel gas. Along with fuel gas, petroleum has recently risen in price. The students are going to have a picnic this weekend together with their teacher. As well as the suitcase, the missing things have been found and returned to the owner. The missing things have been found and returned to the owner, as well as the suitcase. 2) 表示时间,金钱,距离,体积,重量,面积,数字等词语作主语时,其意义若是指总量应看作单数,谓语动词用单数;但如果其意义是指"有多少数量"则应该看作是复数,那么谓语动词也应该用复数.例如: Four weeks are often approximately regarded as one month. 人们常大约地将四个星期看成一个月. Twenty years stands for a long period in one's life. 二十年在人的一生里意味着一个很长的时期. Eighty dollars are enough for a student to spend on food for one week.八十块钱给一个学生吃一个月的伙食是足够的了. 3) 形容词前加定冠词即"the + 形容词"作主语时,其意义若是指个人或是抽象概念应看作单数,谓语动词用单数;但如果其意义是指一类人则应该看作是复数,那么谓语动词也应该用复数.例如: The young, on the one hand, often think of the old conservative. On the other hand, the old always consider the young inexperience. 一方面,青年人常认为老年人保守;另一方面,老年人总是认为青年人没有经验. In many stories, the good are well rewarded and the bad are doomed to unfortunate. 在许多故事里,好人总是有好报;坏人注定要倒霉. 4)当and连接两个并列主语在意义上指同一人,同一物,同一事或者同一概念时,应看作单数,谓语动词用单数.另外,当and 连接两个形容词去修饰一个单数形式的主语时,其实是指两种不同的事物,主语则应该看作是复数, 那么谓语动词也应该用复数.例如:War and peace is a constant theme in history. 战争与和平是一个历史上的永恒的主题. Chinese and Japanese silk are of good quality. 中国丝绸和日本丝绸质量都很好. Different people respectively welcome White and black coffee. 加奶的咖啡与清咖啡都分别受到不同人们的喜爱. 5) 集体名词作主语时,谓语动词的数取决于主语的意义:主语表示整体时视为单数,谓语动词用单数;主语表示集体中的个体成员时视为复数,谓语动词用复数.这类集体名词常见的有:army, audience, cattle, class, club, committee, crowd, family, government, group, majority, minority, part, people, police, public, staff, team等等,其中cattle,people,police一般看成复数形式.例如: The family are all fond of football. 那一家人都喜欢足球. The family is the tiniest cell of the society. 家庭是社会的最小的细胞. The public has every reason to be cautious of professional deception. 人民大众完全有理由谨防职业骗局. The public now come to know the whole story. 人们现在越来越清楚那是怎么回事了. 就近原则( Principle of Proximity ) 这一原则是指,谓语动词的人称和数常常与最近作主语的词语保持一致.常出现在这类句子中的连词有:or, either… or …, neither… nor … ,not only… but also …等.例如: Either I or they are responsible for the result of the matter. 不是我,就是他们要对那件事的结局负责任. Neither the unkind words nor the unfriendly attitude has caused me any distress.既不是那些不友好的话,也不是那不友好的态度让我沮丧. Not only he but also all his family are keen on concerts. 不仅仅是他,而且是他全家人都很热衷于音乐会. Neither his family nor he knows anything about it. 他全家人和他都不知道那件事. 英语中,主语的单复数形式决定着谓语动词的单复数形式. 主谓一致必须遵循以下三条 原则:语法一致原则,意义一致原则,就近一致原则.根据这三条原则,现从以下几个 方面进行总结: 一, 并列结构作主语时的主谓一致 1.由and 连接的两个单数名词作主语时,谓语动词一般根据语法一致的原则用复数. 如: A young man and a girl want to go there. 一个青年男子和一个姑娘想去那里. 但如果在意义上指同一个人,同一件事或同一个概念时,谓语动词要用单数形式.如: A needle and thread was found on the floor. 在地板上找到了针线(穿了线的针). 2. 当each ...and each..., every...and every..., no...and no..., many a...and many a ...结构作主语时,谓语动词用单数形式.如: ①No man and no animal is to be found on the moon. 在月球上没发现人和动物. ②Many a doctor and many a nurse is busy with their work. 许多医生和护士都忙于他们的工作. 3.一个单数名词同时被两个不同的形容词修饰,表示两个不同的概念时,谓语动词一 般用复数.如: Ancient and modern history are the subjects we are studying. 古代史和现代史是我们目前学习的课程. 但如果表示的是同一概念时应用单数.如: The last and most difficult lesson is lesson14. 14课是最后一课也是最难的一课. 4. 由not only... but also ... , either...or ... , neither... nor... , ... or...连接的并列主语,谓语动词通常依就近 一致原则决定.如: Either the players or the coach is responsible for the defeat. 不是运动员就是教练应该对这次比赛的失利负责. 5

