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流行病[liú xíng bìng]
epidemic (disease); 〈喻〉widespread social malpractice (or evil)
流行病 [liú xíng bìng]
他们估计在流行病结束之前会有17,000到20,000头牛死去。
They estimated that between 17,000 and 20,000 cows would die before the epidemic had run its course
《柯林斯高阶英汉双解学习词典》
10年前的今天，美国疾病控制中心敷衍其事地发出了第一份警告：一场世界范围的流行病可能会出现。
Ten years ago today the US Center for Disease Control published the first faint warnings of a worldwide epidemic.
《柯林斯高阶英汉双解学习词典》
卫生局试图消灭这种流行病。
The sanitary board tries to stamp out the epidemic.
这种流行病传播范围之广令人惊惶不安。
The magnitude of the epidemic was frightening.
爸爸这几天得了一种“怪病”，不笑的时候很正常，一笑起来他的嘴巴歪了，左边眼睛闭不拢了，我看他的脸感觉好奇怪啊，妈妈说这个毛病叫“面瘫”，是面神经麻痹，需要针灸，吃药治疗。可能最近爸爸太辛苦了，白天医院里开完刀回家还要监督我学习、练琴，等我上床睡觉了他还要忙自己的论文，一直到很晚才睡觉。我要听话点，自觉点，不用爸爸妈妈操心我的学习，这样爸爸的病才会快点好起来。
My father had a few days ago, a "strange disease", do not laugh when the normal, laughing his mouth crooked, and the left side of the eyes closed, and I look at his face feeling strange ah, my mother said the disease called " Facial paralysis "is facial nerve palsy, need acupuncture, medication treatment. May be too hard my father recently, during the day and the hospital opened the knife to go home but also to monitor my study, practicing piano, so I went to bed he was busy with their own papers, until late to sleep. I want to listen to point, consciously, do not have my father and mother to worry about my study, so my father's disease will soon get better.
放学后回到家，打开门一看，家里静悄悄的，心里想：今天怎么没看到妈妈的忙碌的身影呢？
我试着朝妈妈的房间走去，推开卧室的门，呀！妈妈怎么躺在床上了呢？我轻轻的走到床前，妈妈的脸色很苍白，我摸了摸妈妈的头，啊，好烫！妈妈发烧了，怎么办？
于是我赶紧跑到药店，照着我吃的药买。到了家里，我赶紧把水倒在杯子，小心翼翼地来到她身边。说：“妈妈快起来吃药，吃完药就好了。”妈妈接过杯子虚弱的说：“谢谢你，我的好儿子。”看着妈妈把药吃下去，我真高兴。
After school home, open the door to see, the family quietly, and thought: how did not see my mother's busy figure today?
I tried to walk towards my mother's room and push the door of the bedroom, how was my mother lying in bed? I gently went to bed, my mother's face was pale, I touched my mother's head, ah Okay, how is it?
So I quickly went to the pharmacy, according to the medicine I eat to buy. To the home, I quickly poured the water in the cup, carefully came to her side. Said: "Mom quickly get up medicine, eat the medicine like a." Mom took the cup weak and said: "Thank you, my good son." Look at her mother to eat the medicine, I am so happy.
现在天气变化越来越大了。
在上体育课时，我发现旁边红花队的人少了五六个，队伍一下短了一大截，其他队远远超过了它，可见生病的人不少。想想上周体育课，我在的梅花鹿队一定少了生病的我，那时我正在医院打针。再瞧瞧两个男生队，一个不少。我想：他们一定常锻炼身体，要不身体怎么这么好。女生们，为自己争点气吧。
今天我刚进教室就被马丽媛抱住了，她们都想我。在我领读时，我还知道了，跟我一起领读的马周佩涵也生病了，而且跟我一样今天回到学校上课。我希望生病的同学早日康复，在有浓浓药味的医院里呆着可不是那么好受。
Now the weather is getting bigger and bigger.
In the physical education, I found the side of the safflower team less five or six, the team about a short cut, the other team far more than it, showing a lot of people sick. Think of last week's physical education class, I was in the deer team must be sick of me, then I was in the hospital injection. And then look at the two boys team, a lot. I think: they must always exercise, or how the body so good. Girls, fight for their own gas it.
Today, I was just into the classroom was Ma Liyuan hugged, they want me. When I read, I also know, with me to read the horse Zhou Peihan also sick, and like me back to school today. I hope that the sick students recover soon, in a thick drugy hospital stay is not so easy.
今天早上我还在床上睡觉的时候，妈妈传来一声尖叫：“哎呀！我的脖子报废了！”我一骨碌的爬了起来，冲向妈妈的卧室，只见她的脖子只能歪着了。我问：“你怎么了？”，爸爸说：“妈妈早上起来运动的时候用力过猛把脖子的筋给扭了。”我说：“她怎么只能歪着脖子啊？”爸爸解释说：“如果把脖子直起来妈妈就会非常非常疼。”我想妈妈是肯定要去医院了，果真妈妈疼得受不了，必须去医院。突然我灵光一闪，想出一个好办法，上回妈妈用仙人掌给我治疗腮腺炎，这回我也可以用仙人掌给妈妈治疗脖子呀！我把这个想法告诉了妈妈，妈妈说：“仙人掌是清热解毒的，而我现在要的是活血化瘀，仙人掌治不了我的脖子。”唉！我要是能找到一种能治百病的东西就好了！
有一天，狮子大王生病了。
小熊知道后急忙告诉了小兔、小猴。小熊说：我们要不要去看看狮子大王啊？小兔说：好啊，好啊！小猴也同意，突然，小熊想到了一个好主意说：要不我们买点礼物送给狮子大王吧？，小动物们都同意了。然后，他它们把自己最喜欢的东西都拿了出来，小熊拿了它最爱吃的蜂蜜，小兔拿了它最喜欢的花朵，小猴拿来了香香甜甜的桃子。
它们一起走到了医院，小动物们把自己的东西送给了狮子大王，小动物们齐声说：狮子大王你快快好起来吧！，狮子大王也笑眯眯地说：谢谢你们！
One day, the lion king was sick.
Bear know after the hurry told the rabbit, monkey. The little monkey also agreed that suddenly, the Cubs thought of a good idea, said: or we buy a gift to the lion king, right? Small animals all agreed. Then, they took their favorite things out, the bear took its favorite honey, rabbit took its favorite flowers, monkeys brought sweet sweet peaches.
They went to the hospital together, small animals to their own things to the lion king, small animals, said: lion king you quickly get up !, lion king also said with a smile: Thank you!