Western novels in comparison First, Western novels in the history of the development of Western novels are based on myths and legends of its origin. In ancient times, science developed, out of fear of nature, the working people out of the imagination is the key to many of the world "God", describing the personification of God is a myth; who will describe the deified, that is legend. China opened the world's Pan story, the story of San Juan Five Emperors, the West Greek mythology, Roman mythology, Norse mythology, and so on are all typical works. East and West, the original novel, is closely linked with the history, as historical records complement the event. China Pre-Qin prose in the fable, the Han dynasty in the history books, biographies, the Wei and Jin Zhi, Zhi-person novel; the West of ancient Babylon, "the United States and Ji Jia disabilities epic", in ancient Greece, "Homer's epic," "Aesop's Fables "And so on, fall into this category, fiction, novels such novels have been about the characteristics of fiction, it is still not the literary creation, directly from the private collection record, so this type of fiction plot is relatively simple, writing rough comparison. Ban Gu said, "On the Street Lane words, hearsay are made of" is a novel kind of accurate assessment of the image. China's Tang Dynasty, the novel is only from history and literature become a creativity. Tang Dynasty culture has developed, the author's ideas are more open, the legend came into being at this time, Li Zhaowei "Liu Yi Chuan", Po Chu's "Everlasting Regret," Wolf's "Everlasting Regret Chuan" And so on, are made in accordance with the creation of the legend. For the fictional story of the Tang Dynasty more emphasis on imagination and literary talent, not just the history of the nature of things, but as the history of Zhi Zhi who is also the novel did not stop. The Legend of the Song Dynasty to the novel on a gradual decline, which followed the rise of this so that after processing will become a scholar so many novel and Romance novels such as "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", "Outlaws of the Marsh", "Journey to the West." The author of such novels is the use of private creative and re-created to describe the circumstances of the touching scenes of brilliant and vivid active in shaping the character known, there are obvious story-telling style of language. Here by the redevelopment, it will become an independent literary creation rather than things to come together with the civil process, the representative of this type is the "Golden Lotus", it was an open and ordinary life on the road, the reality is that literature has come a long way The development of the latter's "A Dream of Red Mansions" in ancient China Geng Shiba realism to the novels of the summit. "54" after the novelist began to learn from China's western fiction writing practices, and gradually out a new path. Western novels, is the "Renaissance" after the rapid development of mature. The development of the Middle Ages novel near-stagnation in the West, 14, the end of the century "Renaissance" to overthrow the literature of the Church of control, 15, appeared in the western end of the century to promote freedom of thought and the liberation of personality in order to describe the reality of life and portray characters from all walks of life for the content of the Humanist novels, is to tie in with this type of novel anti-feudal Europe at the time of arising at the same time it also set the novel in the West to human describing the tone of the main things. Jiaqiu Italy's "Decameron", Spain's Cervantes "Don Quixote" is the kind of representative works of fiction. The resulting novel is a classical, elegant favor of its national language to standardize the writing of this novel in 17th century France's most well-developed. As a note on behalf of Corneille's "Cid" neoclassical story of the rise of Western novels have been a language substantially improved. The beginning of the 18th century to promote popular science knowledge, enlightenment of the public consciousness for the purpose of the Enlightenment novels, of which there are relatively well-known German Goethe's "Faust", the United Kingdom Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and the Swift "Gulliver's Travels" and so on, this type of novel to the emergence of the bourgeois revolution at the time to mold public opinion. In the 19th century, romantic fiction, realistic novels and critical realism novel turn to occupy the leading position in the field of fiction. Romantic novels, such as France Victor Hugo's "Notre Dame de Paris", Goethe's "juvenile Witt of trouble" and so on, imaginative, unusual ideas, language and imaginative, strong feelings. Efforts to reflect the reality of the novel is the essence of life, and depict typical life of a typical phenomenon in the United Kingdom Dickens, France and Germany are of such novels as a representative of the writer. Critical realism novels exposed the efforts of the decadent feudal system and capitalist society, the dark, in-depth criticism of the reality of evil, France Balzac and Maupassant, the United Kingdom of Charlotte, Bronte,. Russia's Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, the United States of a large number of writers such as Mark Twain's works belong to this category. Value today, the three novels in the West is still the most important of the three types of literary fiction. East-West novel on the history of the development of more or less the case. Second, the characteristics of the novel in the West In addition to the basic characteristics of the novel, the story of the West also have their own characteristics are as follows: 1, the traditional Chinese novel attention to the characters, language and the details of the description, in contradiction to the conflict to display the images, but the character of a single, small changes in the absence of the main flu. Western novels are more people pay attention to the psychological description, stressed that mining figure in the subconscious mind, good at writing full, the changes in the strong sense of the main characters. Again, "coach Lin Feng Snow Mountain Temple" in the figure is only through dialogue and action leads to contradictions and conflicts, but Anna Karenina Wogui before a series of conflicts only with his description of the psychological will be able to express their clear; for poetry in Lin In the performance of her literary talent, and Paul with his inner monologue of the ideal; Zhang Zhong-Yong has only the character, but Jane Eyre's character is the brave, strong, warm, kind-hearted, and so many of the character and rubbing and Cheng's. In short, people in the area described in the West has its own unique features. 2, China compared with Western fiction novel plot twists and turns more and more complete story. Plot twists and turns, the story is complete fiction China's unique traditional arts. The Wei and Jin Zhi Zhi people on the novel twists and turns with vivid characteristics. Tang legend in the layout of many of the famous, magnificent anomaly, rigorous and clever, dramatic plot development. The contents of the Ming and Qing Dynasties novels scattered irregular, undulating waves, Cuoluoyouzhi, careful structure, an integral whole. "A Dream of Red Mansions", everywhere She Fu, Hui turning point, the story of Jia's best writing. Western plot in respect of the outstanding works, although there are many, but it can not be compared with the Chinese novel. 3, concise and lively Chinese language novel, rich in content and rich Western novels. Chinese folk artists absorbed the novel language, at the same time inherited the fine traditions of ancient prose, often a few words will be able to outline the incident or the people. Western novels in the author includes a broad range of knowledge, involve the community in many ways, so rich in content and rich people can gain knowledge in many areas. Engels said he was in Balzac's novel about 19th century France's domestic situation than he received any reports are more. Western novels have different characteristics, and also in the West different aesthetic concepts to a certain extent related. 4, Western novels have been the rule of the feudal culture of oppression destroyed. Chinese feudal culture makes the development of the novel is extremely difficult, Ming and Qing Dynasties more people to write stories for shame, so many great writers living, creating the conditions are not covered, many of the great works of authors who do not know. Western novels in the feudal culture makes almost the whole of the Middle Ages in the development of extremely slow, and many talented writers were forced to church services, wrote some of the religious nature of the article dry hole. Third, Western novels in the future prospects for the development of End of the Qing Dynasty, China and the West have begun to understand the other side of the system, the advantages of the novel in the West have been constantly learn from each other. Of course, due to historical reasons, the Chinese side of the draw a little more. To this day, the novelist in the West efforts are still two researchers in the novel's artistic charm, although the different languages of each other's appreciation of the arts to a certain extent, but the United States are interlinked. We have every reason to believe that in the near future, the novel art in the West will ultimately learn from each other and integrate, develop and reach new artistic heights. References: "Foreign Literature" Shanghai Translation Publishing House Zhou Xu Liang "Contemporary Literature election," Zhang Zhong, such as Beijing University Publishing House "Chinese literature history of the development of" Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House Liu Jie "Literary History of Europe" People's Literature Publishing House Yangzhou Han Wu Da-yuan Zhao Rui radish "Three high school language textbook used by the five dates of the" People's Education Press仅供参考，请自借鉴。希望对您有帮助。