SCI论文写作主要包括2个部分：前期准备和论文写作。
相信很多看过文献的同学都知道论文的大致组成部分，SCI论文前期准备需要明确两个问题：写作顺序和排文顺序。
写作顺序
论文的写作顺序和论文排文顺序是不一样的，写作顺序更加贴近作者的思考和研究顺序，而排文顺序更加贴近读者的理解顺序。写作顺序和排文顺序的内容基本一致，但是目的和内容的顺序可以是不一样的。
排文顺序
写作顺序是更加适合作者创作和研究，排文顺序更加适合读者理解和阅读。排文顺序是论文的正常排版和发表的结构。
建议
1、多阅读相关英文文献：
在写英语论文之前,做大量的阅读是必要的。但最好应该去读那些英语是母语国家学者写的论文。但是需要注意的是，要把专业放在第一位,英语是放在第二位。
2、明确投稿期刊：
和投稿中文期刊一样，在投稿前我们要根据自己论文的研究目的，研究的对象范围来选择适合自己论文研究范围的期刊。
3、注重论文题和摘要：
论文的文题之所以重要是它第一时间展现给审稿人，是否创新，是否有吸引力，是否简洁明了这些都直接影响审稿人对我们论文的第一印象。
希望我的回答对你有所帮助！
英文写作翻译频道为大家整理的关于h7n9的英语作文翻译：人感染H7N9禽流感诊疗方案，供大家参考! H7N9来势汹汹，人感染H7N9禽流感是由H7N9亚型禽流感病毒引起的急性呼吸道传染病。现在我们需要了解H7N9的根本然后来做出相对应的预防措施，下面让我们来了解一下吧。 H7N9 break in in full fury, human infection with the H7N9 avian influenza is an acute respiratory tract caused by avian influenza H7N9 virus infection. Now we need to understand the H7N9 fundamental and then make the corresponding preventive measures, let us to know about it. 一、病原学 A, etiology 禽流感病毒属正粘病毒科甲型流感病毒属。禽甲型流感病毒颗粒呈多形性，其中球形直径80～120nm，有囊膜。基因组为分节段单股负链RNA。依据其外膜血凝素(H)和神经氨酸酶(N)蛋白抗原性不同，目前可分为16个H亚型(H1～H16)和9个N亚型(N1～N9)。禽甲型流感病毒除感染禽外，还可感染人、猪、马、水貂和海洋哺乳动物。可感染人的禽流感病毒亚型为H5N1、H9N2、H7N7、H7N2、H7N3，此次报道的为人感染H7N9禽流感病毒。该病毒为新型重配病毒，其内部基因来自于H9N2禽流感病毒。 Avian influenza virus belonging to Orthomyxoviridae influenza a virus. Avian influenza A virus particles were polymorphic, the spherical diameter of 80 ~ 120nm, capsule. Genome is segmented negative-stranded RNA. On the basis of the outer membrane of hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) proteins are antigenically different, can be divided into 16 subtypes of H (H1 to H16) and 9 N subtypes (N1 ~ N9). Avian influenza A virus in avian, can also be infected people, pigs, horses, mink and marine mammals. Infection of human avian influenza virus subtype H5N1, H9N2, H7N7, H7N2, H7N3, the reported human infection with the H7N9 avian influenza virus. This virus was a new reassortant virus, its internal genes from H9N2 avian influenza virus. 禽流感病毒普遍对热敏感，对低温抵抗力较强，65℃加热30分钟或煮沸(100℃)2分钟以上可灭活。病毒在较低温度粪便中可存活1周，在4℃水中可存活1个月，对酸性环境有一定抵抗力，在的条件下也具有一定的存活能力。在有甘油存在的情况下可保持活力1年以上。 Avian influenza virus is sensitive to heat, strong resistance of low temperature, 65 ℃ for 30 minutes or boiling (100 ℃) for more than 2 minutes can be inactivated. The virus in the lower temperature in feces can survive for 1 weeks, in 4 ℃ water can survive for 1 months, have a certain resistance to the acidic environment, but also has a certain ability to survive under the conditions of . In the presence of glycerol can keep the activity of 1 years. 二、流行病学 Two, epidemiology (一)传染源。目前尚不明确，根据以往经验及本次病例流行病学调查，推测可能为携带H7N9禽流感病毒的禽类及其分泌物或排泄物。 (a) the source of infection. It is not clear, according to a survey of past experience and the epidemiological, presumably to carry the H7N9 avian influenza virus in poultry and its secretion or excretion. (二)传播途径。经呼吸道传播，也可通过密切接触感染的禽类分泌物或排泄物等被感染，直接接触病毒也可被感染。现尚无人与人之间传播的确切证据。 (two) transmission. Spread through the respiratory tract, and also can be infected through close contact with infected birds secretion or excretion, direct contact with the virus can also be infected. There is no evidence of communication between now and the. (三)易感人群。目前尚无确切证据显示人类对H7N9禽流感病毒易感。现有确诊病例均为成人。 (three) the susceptible population. At present there is no conclusive evidence of human H7N9 avian influenza virus susceptibility. The confirmed cases were adult. (四)高危人群 。现阶段主要是从事禽类养殖、销售、宰杀、加工业者，以及在发病前1周内接触过禽类者。 (four) high risk population. At the present stage is mainly engaged in poultry breeding, slaughter, processing, sales, as well as in the 1 week prior to the onset of contact with poultry. 三、临床表现 Three, clinical manifestation 根据流感的潜伏期及现有H7N9禽流感病毒感染病例的调查结果，潜伏期一般为7天以内。 Based on the results of the investigation during the incubation period and the existing H7N9 avian influenza virus infection, incubation period is generally 7 days. (一) 一般表现。 (a) the general performance. 患者一般表现为流感样症状，如发热，咳嗽，少痰，可伴有头痛、肌肉酸痛和全身不适。重症患者病情发展迅速，表现为重症肺炎，体温大多持续在39℃以上，出现呼吸困难，可伴有咯血痰;可快速进展出现急性呼吸窘迫综合征、纵隔气肿、脓毒症、休克、意识障碍及急性肾损伤等。 Patients typically present with flu-like symptoms, such as fever, cough, less sputum, accompanied by headache, muscle pain and malaise. Patients with severe illness development is rapid, manifested as severe pneumonia, mostly persistent temperature over 39 ℃, difficulty in breathing, may be accompanied by hemoptysis sputum; rapid progress in acute respiratory distress syndrome, mediastinal emphysema, sepsis, shock, disturbance of consciousness and acute kidney injury. (二)实验室检查。 (two) laboratory. 1.血常规。白细胞总数一般不高或降低。重症患者多有白细胞总数及淋巴细胞减少，并有血小板降低。 1 blood. Total white cell count in general is not high or lower. Many patients with severe and the total number of lymphocytes decreased white blood cells, and platelets. 2.血生化检查。多有肌酸激酶、乳酸脱氢酶、天门冬氨酸氨基转移酶、丙氨酸氨基转移酶升高，C反应蛋白升高，肌红蛋白可升高。 2 blood biochemical examination. There are many creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase elevated C, elevated C-reactive protein, myoglobin can increase. 3.病原学检测。 Study 3 pathogen detection. (1)核酸检测。对患者呼吸道标本(如鼻咽分泌物、口腔含漱液、气管吸出物或呼吸道上皮细胞)采用real time PCR(或RT-PCR)检测到H7N9禽流感病毒核酸。 (1) nucleic acid detection. In patients with respiratory specimens (such as nasopharyngeal secretions, oral gargle, tracheal aspirate or respiratory epithelial cells) using real time PCR (or RT-PCR) to the H7N9 avian influenza virus nucleic acid detection. (2)病毒分离。从患者呼吸道标本中分离H7N9禽流感病毒。 (2) virus isolation. The separation of H7N9 avian influenza virus from patients with respiratory tract specimens. (三)胸部影像学检查。发生肺炎的患者肺内出现片状影像。重症患者病变进展迅速，呈双肺多发磨玻璃影及肺实变影像，可合并少量胸腔积液。发生ARDS时，病变分布广泛。 (three) the chest imaging. Pneumonia patients of lung lamellar image. In patients with severe lesions rapidly, a double multiple pulmonary ground-glass opacity and consolidation of lung image, with a small amount of pleural effusion. The occurrence of ARDS, lesions are widely distributed. (四)预后。人感染H7N9禽流感重症患者预后差。影响预后的因素可能包括患者年龄、基础疾病、合并症等。 (four) the prognosis. Of human infection with H7N9 avian influenza patients with poor prognosis. Prognostic factors may include patient age, underlying diseases, complications. 四、诊断与鉴别诊断 Four, diagnosis and differential diagnosis (一)诊断。根据流行病学接触史、临床表现及实验室检查结果，可作出人感染H7N9禽流感的诊断。