晚明中国文学史 Chinese Literature History of the Late Ming Dynasty Culture and ScienceThe culture of the Ming Dynasty developed rapidly, especially in literature. Three of the four great classical masterpieces of Chinese literature - Journey to the West, Outlaws of the Marsh, and Romance of the Three Kingdoms were written in the Ming Dynasty. Besides, another two well-known novels - Peony Pavilion and The Plum in the Golden Vase were also excellent works in that period. Meanwhile, folk literature prospered, represented by a group of writers such as Tang Yin, Song Lian, Zhang Dai, Wu Weiye and Yuan Hongdao. In philosophy, Wang Yangming's new thoughts called 'philosophy of the mind' formed a new thinking wave which helped shape a new social trend. Before the 16th century, the scientific development of the Ming Dynasty had been in the forefront of the scientific books appeared in the early and middle period, namely, medical book Compendium of Materia Medica by Li Shizhen, Song Yingxing's Heavenly Creations about handicraft industry, Xu Guangqi's Complete Treatise on Agriculture and Xu Xiake's Travels of Xu Xiake. All these have been the precious documents for today's study of the ancient technology. Additionally, the military technology was relatively advanced in that period. A kind of gun called 'huochong gun' and powerful artillery were invented in the late period of the Ming Dynasty. It is said that a man named Wan Hoo even tried to fly to the sky by sitting in a chair propelled by gunpowder sticks. Unfortunately, he failed and became the first sacrifice in human conquest of the Ming period was a time of great ferment and change in Chinese literature. At the top, literature and literary style had become moribund, fossilized by the insistence by the scholars on a rigid style and adherence to the Chinese classics. In the areas, then, of classical Chinese literary forms, such as essays, philosophy, and poetry, all written in Classical Chinese, Chinese literature during the Ming is generally stultified and conservative. The vital and dynamic literary activity, however, occurred at the fringes of literary respectability: in popular literary forms such as drama, the novel, the short story, and a racy and popular verse form called Shih-chu songs. The rise of popular literature during the Ming period can be ascribed to several reasons. The economic expansion created a middle class of merchants and even laborers with more money to spare on diversionary activities. Standards of living increased all throughout China, but particularly in the south. Innovations in paper manufacture made paper cheaper, and the Ming period is characterized by the phenomenal growth of printers all throughout the empire. During the entire Ming period, the reigns of the Chia-ching emperor (1522-1566) and the Wan-li emperor (1572-1619) were the most active periods in literary publishing. The Drama The drama had developed in China during the Yüan period. Yüan drama was primarily characterized by simplicity, naturalness, and rigid rules for composition and acting. The Hong-wu emperor was himself very fond of drama; several of his sons wrote dramas and composed music for them. Ming drama, unlike Yüan drama, however, soon became a much more flexible and elaborate medium. All drama was in verse, and the stage was bare of scenery. Actors, however, dressed in magnificent costumes and elaborate makeup. Chinese theater was musical; the actors didn't recite lines, but sung them accompanied by an orchestra. By the end of the Ming, the stage had become one of the most popular pastimes in the country. The Novel The most important literary form invented in the Ming period was the vernacular novel; it was written in vernacular rather than Classical Chinese. As a form it grew out of storytelling and Buddhist preaching; these were the two most popular literary forms during the Southern Sung. The first novels in the Ming were only simple collections of manuscript stories that storytellers collected for their own use. Eventually, however, these stories were collated by more educated literary artists and took the form of long novels. Confucian scholars were divided about the novel; some declared that it was vulgar, while others advocated the development of new literary forms to fit the times. Many scholars felt that there was nothing more to accomplish in standard Chinese letters or philosophy; it was this group of highly literary and educated men who developed the long novel into an art form. Written in plain and common language, the long novel dealt with philosophical, religious and social issues, while remaining humorous and filled with adventure. The three most famous Ming novels are Journey to the West (Hsi-yu chi , also called, The Monkey King ), Tale of the Water Margin (Shui-hu chuan ), and The Plum in the Golden Vase (Chin-p'ing mei ). Journey to the West is perhaps the most read and most famous classic Chinese novel; it was originally a series of oral and written stories and was composed in its final format by the scholar-official, Wu Ch'eng-en (1500?-1582) and published in 1592. It is a supernatural story about gods and demons fighting for supremacy. It is loosely based on a real historical character and his life, the Chinese Buddhist monk, Hsuan Tsang (602-664). He journeyed to India and brought back the Sutra, or Buddhist holy book, and translated it into Chinese on his return to China. The novel, however, introduces a wealth of allegorical and supernatural elements, including fables, legends, popular superstitions and monster stories; the novel is suffused with Confucian and Taoist elements as well. The novel has two parts: the first part narrates the early history of the Monkey King spirit, a rebellious spirit born out of a rock. He defies Yu Huang Ta Ti, "The Great Emperor of Jade," that rules heaven, earth, sea, and the underworld. After conquering several areas of creation and fighting with the Heavenly Army, the defiant monkey spirit grows stronger