在流行病学史不详的情况下，根据临床表现、辅助检查和实验室检测结果，特别是从患者呼吸道分泌物标本中分离出H7N9禽流感病毒，或H7N9禽流感病毒核酸检测阳性，可以诊断。 (a) diagnosis. According to the epidemiological contact history, clinical manifestations and laboratory test results, can make the diagnosis of human infection with the H7N9 avian influenza. In the history of epidemiology of unknown circumstances, according to the detection results of clinical manifestation, auxiliary examination and laboratory, especially H7N9 avian influenza viruses isolated from patients with respiratory tract secretion samples, or nucleic acid of H7N9 avian influenza virus detection, diagnosis. 1.流行病学史。发病前1周内与禽类及其分泌物、排泄物等有接触史。 1 epidemiological history. 1 week prior to the onset of poultry and its secretion and excretion, contact history. 2.诊断标准。 2 diagnostic standards. (1)疑似病例：符合上述临床症状及血常规、生化及胸部影像学特征，甲型流感病毒通用引物阳性并排除了季节性流感，可以有流行病学接触史。 (1) cases of suspected: meet the characteristics of the clinical symptoms and blood routine, biochemical and imaging of the chest, influenza virus a universal primer positive and eliminate the seasonal flu, can have the epidemiological contact history. (2)确诊病例：符合疑似病例诊断标准，并且呼吸道分泌物标本中分离出H7N9禽流感病毒或H7N9禽流感病毒核酸检测阳性。 (2) cases with suspected cases: diagnostic criteria, and respiratory secretion were isolated from H7N9 avian influenza virus or avian H7N9 influenza virus nucleic acid detection positive. 重症病例：肺炎合并呼吸功能衰竭或其他器官功能衰竭者为重症病例。 Severe cases: pneumonia complicated with respiratory failure or other organ failure in severe cases. (二)鉴别诊断。应注意与人感染高致病性H5N1禽流感、季节性流感(含甲型H1N1流感)、细菌性肺炎、传染性非典型肺炎(SARS)、新型冠状病毒肺炎、腺病毒肺炎、衣原体肺炎、支原体肺炎等疾病进行鉴别诊断。鉴别诊断主要依靠病原学检查。 (two) the differential diagnosis. Attention should be paid to the highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza, seasonal flu and human infection (including the influenza a H1N1 influenza), bacterial pneumonia, infectious atypical pneumonia (SARS), a novel coronavirus pneumonia disease, adenovirus pneumonia, Chlamydia pneumoniae, mycoplasma pneumonia, differential diagnosis. Differential diagnosis should mainly rely on the etiological examination. 五、治疗 Five, treatment (一)对临床诊断和确诊患者应进行隔离治疗。 (a) for clinical diagnosis and diagnosed patients should be treated in isolation. (二)对症治疗。可吸氧、应用解热药、止咳祛痰药等。 (two) for symptomatic treatment. Application of oxygen, can be antipyretic, cough expectorant. (三)抗病毒治疗。应尽早应用抗流感病毒药物。 (three) antiviral treatment. Early application of antiviral drugs. 1.神经氨酸酶抑制剂：可选用奥司他韦(Oseltamivir)或扎那米韦(Zanamivir)，临床应用表明对禽流感病毒H5N1和H1N1感染等有效，推测对人感染H7N9禽流感病毒应有效。奥司他韦成人剂量75mg每日两次，重症者剂量可加倍，疗程5-7天。扎那米韦成人剂量10mg，每日两次吸入。 1 neuraminidase inhibitors: use oseltamivir or zanamivir (Oseltamivir) (Zanamivir), clinical application shows that effective against avian influenza virus H5N1 and H1N1 infection, speculated that the effective of human infection with the H7N9 avian influenza virus. Oseltamivir adult dose of 75mg two times a day, severe dose may be doubled, treatment 5-7 days. Zana Mi Vee adult dose 10mg, two times daily intake. 2.离子通道M2阻滞剂：目前实验室资料提示金刚烷胺(Amantadine)和金刚乙胺(Rimantadine)耐药，不建议单独使用。 2 M2 ion channel blocker: the laboratory data suggest that amantadine and rimantadine (Amantadine) (Rimantadine) resistance, is not recommended to use alone. (四)中医药治疗。 (four) treated with traditional Chinese medicine. 1.疫毒犯肺，肺失宣降 1 disease drug lung, lung loses Xuan drop 症状：发热，咳嗽，少痰，头痛，肌肉关节疼痛。 Symptoms: fever, cough, less sputum, headache, muscle and joint pain. 治法：清热宣肺 Method: heat Xuanfei 参考处方： Reference prescription: 桑叶 金银花 连翘 炒杏仁 生石膏 知母 芦根 青蒿 黄芩 生甘草 Mulberry leaf honeysuckle and Forsythia Chao Xingren Anemarrhenae Rhizoma Phragmitis gypsum Artemisia Scutellaria Radix Glycyrrhizae 水煎服，每日1—2剂，每4—6小时口服一次。 Shuijianbi, daily 1 - 2, every 4 - 6 hours once oral. 加减：咳嗽甚者加枇杷叶、浙贝母。 Addition and subtraction: cough worse add loquat leaf, Zhejiang fritillaria. 中成药：可选择疏风解毒胶囊、连花清瘟胶囊、清开灵注射液。 Proprietary Chinese medicine: can choose Shufengjiedu capsule, Lianhua Qingwen capsule, Qingkailing injection. 2.疫毒壅肺，内闭外脱 The 2 epidemic disease in the lung, unconsciousness and collapse 症状：高热，咳嗽，痰少难咯，憋气，喘促，咯血，四末不温，冷汗淋漓，躁扰不安，甚则神昏谵语。 Symptoms: fever, cough, sputum less difficult to argue, shortness of breath, dyspnea, hemoptysis, four end not warm, cold sweat, manic disturbed, even Shenhun delirium. 治法：清肺解毒，扶正固脱 Treatment: the Qingfei detoxification, strengthening the body resistance 参考处方： Reference prescription: 炙麻黄 炒杏仁 生石膏 知母 鱼腥草 黄芩 Chinese ephedra Chao Xingren gypsum Anemarrhena Houttuynia Scutellaria 炒栀子 虎杖 山萸肉 太子参 Fried Gardenia Polygonum cuspidatum Cornus heterophylla 水煎服，每日1—2剂，每4—6小时口服或鼻饲一次。 Shuijianbi, daily 1 - 2, every 4 - 6 hours of oral or nasal feeding time. 加减：高热、神志恍惚、甚至神昏谵语者，上方送服安宫牛黄丸;肢冷、汗出淋漓者加人参、炮附子、煅龙骨、煅牡蛎;咯血者加赤芍、仙鹤草、侧柏叶;口唇紫绀者加三七、益母草、黄芪、当归尾。 Addition and subtraction: high fever, trance, and even coma, above take of Angong Niuhuang Pill; cold limbs, sweating profusely with ginseng, Cyperus rotundus, calcined keel, calcined oyster; hemoptysis and radix paeoniae rubra, agrimony, Oriental Arborvitae; cyanosis plus three seven, motherwort, astragalus, angelica tail. 中成药：可选择参麦注射液、生脉注射液。 Proprietary Chinese medicine: choice of Shenmai injection, Shengmai injection. (五)加强支持治疗和预防并发症。注意休息、多饮水、增加营养，给易于消化的饮食。密切观察，监测并预防并发症。抗菌药物应在明确继发细菌感染时或有充分证据提示继发细菌感染时使用。 (five) to strengthen support for the treatment and prevention of complications. Pay attention to rest, more water, increase nutrition, to easily digestible diet. Close observation, monitoring and prevention of complications. Antimicrobial agents should be sufficient evidence of secondary bacterial infection in clear secondary bacterial infection or. (六)重症患者的治疗。重症患者应入院治疗，对出现呼吸功能障碍者给予吸氧及其他相应呼吸支持，发生其它并发症的患者应积极采取相应治疗。 (six) in treatment of severe patients. Patients should be hospitalized, support oxygen and other relevant respiration to respiratory dysfunction, patients with other complications should actively take corresponding treatment. 1.呼吸功能支持： 1 respiratory support: (1)机械通气：重症患者病情进展迅速，可较快发展为急性呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS)。在需要机械通气的重症病例，可参照ARDS机械通气的原则进行。 (1) mechanical ventilation: the progression of severe patients rapidly, which can rapidly developed acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). In need of mechanical ventilation in severe cases, can consult ARDS mechanical ventilation principle. ①无创正压通气：出现呼吸窘迫和(或)低氧血症患者，早期可尝试使用无创通气。但重症病例无创通气疗效欠佳，需及早考虑实施有创通气。 The noninvasive positive pressure ventilation: respiratory distress and (or) hypoxemia in patients with early, can try to use noninvasive ventilation. But severe cases of noninvasive ventilation poor efficacy, they should consider implementing invasive mechanical ventilation. ②有创正压通气：鉴于部分患者较易发生气压伤，应当采用ARDS保护性通气策略。 ② invasive positive pressure ventilation: given that some patients are more prone to barotrauma, should adopt the ARDS protective ventilation strategies. (2)体外膜氧合(ECMO)：传统机械通气无法维持满意氧合和(或)通气时，有条件时，推荐使用ECMO。 (2) the extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO): conventional mechanical ventilation is unable to maintain satisfactory oxygenation and (or) ventilation, conditional, recommend the use of ECMO. (3)其他：传统机械通气无法维持满意氧合时，可以考虑俯卧位通气或高频振荡通气(HFOV)。 (3) other: conventional mechanical ventilation is unable to maintain satisfactory oxygenation, can consider the prone position ventilation or high-frequency oscillatory ventilation (HFOV). 2.其他治疗：在呼吸功能支持治疗的同时，应当重视其他器官功能状态的监测及治疗;预防并及时治疗各种并发症尤其是医院获得性感染。 2 other treatment: in the respiratory support therapy at the same time, should pay attention to monitoring and treatment of other organs of state; prevention and timely treatment of complications especially hospital acquired infection. 六、其它 Six, other 严格规范收治人感染H7N9禽流感患者医疗机构的医院感染控制措施。遵照标准预防的原则，根据疾病传播途径采取防控措施。具体措施依据《人感染H7N9禽流感医院感染预防与控制技术指南(2013年版)》的相关规定。 Strictly regulate the patients medical H7N9 avian influenza were hospital infection control measures. In accordance with the standards of the precautionary principle, control measures according to the disease transmission. "Specific measures on the basis of human infection with the H7N9 avian influenza prevention and control of hospital infection technical guide (2013 Edition)" the relevant provisions. 看完了以上的措施和规定，不知你是否已经明白了呢?快去告诉身边的人吧，预防禽流感，人人有责! After reading the above measures and regulations, I do not know whether you understand? Go and tell the people around it, to prevent bird flu, is everyone's responsibility!
我帮你找了一下相关素材 你可以看看：希望对你有所帮助！祝你中考顺利！
Evidence is increasing that common influence influenza viruses are becoming resistant to the may main drug used to treat them. The drug is oseltamivir, also known as tamifluTamiflu. 越来越多的证据表明，普通的流感病毒正开始对其主要的治疗药物产生抗药性。这种药是oseltamiviu,，也就是人们常说的Tamilur. The most common seasonal flu virus found in the United States this year is type AH1N1A(H1N1). During the last flu season, 12% of H1N1 viruses tested in the United States were resisten resistant to tamifluTamiflu. This year, researchers at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention say , resistance is close to 100%. Still, they say early reports show that flu activity has been low so far this year. 今年在美国发现的最常见的季节性流感病毒是A(H1N1),在上一个流感季节，在美国被检测流感病毒有12%对Tamiflu有抗药性。今年，疾病控制和防治中心的研究人员称，这种抗药性已接近100%。而且，他们还指出，早期的报告显示今年的流感活动下降了很多。 The research team is reporting its findings in the Journal of The the American Medical Association. Alicia Fry led the team. Doctor Fry says , it is better to prevent the flu than to have to treat it, and . And the best form of prevention, she says, is getting vaccinated each year against influenceinfluenza. Viruses change, or mutate, so flu vaccines must be reformulated each year to target the most common threats. 研究小组在《美国医药协会》杂志上发表了他们的研究结果。Alicia Fry领导该小组。Fry博士称，比起治疗流感，想办法预防它会更好。同时，她说，预防的最好办法是每年接种一次流感役苗。病毒会转变会变异，因此流感役苗也需要每年变换以应对最常见的威胁。
让我们预防艾滋，珍爱生命，下面是由我为大家整理的“艾滋病英语作文”欢迎阅读，仅供参考，希望对你有所帮助。
World AIDS Day, observed December 1 eachyear, is dedicated to raising awareness of the AIDS caused by the spread of HIV infection. Itis common to hold memorials to honor persons whohave died from HIV/AIDS on this day. Governmentand health officials also observe the event, oftenwith speeches or forums on the AIDS topics. Since 1995, the President of the United Stateshas made an official proclamation on World AIDS Day. Governments of other nations havefollowed suit and issued similar announcements.
AIDS has killed more than 25 million people between 1981 and 2007, and an estimated on people worldwide live with HIV as of 2007, making it one of the most in recorded history. Despite recent, improved access to antiretroviral treatment andcare in many regions of the world, the AIDS epidemic claimed an estimated 2 million lives in2007, of which about 270,000 were children.
Started in 1988, World AIDS Day is not just about raising money, but also about, education and fighting prejudice. World AIDS Day is also important in that HIV has not gone away, and that there are many things still to be done.
世界艾滋病日，观察到每年的12月1日，是致力于提高艾滋病毒感染的传播引起的艾滋病的认识。这是共同举行纪念纪念那些死于艾滋病的人在这一天。政府卫生官员也观察事件，经常演讲或论坛对艾滋病的话题。自1995以来，对美国总统在世界艾滋病日的官方公告。政府其他国家按照西装发布类似公告。
1981至2007年间，艾滋病已造成2500万多人死亡，据估计全世界有2007人感染艾滋病毒，这是有史以来记录最多的一次。尽管最近改进的访问，在世界许多地区的抗逆转录病毒治疗和护理，艾滋病夺走200万条生命的2007年，其中约270000是儿童。
从1988开始，世界艾滋病日不仅仅是筹集资金，还涉及教育和消除偏见。世界艾滋病日也很重要，因为艾滋病毒还没有消失，还有许多事情要做。
AIDS, stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, is a deadly disease. It malfunctions the human body's defence system, making the infected person extremely vulnerable to diseases, and eventually cause death.
AIDS can be spread in many ways, but the main medium is through having unprotected intercourse with an infected person. Apart from that, AIDS can spread from mother to new born baby, or sharing of needles, shaving blades, or any means of blood contact.
Once infected, it may take years for the person to notice, and in these years, the infected person may not know and can infect many more, who in turn go and infect others, just like an exponential growth.
艾滋病是一种致命的疾病，它代表了获得性免疫缺陷综合症。它破坏人体的防御系统，使感染者极易感染疾病，并最终导致死亡。
艾滋病可以通过多种方式传播，但主要媒介是通过与感染者进行无保护的性交。除此之外，艾滋病可以从母亲传染给新生婴儿，或者共用针头、刮胡刀或任何接触血液的方法。
一旦感染，人们可能需要几年才能注意到，在这些年里，受感染的人可能不知道并可能感染更多的人，而这些人又反过来感染其他人，就像一个指数增长。
What is HIV?
HIV is human immunodeficiency virus. It can infect the immune system cells, destroy or damage its function, cause the immune system to undergo progressive decline, and finally appear "immune deficiency", that is, the immune system can not resist infection and disease.
What is AIDS?