and more clever. Desperate, the Great Emperor of Jade asks Buddha for help. The Buddha then offers to make the Monkey Spirit a disciple and, with a Pig spirit, Pigsy, and a former sea-monster, Sandy, the Buddha begins his journey west to find the sutra. Thus begins the second part which consists of eighty-one dangers encountered by Buddha and his three spirits; these adventures display the powers and hidden abilities of the three spirit disciples. Tale of the Water Margin is a loosely connected series of tales about a group of bandits; the stories are loosely based on actual historical events in the Sung dynasty. We have no idea who composed the stories into their final form, but literary scholars believe that the novel had been shaped and re-shaped by scholar-officials for over a century before it was published in the 1580's. Tale of the Water Margin was the most influential and popular novel of the Ming period. The Plum in the Golden Vase is a satirical novel set in the Sung period that really concerns Ming society during the Wan-li period (1572-1619). The novel centers around the domestic life of Hsi-men Ch'ing, a corrupt merchant with six wives and concubines who slowly destroys himself with conspicuous consumption, political imbroglios, and sexual escapades. The core of the novel is a critique of the changes that the economic boom of the sixteenth century brought to Ming society; in particular, the novel argues that the economic growth of the late Ming was eroding traditional values. The corruption and spiritual exhaustion of the household of Hsi-men Ch'ing reflects the larger corruption and materiality of late sixteenth century Ming culture. Shi-chü Songs The rise of the vernacular Chinese novel was mirrored by the rise of vernacular, popular poetry. The most popular of these new genres of poetry were the Shih-chü songs. Regarded by the literary classes as vulgar, the Shih-chü songs were indecent, rhyming narratives. Popular in both the South and the North, common people memorized, performed, and listened to them all the time; it is unquestionable that Shih-chü songs were the most dynamic and universal aspects of Chinese popular culture during the Ming. In the late sixteenth century, Shih-chü songs were compiled and published. --the last truly Chinese dynasty,unique to be sandwiched between 2 alien dynasties,the preceding Yuan Mongol rule & the Ching Manchu rule that followed the Ming--famous for its porcelain creations,identified easily by its blue-white patterns,as seen in the 2nd picture of Ming porcelain vase found at the end of this page--drama & novel writing reached a second peakDrama--Ming drama works remained to be performed as Chinese opera--different from Yuan drama: Ming drama is Southern-styled,with the music of Kunshan,to become a new form called the Music of Kunshan (kun shan qiang) or commonly known as 'kun qu',hence is termed as Southern drama--also known as marvel dramas 'zhuan qi',inheriting its characteristics of exploiting the strange & fantastic of the Tang & Sung marvel dramas1. 'The Peony Pavillion' ('Mu Dan Ting'): --a love story about a lady who dreamt of being married to a scholar & later died when she realised it was a dream a spirit,she finally united with him & when she was revived,they overcame obstacles to be married happily ever of similar themes to 'The Western Chamber'--written by Tang Xianzhu (1550-1616),a contemporary of William Shakespeare,who also wrote other plays including 'The Purple Hairpin' ('Zhi Chai Ji'),a tragic love story of a heartless scholar & a courtesan to the West' ('Xi You Ji')--The 3rd of the 4 greatest Chinese novels,written by Wu Cheng-en--great fantasy novel about the brave Sun Wukong,also known as Monkey & his adventures on his pligrimage to India to get Buddhist with his teacher Hsuan Tsang & 3 fellow disciples, Zhu Bajie(Wuneng) {Pigsy},Sha Wujing (Sandy) & the White Horse who originally was a dragon prince,with the 5 pligrims eventually reaching enlightenment to be revelled as gods by people even till popular & well-loved by people of all ages--based on the true story of the monk Hsuan Tsang who travelled to India during the reign of Tang Taizhong & the tale gradually became spiced with magical exploits & companions & came to be what it's known now2.'The Plum in the Golden Vase' ('Jin Ping Mei')--1st Chinese novel to be written alone by an author from a specific Chinese perspective & a world-historical context,a landmark in the development of narrative art,first published in 1617--a very long,complex & sophisticated novel with equal achievements to the Japanese classic 'The Tale of Genji' (1010 AD) & the 'Don Quixote',the Spanish classic by Cervantes (1615)--written by the anonymous 'The Scoffing Scholar of Lanling' ('Lan Ling Xiao Xiao Sheng'),it remains till now a forbidden book & is banned in Chinese areas--1st work to be so explicit in the details of sex,deemed pornographic,but with intricate characterisation--nonetheless its name & brief storyline is well-known by all,including minors since it was derived from a section in 'The Water Margin' ('Wu Song Kills his Sister-in-law') where Wu Song,1 of the 108 heroes kills his unfaithful sister-in-law Pan Jinlian (Golden-Lotus) who conspired with her lover Ximen Ching (mocked now as Simon King when pronounced in Cantonese & killed by Wu Song too) to murder Wu Dalang,Wu Song's author added in new characters & lengthened the period from months to years before Wu Song finally killed title in English & Mandarin are derived from the names of the 3 female leads,the 3 flirtatious concubines of Ximen Ching: Golden-Lotus (Pan Jinlian),Little Vase (Li Pin-er) & Vase's maid Spring Plum (Pang ChunMei)--in the end,after Vase & Ximen Ching died,Lotus is killed by Wu Song while waiting to be married as another man's concubine,Ximen Ching & Plum(after being sold as another man's concubine) die respectively of sexual excess from orgies while Vase dies of an illness--reflects the debaucheries of society