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is a monitoring term defined by the Centers for Disease Control and prevention and the European Center for the epidemiology of AIDS. At the last stage of HIV infection, any infection of more than 20 opportunistic infections, or any tumor associated with HIV, can be defined as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.
How does the HIV virus spread?
The AIDS virus infection through unprotected sexual intercourse and oral sex, input by HIV contaminated blood, sharing of contaminated needles, HIV needles or other sharp and other means of communication, but also by HIV infected mothers during pregnancy, childbirth and lactation transmitted to the baby.
How long has the virus infected people to develop into AIDS patients?
There is a large individual difference in the time of developing the infected person to the patient. If no corresponding treatment has been obtained, most of the infected people have the signs of HIV related diseases within 5 to 10 years after the infection. Antiretroviral therapy can slow down the progress of the disease by reducing the viral load of the infected person.
Can HIV infection be cured?
HIV infection is not curable, but if adherence to antiretroviral therapy and treatment compliance is good, the progress of the virus in the body can be reduced to a very low level. Infected people can also maintain a good state of life, and maintain the ability to work and prolong life.
What are the care needs of the HIV infected people?
In addition to antiretroviral therapy, people with HIV / AIDS often need to be consulted and psychological support. Good nutrition, safe drinking water and basic sanitary conditions can also help the infected people to keep their normal life.
什么是艾滋病病毒？
艾滋病病毒即人类免疫缺陷病毒，它能够感染免疫系统细胞，破坏或损伤其功能，导致免疫系统发生进行性衰退，最后出现“免疫缺陷”，即免疫系统不能抵抗感染和疾病。
什么是艾滋病？
艾滋病即获得性免疫缺陷综合征，是由美国疾病控制和预防中心、欧洲艾滋病流行病学监测中心定义的一个监测术语。艾滋病病毒感染的最后阶段，出现20余种机会性感染中的任何一种感染，或与艾滋病病毒相关的任何一种肿瘤，即可定义为获得性免疫缺陷综合征。
艾滋病病毒如何传播？
艾滋病病毒可通过与感染者发生未保护的性交和口交、输入受艾滋病病毒污染的血液、共用受艾滋病病毒污染的针头、针具或其他锐器等途径传播，还可通过受艾滋病病毒感染的母亲在妊娠、分娩和哺乳期间传播给婴儿。
病毒感染者多长时间发展为艾滋病患者？
由感染者发展为患者的时间存在很大个体差异。如果没有获得相应治疗，大部分感染者在感染后5年至10年内出现艾滋病病毒相关疾病的体征。抗逆转录病毒治疗可通过降低感染者的病毒载量，减缓其疾病进展。
艾滋病病毒感染可以治愈吗？
艾滋病病毒感染不可治愈，但如果坚持抗逆转录病毒治疗且治疗依从性好，病毒在体内的进展可以降到非常低的水平。感染者也可以保持良好状态，并且保持劳动能力、延长生命。
艾滋病病毒感染者还有哪些关怀需求？
除了抗逆转录病毒治疗外，艾滋病病毒感染者经常需要获得咨询和心理支持。获得良好的营养、安全的饮用水和基本的卫生条件，也可以帮助感染者保持正常生活。
Evidence is increasing that common influence influenza viruses are becoming resistant to the may main drug used to treat them. The drug is oseltamivir, also known as tamifluTamiflu. 越来越多的证据表明，普通的流感病毒正开始对其主要的治疗药物产生抗药性。这种药是oseltamiviu,，也就是人们常说的Tamilur. The most common seasonal flu virus found in the United States this year is type AH1N1A(H1N1). During the last flu season, 12% of H1N1 viruses tested in the United States were resisten resistant to tamifluTamiflu. This year, researchers at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention say , resistance is close to 100%. Still, they say early reports show that flu activity has been low so far this year. 今年在美国发现的最常见的季节性流感病毒是A(H1N1),在上一个流感季节，在美国被检测流感病毒有12%对Tamiflu有抗药性。今年，疾病控制和防治中心的研究人员称，这种抗药性已接近100%。而且，他们还指出，早期的报告显示今年的流感活动下降了很多。 The research team is reporting its findings in the Journal of The the American Medical Association. Alicia Fry led the team. Doctor Fry says , it is better to prevent the flu than to have to treat it, and . And the best form of prevention, she says, is getting vaccinated each year against influenceinfluenza. Viruses change, or mutate, so flu vaccines must be reformulated each year to target the most common threats. 研究小组在《美国医药协会》杂志上发表了他们的研究结果。Alicia Fry领导该小组。Fry博士称，比起治疗流感，想办法预防它会更好。同时，她说，预防的最好办法是每年接种一次流感役苗。病毒会转变会变异，因此流感役苗也需要每年变换以应对最常见的威胁。
我预测不会考考了的话我请你吃冰棍
Leaders of poor countries appear to be completely unaware of the global connections between the health of their populations and the security and stability required to ensure that they do not fall prey to unforeseen health catastrophes. The dearth of strong and transparent leadership among the world's poorest nations augurs poorly for the health of those nations, and of the world.贫困落后国家的领袖们似乎完全无法觉察出，确保本国老百姓的健康、避免成为疾病重灾区和全球的安全稳定有着息息相关的连带关系。这些地区因为缺乏强有力而政策透明的领导，让自身乃至全世界人民的健康都蒙上了阴影。Meanwhile, the rich countries also continue to think about pandemics in a very linear and scientific way, which fails to account for the comprehensive economic and political chaos that would accompany a major pandemic. The World Health Organization (WHO), Centers for Disease Control, and, for that matter, the Gates Foundation and other donors, are concentrating their efforts on vaccines and, in the case of the WHO, antiviral stockpiles for a possible outbreak of avian flu. Plans are also being developed for isolation and quarantine, running through scenarios for stopping air traffic and the like. Unfortunately, it's unlikely that the pathogens will be as responsive to our efforts as we hope they will be, leading to widespread chaos, morbidity and mortality.与此同时，富强国家对全球性流行病的思维也仍然很狭隘地单纯停留在科学层面，没有把重大全球性流行病将带来的政治经济后果纳入通盘考量。世界卫生组织、疾病防控中心和包括盖茨基金会在内慷慨解囊的其他捐款者正把大部分人力财力注入疫苗（在WTO而言则是防病毒药物）的开发和储备，以防禽流感的可能再度爆发。正在规划中的应急方案还包括隔病患离带的建立和执行，沙盘推演诸如全面停止空中交通等等措施。很不幸地，病原体对我们种种防范举措的反应可未必尽如人意，而将带来全面的混乱、发病和死亡。At a time when oil shocks have the ability to globally increase food insecurity, it may be worthwhile to consider how a pandemic could push people living on the edge into poverty and starvation. With food production suffering greatly, the urban centers that are dependent on daily imports of food could rapidly fall victim. If this sounds a bit like Jared Diamond's arguments in Collapse, it's intentional. The world is interconnected, but poor countries are hanging by a thread, and it's a thread that could quickly break if a pandemic hits hard enough.在经验过油价上升造成的全球粮食供应不稳定后，我们真得考虑一下可能伴随重大流行病而来的后果，那会将原本就生活拮据的人们推往赤贫甚至饥饿边缘。当粮食严重减产时，平时每天仰赖粮食进口度日的大都会老百姓很快就会遭难。如果这听起来与 Jared Diamond 在“Collapse" 中描述的情景有些雷同，是刻意如此安排的。全世界都是同船合命的共同体，而那些贫困国家就像是命若悬丝般一息尚存，当强度够大的流行病风卷而至的时候，那根细丝将迅速绷断。Adding to the threat, it may well be that the worst pandemics on the planet are not emerging, but have simply been with us so long that we've grown accustomed to their presence and therefore have done little to address them. Women across sub-Saharan Africa continue to stand a 1 percent chance of dying in childbirth--is that a pandemic? Five hundred thousand kids die from measles every year. Africans suffer from an astonishing estimated 300 million episodes of malaria annually, with a death toll of one million. And now throughout the developing world silent killers like heart disease and diabetes are taking hold.再往深处想想，或许地球上最严峻的流行病并非是才刚窜起的这些，而是早就存在但我们习以为常视若无睹因而不曾好好看待的问题。非洲撒哈拉沙漠南部妇女们长久以来始终承受着百分之一因难产死亡的风险，这该也能纳入“流行”的范畴吧？每年约有50万孩童死于麻疹。非洲百姓骇人的每年估计约三亿人次的霍乱病例和随之而来的100万人死亡。还有诸如心脏病、糖尿病这些现在正在开发中国家肆虐的隐形杀手。In the best of cases, pursuing a business-as-usual approach, the wealthy countries may get lucky: the spread of contagion may be stopped at borders and when it crosses, advanced, expensive treatment may be available. But no matter what, the economic and potential political destabilization that would result would cross these borders and be felt in everyone's bank accounts. The moral implications of continuing to adopt a merely defensive stance will guarantee that developing countries will suffer millions dead and may also cultivate the pathogens for future pandemics that will evade the best weapons the richer countries can throw at them.在最好的情况下，如果抱着一种见招拆招的态度，那些富庶的先进国家也许够幸运：先设法把传染病带菌者阻绝在边境口岸，即便闯进来了耗资不菲但高端的医疗手段也能应付得过。但不管怎样，接踵而至的经济上和潜在政局上的动荡仍将不分国界地对所有人的荷包带来影响。从道德蕴藏的因果玄机看，持续采取那种”自扫门前雪“的作风最终将注定会导致开发中国家数以百万计的生命流逝，而且可能孕育出那种即便是富裕国家最先进的医疗科技（武器）都无计可施的新一代流行病原体。Some might see the call for health improvement in poor nations in order to save our own skins as either a Machiavellian ploy to help poor people or a sad and ironic commentary on the state of humankind. Whatever the case, rich nations must begin taking health systems for the poor seriously because: new bugs and the resurgence of old ones are likely to emerge where people are sickest or treatment is inconsistent; when pandemics strike, they'll do the most harm to those without health services; and when sicknesses like a new strain of influenza inevitably come, the health personnel in these settings will be much-better equipped to identify and contain them.有些人也许会把为贫困国家百姓改善健康以达到自救目的，以”人溺己溺“为号召的这种呼吁当成是一种拯救穷人的奸巧阴谋，或是对人类社会现况既悲哀又矛盾的一段旁白。不论持什么观点，强国必须开始对穷人的医疗保健更加重视一些，因为：新品种细菌病毒和已知病毒新一代变种的复出即有可能在人们病得最严重时或疗效最不稳定的那刻涌现；流行病一旦横行肆虐，受到最大打击的就是那些得不到医疗照顾的群体；此外，当新一代的流感病毒无可避免地到来时，身负重任的医疗科研团队起码能更有力地指认和解决它们。
The first is to ensure that no ingestion of contaminated food and water. Especially drinking water, areas where conditions permit local authorities to obtain drinking water disinfection tablets, boiling and then drinking after , avoid sharing towels, utensils, and wash water. Tableware used as boiling water disinfection 3 .Third, garbage and feces as far as possible away from the hedge, the same time not to dispose of the water nearby. Regions where conditions permit, you can use bleaching powder for disinfection of the surrounding environment. Of the stagnant water breeding mosquitoes, can Dichlorvos for disinfection. At the same time, you can put in some rodent bait, to prevent the spread of diseases caused by rats. 4 . a hedge to be seen around the bodies of animals and to stay away from hedge to deep water sources, and has been corruption, the best and then burned deep. 5 . a positive commitment to prevention function is found around the family, friends, infectious disease symptoms appear, the timely reporting of health and epidemic prevention departments. 6. good and the right attitude. Earthquake prone to outbreaks of infectious diseases, and even high, but as long as the correct way to take pro-active prevention, large-scale infectious disease is not likely to appear large, is entirely preventable; around family and other small emerging infectious diseases, as long as the treatment of in a timely manner, it will not cause pop, so do not be too nervous.
有没有大纲啊，有的话就好说！
Motivation:Epidemiological studies is a crowd of diseases and health status and influence factors, this paper explores how to prevent disease control, promoting public health science, it is an important branch of preventive medicine. Along with the change of medical model and several people's health concept also changed, epidemiology and clinical medicine has become a closely integrated disciplines and draws more and more attention. I hope very much in epidemiological studies aspects. First, it's research is not only related to infections, such as influenza pandemic, research H1N1 SARS, tuberculosis and some chronic diseases such as heart disease, diabetes and smoking, obesity, and may even become its research. In addition, epidemiological studies for public health significance, is a door to direct of public service. Through the study of epidemiological studies, I can understand disease in time and space distribution of the population (through the statistics and grasp the crowd support) for health, provide clues for disease control, to provide reference for health my 5 years professional medical study practice to grasp the solid foundation of medical knowledge. Especially in preventive medicine, infectious diseases, mathematics, statistics, the related subjects I have achieved good results. This makes me for disease prevention, diagnosis, treatment and imaging findings have a preliminary understanding and clear. I've been to participate in the school team, the topic of discussion in the northeast region has iodine intake and thyroid disease epidemic studies of relationship between college ", "the heart pressure and chronic fatigue syndrome relations. Through the investigation and analysis of consulting case-control study, I understand the disease and its influence factors, obtained the relationship between research experience, such as the use of computer analyzes the data. The most important is to cultivate themselves in put medical epidemiology (interest). In addition, I from 2009 September in heilongjiang university of traditional Chinese medicine clinical practice, during the accumulated valuable clinical experience, consolidate the medical theory knowledge, by the guide teacher's praise. These are in the field of study for pandemic made of the correlation factors affecting its diseases such as diabetes and dietary habit, the correlation between. In addition to the spread of the disease, the scope of the prediction and control and speed, such as how to effectively for people to avoid certain immune to the spread of the parents are in hospitals and health departments, I received their influence, and hope in the health care work. So I'm going to come back from abroad, in the hospital or the centers for disease control and prevention. In addition, the administrative department of statistics in cases of epidemic disease prevention work or is my ideal career direction.