Introduction to Chinese Calligraphy Chinese calligraphy (Brush calligraphy) is an art unique to Asian cultures. Shu (calligraphy), Hua (painting), Qin (a string musical instrument), and Qi (a strategic boardgame) are the four basic skills and disciplines of the Chinese literati. Regarded as the most abstract and sublime form of art in Chinese culture, "Shu Fa" (calligraphy) is often thought to be most revealing of one's personality. During the imperial era, calligraphy was used as an important criterion for selection of executives to the Imperial court. Unlike other visual art techniques, all calligraphy strokes are permanent and incorrigible, demanding careful planning and confident execution. Such are the skills required for an administrator / executive. While one has to conform to the defined structure of words, the expression can be extremely creative. To exercise humanistic imagination and touch under the faceless laws and regulations is also a virtue well appreciated. By controlling the concentration of ink, the thickness and adsorptivity of the paper, and the flexibility of the brush, the artist is free to produce an infinite variety of styles and forms. In contrast to western calligraphy, diffusing ink blots and dry brush strokes are viewed as a natural impromptu expression rather than a fault. While western calligraphy often pursue font-like uniformity, homogeneity of characters in one size is only a craft. To the artist, calligraphy is a mental exercise that coordinates the mind and the body to choose the best styling in expressing the content of the passage. It is a most relaxing yet highly disciplined exercise indeed for one's physical and spiritual well being. Historically, many calligraphy artists were well-known for their longevity. Brush calligraphy is not only loved and practiced by Chinese. Koreans and Japanese equally adore calligraphy as an important treasure of their heritage. Many Japanese schools still have the tradition of having a student contest of writing big characters during beginning of a new school year. A biannual gathering commemorating the Lanting Xu by Wang Xi Zhi (The most famous Chinese calligrapher in Jin dynasty, ) is said to be held ceremonially in Japan. There is a national award of Wang Xi Zhi prize for the best calligraphy artist. Not too long ago, Korean government officials were required to excel in calligraphy. The office of Okinawa governor still displays a large screen of Chinese calligraphy as a dominating decor. In the West, Picasso and Matisse are two artists who openly declared the influence by Chinese calligraphy on their works.多谢你采纳了我的二个答案。但中国书法这篇不行吗？这是专门介绍中国的书法（毛笔书法）的。再奉上另一篇：Chinese Calligraphy The Chinese Brush Calligraphy is one of the traditional four arts which was once an important critical standard for the Chinese literati in the imperial era and now prevails not only in China but also worldwide as a unique branch of art. Calligraphy is so abstract and sublime that in Chinese culture it is universally regarded to be the most revealing power of a person. While one has conformed to the defined structure of words, the expression can be displayed with great creativity by individuals. To become an artist or expert in calligraphy, one has to practice word by word and stroke by stroke until the spirit of the practice gets into one's mind. Just as Chinese Qi Gong, the Chinese brush calligraphy can temper a person into a state in which one can apply subconsciousness got from the daily practice to control the concentration of ink and the compatibility of font and size of each piece or word. In contrast to the Western calligraphy, diffusing ink blots and dry brush strokes are viewed as a natural and free impromptu expression. All the varieties of the operation depend on the mental exercise that coordinates the mind and the body to perform the proper sense to choose the proper way in expressing the content of the passage. Calligraphy is considered as an active way of keeping one fit and health for the practice is either relaxing or self-entertaining. Historically, many calligraphy artists both in China and Japan were well known for their longevity.