大学英语四级作文一直是考生重点关注的部分，也是考试的重难点，在平时复习备考的时候，建议同学们多掌握一些英语四级作文范文，考试的时候可以帮助自己提高作文水平，预祝同学们考试顺利通过。 Directions: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on the topic Epidemics. You should write at least 120 words, and base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below: 1)流行病在我们的生活中随处可见2)流行病会带来哪些危害3)对此我们应采取哪些措施 【思路点拨】本题属于提纲式文字命题。提纲第1点要求描述目前社会上出现的一种问题，提纲第2点要求说明这一问题会带来哪些危害，提纲第3点则要求提供解决方法，由此可判断本文应为问题解决型作文。根据所给提纲，本文应包含以下内容：描述流行病在我们的生活中随处可见的现象;阐述流行病会带来哪些危害;说明我们对此应该采取哪些措施。 【参考范文】Epidemics Epidemics are rampant throughout the whole human history, and they have caused the most devastating impacts on us. Each year, numerous epidemics break out on earth and they have such characteristics as fast spreading and infectious。 Epidemics are harmful in many ways. For one thing, it will make people and animals seriously ill or dead, which is a great loss to the country. For example, the outbreak of SARS once killed lots of people and brought great economic loss to the whole country. For another, there is no cure for many kinds of epidemic diseases. Once we are infected by one of them, it is difficult to be cured。 To avoid the outbreak of some kind of epidemics as possible as we can, we should first change some unhealthy habits or customs. For example, meals served individually should be encouraged, which would reduce the possibility of the spread of germs. On the other hand, the government should learn how to deal with emergencies when an epidemic broke out. I believe as long as we treat and prevent epidemics in the right way, we will finally conquer them。
英文写作翻译频道为大家整理的关于h7n9的英语作文翻译：人感染H7N9禽流感诊疗方案，供大家参考! H7N9来势汹汹，人感染H7N9禽流感是由H7N9亚型禽流感病毒引起的急性呼吸道传染病。现在我们需要了解H7N9的根本然后来做出相对应的预防措施，下面让我们来了解一下吧。 H7N9 break in in full fury, human infection with the H7N9 avian influenza is an acute respiratory tract caused by avian influenza H7N9 virus infection. Now we need to understand the H7N9 fundamental and then make the corresponding preventive measures, let us to know about it. 一、病原学 A, etiology 禽流感病毒属正粘病毒科甲型流感病毒属。禽甲型流感病毒颗粒呈多形性，其中球形直径80～120nm，有囊膜。基因组为分节段单股负链RNA。依据其外膜血凝素(H)和神经氨酸酶(N)蛋白抗原性不同，目前可分为16个H亚型(H1～H16)和9个N亚型(N1～N9)。禽甲型流感病毒除感染禽外，还可感染人、猪、马、水貂和海洋哺乳动物。可感染人的禽流感病毒亚型为H5N1、H9N2、H7N7、H7N2、H7N3，此次报道的为人感染H7N9禽流感病毒。该病毒为新型重配病毒，其内部基因来自于H9N2禽流感病毒。 Avian influenza virus belonging to Orthomyxoviridae influenza a virus. Avian influenza A virus particles were polymorphic, the spherical diameter of 80 ~ 120nm, capsule. Genome is segmented negative-stranded RNA. On the basis of the outer membrane of hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) proteins are antigenically different, can be divided into 16 subtypes of H (H1 to H16) and 9 N subtypes (N1 ~ N9). Avian influenza A virus in avian, can also be infected people, pigs, horses, mink and marine mammals. Infection of human avian influenza virus subtype H5N1, H9N2, H7N7, H7N2, H7N3, the reported human infection with the H7N9 avian influenza virus. This virus was a new reassortant virus, its internal genes from H9N2 avian influenza virus. 禽流感病毒普遍对热敏感，对低温抵抗力较强，65℃加热30分钟或煮沸(100℃)2分钟以上可灭活。病毒在较低温度粪便中可存活1周，在4℃水中可存活1个月，对酸性环境有一定抵抗力，在的条件下也具有一定的存活能力。在有甘油存在的情况下可保持活力1年以上。 Avian influenza virus is sensitive to heat, strong resistance of low temperature, 65 ℃ for 30 minutes or boiling (100 ℃) for more than 2 minutes can be inactivated. The virus in the lower temperature in feces can survive for 1 weeks, in 4 ℃ water can survive for 1 months, have a certain resistance to the acidic environment, but also has a certain ability to survive under the conditions of . In the presence of glycerol can keep the activity of 1 years. 二、流行病学 Two, epidemiology (一)传染源。目前尚不明确，根据以往经验及本次病例流行病学调查，推测可能为携带H7N9禽流感病毒的禽类及其分泌物或排泄物。 (a) the source of infection. It is not clear, according to a survey of past experience and the epidemiological, presumably to carry the H7N9 avian influenza virus in poultry and its secretion or excretion. (二)传播途径。经呼吸道传播，也可通过密切接触感染的禽类分泌物或排泄物等被感染，直接接触病毒也可被感染。现尚无人与人之间传播的确切证据。 (two) transmission. Spread through the respiratory tract, and also can be infected through close contact with infected birds secretion or excretion, direct contact with the virus can also be infected. There is no evidence of communication between now and the. (三)易感人群。目前尚无确切证据显示人类对H7N9禽流感病毒易感。现有确诊病例均为成人。 (three) the susceptible population. At present there is no conclusive evidence of human H7N9 avian influenza virus susceptibility. The confirmed cases were adult. (四)高危人群 。现阶段主要是从事禽类养殖、销售、宰杀、加工业者，以及在发病前1周内接触过禽类者。 (four) high risk population. At the present stage is mainly engaged in poultry breeding, slaughter, processing, sales, as well as in the 1 week prior to the onset of contact with poultry. 三、临床表现 Three, clinical manifestation 根据流感的潜伏期及现有H7N9禽流感病毒感染病例的调查结果，潜伏期一般为7天以内。 Based on the results of the investigation during the incubation period and the existing H7N9 avian influenza virus infection, incubation period is generally 7 days. (一) 一般表现。 (a) the general performance. 患者一般表现为流感样症状，如发热，咳嗽，少痰，可伴有头痛、肌肉酸痛和全身不适。重症患者病情发展迅速，表现为重症肺炎，体温大多持续在39℃以上，出现呼吸困难，可伴有咯血痰;可快速进展出现急性呼吸窘迫综合征、纵隔气肿、脓毒症、休克、意识障碍及急性肾损伤等。 Patients typically present with flu-like symptoms, such as fever, cough, less sputum, accompanied by headache, muscle pain and malaise. Patients with severe illness development is rapid, manifested as severe pneumonia, mostly persistent temperature over 39 ℃, difficulty in breathing, may be accompanied by hemoptysis sputum; rapid progress in acute respiratory distress syndrome, mediastinal emphysema, sepsis, shock, disturbance of consciousness and acute kidney injury. (二)实验室检查。 (two) laboratory. 1.血常规。白细胞总数一般不高或降低。重症患者多有白细胞总数及淋巴细胞减少，并有血小板降低。 1 blood. Total white cell count in general is not high or lower. Many patients with severe and the total number of lymphocytes decreased white blood cells, and platelets. 2.血生化检查。多有肌酸激酶、乳酸脱氢酶、天门冬氨酸氨基转移酶、丙氨酸氨基转移酶升高，C反应蛋白升高，肌红蛋白可升高。 2 blood biochemical examination. There are many creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase elevated C, elevated C-reactive protein, myoglobin can increase. 3.病原学检测。 Study 3 pathogen detection. (1)核酸检测。对患者呼吸道标本(如鼻咽分泌物、口腔含漱液、气管吸出物或呼吸道上皮细胞)采用real time PCR(或RT-PCR)检测到H7N9禽流感病毒核酸。 (1) nucleic acid detection. In patients with respiratory specimens (such as nasopharyngeal secretions, oral gargle, tracheal aspirate or respiratory epithelial cells) using real time PCR (or RT-PCR) to the H7N9 avian influenza virus nucleic acid detection. (2)病毒分离。