1、英文

Chinese calligraphy is an ancient writing art of Chinese characters. From oracle bone inscriptions.

stone drum inscriptions and bronze inscriptions (Zhong Dingwen) to large seal inscriptions, small seal inscriptions and official scripts, to cursive scripts.

regular scripts and running scripts of the Eastern Han, Wei and Jin Dynasties, Chinese calligraphy has been exuding artistic charm.

Calligraphy is a unique traditional art in China. Chinese characters were created by the working people. They began to record things by pictures.

After thousands of years of development, they have evolved into today's characters. Because their ancestors invented writing with brushes, they have produced calligraphy.

From ancient times to modern times, brush writing has been the main way to write Chinese characters. As for other writing forms, such as hard pen, finger book, etc.

their writing rules are not quite different from brush writing, but basically similar.

Calligraphy refers to the writing style, structure and constitution according to the characteristics and meanings of the characters, making it an aesthetic work of art.

2、中文

中国书法是一门古老的汉字的书写艺术，从甲骨文、石鼓文、金文（钟鼎文）演变而为大篆、小篆、隶书，至定型于东汉、魏、晋的草书、楷书、行书等，书法一直散发着艺术的魅力。

书法是中国特有的一种传统艺术。中国汉字是劳动人民创造的，开始以图画记事，经过几千年的发展，演变成了当今的文字，又因祖先发明了用毛笔书写，便产生了书法。

古往今来，均以毛笔书写汉字为主，至于其他书写形式，如硬笔、指书等，其书写规律与毛笔字相比，并非迥然不同，而是基本相通。

书法是指按照文字特点及其含义，以其书体笔法、结构和章法书写，使之成为富有美感的艺术作品。

扩展资料：

中国的历史文明是一个历时性、线性的过程，中国的书法艺术在这样大的时代背景下展示着自身的发展面貌。

在书法的萌芽时期（殷商至汉末三国），文字经历由甲骨文、古文（金文）、大篆（籀文）、小篆、隶（八分）、草书、行书、真书等阶段，依次演进。

在书法的明朗时期（晋南北朝至隋唐），书法艺术进入了新的境界。由篆隶趋从于简易的草行和真书，它们成为该时期的主流风格。

大书法家王羲之的出现使书法艺术大放异彩，他的艺术成就传至唐朝倍受推崇。同时，唐代一群书法家蜂拥而起，如：虞世南、欧阳询、楮遂良、颜真卿、柳公权等大名家。

在书法造诣上各有千秋、风格多样。经历宋、元、明、清，中国书法成为一个民族符号，代表了中国文化博大精深和民族文化的永恒魅力。

参考资料来源：百度百科——中国书法