从患者呼吸道标本中分离H7N9禽流感病毒。 (2) virus isolation. The separation of H7N9 avian influenza virus from patients with respiratory tract specimens. (三)胸部影像学检查。发生肺炎的患者肺内出现片状影像。重症患者病变进展迅速，呈双肺多发磨玻璃影及肺实变影像，可合并少量胸腔积液。发生ARDS时，病变分布广泛。 (three) the chest imaging. Pneumonia patients of lung lamellar image. In patients with severe lesions rapidly, a double multiple pulmonary ground-glass opacity and consolidation of lung image, with a small amount of pleural effusion. The occurrence of ARDS, lesions are widely distributed. (四)预后。人感染H7N9禽流感重症患者预后差。影响预后的因素可能包括患者年龄、基础疾病、合并症等。 (four) the prognosis. Of human infection with H7N9 avian influenza patients with poor prognosis. Prognostic factors may include patient age, underlying diseases, complications. 四、诊断与鉴别诊断 Four, diagnosis and differential diagnosis (一)诊断。根据流行病学接触史、临床表现及实验室检查结果，可作出人感染H7N9禽流感的诊断。在流行病学史不详的情况下，根据临床表现、辅助检查和实验室检测结果，特别是从患者呼吸道分泌物标本中分离出H7N9禽流感病毒，或H7N9禽流感病毒核酸检测阳性，可以诊断。 (a) diagnosis. According to the epidemiological contact history, clinical manifestations and laboratory test results, can make the diagnosis of human infection with the H7N9 avian influenza. In the history of epidemiology of unknown circumstances, according to the detection results of clinical manifestation, auxiliary examination and laboratory, especially H7N9 avian influenza viruses isolated from patients with respiratory tract secretion samples, or nucleic acid of H7N9 avian influenza virus detection, diagnosis. 1.流行病学史。发病前1周内与禽类及其分泌物、排泄物等有接触史。 1 epidemiological history. 1 week prior to the onset of poultry and its secretion and excretion, contact history. 2.诊断标准。 2 diagnostic standards. (1)疑似病例：符合上述临床症状及血常规、生化及胸部影像学特征，甲型流感病毒通用引物阳性并排除了季节性流感，可以有流行病学接触史。 (1) cases of suspected: meet the characteristics of the clinical symptoms and blood routine, biochemical and imaging of the chest, influenza virus a universal primer positive and eliminate the seasonal flu, can have the epidemiological contact history. (2)确诊病例：符合疑似病例诊断标准，并且呼吸道分泌物标本中分离出H7N9禽流感病毒或H7N9禽流感病毒核酸检测阳性。 (2) cases with suspected cases: diagnostic criteria, and respiratory secretion were isolated from H7N9 avian influenza virus or avian H7N9 influenza virus nucleic acid detection positive. 重症病例：肺炎合并呼吸功能衰竭或其他器官功能衰竭者为重症病例。 Severe cases: pneumonia complicated with respiratory failure or other organ failure in severe cases. (二)鉴别诊断。应注意与人感染高致病性H5N1禽流感、季节性流感(含甲型H1N1流感)、细菌性肺炎、传染性非典型肺炎(SARS)、新型冠状病毒肺炎、腺病毒肺炎、衣原体肺炎、支原体肺炎等疾病进行鉴别诊断。鉴别诊断主要依靠病原学检查。 (two) the differential diagnosis. Attention should be paid to the highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza, seasonal flu and human infection (including the influenza a H1N1 influenza), bacterial pneumonia, infectious atypical pneumonia (SARS), a novel coronavirus pneumonia disease, adenovirus pneumonia, Chlamydia pneumoniae, mycoplasma pneumonia, differential diagnosis. Differential diagnosis should mainly rely on the etiological examination. 五、治疗 Five, treatment (一)对临床诊断和确诊患者应进行隔离治疗。 (a) for clinical diagnosis and diagnosed patients should be treated in isolation. (二)对症治疗。可吸氧、应用解热药、止咳祛痰药等。 (two) for symptomatic treatment. Application of oxygen, can be antipyretic, cough expectorant. (三)抗病毒治疗。应尽早应用抗流感病毒药物。 (three) antiviral treatment. Early application of antiviral drugs. 1.神经氨酸酶抑制剂：可选用奥司他韦(Oseltamivir)或扎那米韦(Zanamivir)，临床应用表明对禽流感病毒H5N1和H1N1感染等有效，推测对人感染H7N9禽流感病毒应有效。奥司他韦成人剂量75mg每日两次，重症者剂量可加倍，疗程5-7天。扎那米韦成人剂量10mg，每日两次吸入。 1 neuraminidase inhibitors: use oseltamivir or zanamivir (Oseltamivir) (Zanamivir), clinical application shows that effective against avian influenza virus H5N1 and H1N1 infection, speculated that the effective of human infection with the H7N9 avian influenza virus. Oseltamivir adult dose of 75mg two times a day, severe dose may be doubled, treatment 5-7 days. Zana Mi Vee adult dose 10mg, two times daily intake. 2.离子通道M2阻滞剂：目前实验室资料提示金刚烷胺(Amantadine)和金刚乙胺(Rimantadine)耐药，不建议单独使用。 2 M2 ion channel blocker: the laboratory data suggest that amantadine and rimantadine (Amantadine) (Rimantadine) resistance, is not recommended to use alone. (四)中医药治疗。 (four) treated with traditional Chinese medicine. 1.疫毒犯肺，肺失宣降 1 disease drug lung, lung loses Xuan drop 症状：发热，咳嗽，少痰，头痛，肌肉关节疼痛。 Symptoms: fever, cough, less sputum, headache, muscle and joint pain. 治法：清热宣肺 Method: heat Xuanfei 参考处方： Reference prescription: 桑叶 金银花 连翘 炒杏仁 生石膏 知母 芦根 青蒿 黄芩 生甘草 Mulberry leaf honeysuckle and Forsythia Chao Xingren Anemarrhenae Rhizoma Phragmitis gypsum Artemisia Scutellaria Radix Glycyrrhizae 水煎服，每日1—2剂，每4—6小时口服一次。 Shuijianbi, daily 1 - 2, every 4 - 6 hours once oral. 加减：咳嗽甚者加枇杷叶、浙贝母。 Addition and subtraction: cough worse add loquat leaf, Zhejiang fritillaria. 中成药：可选择疏风解毒胶囊、连花清瘟胶囊、清开灵注射液。 Proprietary Chinese medicine: can choose Shufengjiedu capsule, Lianhua Qingwen capsule, Qingkailing injection. 2.疫毒壅肺，内闭外脱 The 2 epidemic disease in the lung, unconsciousness and collapse 症状：高热，咳嗽，痰少难咯，憋气，喘促，咯血，四末不温，冷汗淋漓，躁扰不安，甚则神昏谵语。 Symptoms: fever, cough, sputum less difficult to argue, shortness of breath, dyspnea, hemoptysis, four end not warm, cold sweat, manic disturbed, even Shenhun delirium. 治法：清肺解毒，扶正固脱 Treatment: the Qingfei detoxification, strengthening the body resistance 参考处方： Reference prescription: 炙麻黄 炒杏仁 生石膏 知母 鱼腥草 黄芩 Chinese ephedra Chao Xingren gypsum Anemarrhena Houttuynia Scutellaria 炒栀子 虎杖 山萸肉 太子参 Fried Gardenia Polygonum cuspidatum Cornus heterophylla 水煎服，每日1—2剂，每4—6小时口服或鼻饲一次。 Shuijianbi, daily 1 - 2, every 4 - 6 hours of oral or nasal feeding time. 加减：高热、神志恍惚、甚至神昏谵语者，上方送服安宫牛黄丸;肢冷、汗出淋漓者加人参、炮附子、煅龙骨、煅牡蛎;咯血者加赤芍、仙鹤草、侧柏叶;口唇紫绀者加三七、益母草、黄芪、当归尾。 Addition and subtraction: high fever, trance, and even coma, above take of Angong Niuhuang Pill; cold limbs, sweating profusely with ginseng, Cyperus rotundus, calcined keel, calcined oyster; hemoptysis and radix paeoniae rubra, agrimony, Oriental Arborvitae; cyanosis plus three seven, motherwort, astragalus, angelica tail. 中成药：可选择参麦注射液、生脉注射液。 Proprietary Chinese medicine: choice of Shenmai injection, Shengmai injection. (五)加强支持治疗和预防并发症。注意休息、多饮水、增加营养，给易于消化的饮食。密切观察，监测并预防并发症。抗菌药物应在明确继发细菌感染时或有充分证据提示继发细菌感染时使用。 (five) to strengthen support for the treatment and prevention of complications. Pay attention to rest, more water, increase nutrition, to easily digestible diet. Close observation, monitoring and prevention of complications. Antimicrobial agents should be sufficient evidence of secondary bacterial infection in clear secondary bacterial infection or. (六)重症患者的治疗。重症患者应入院治疗，对出现呼吸功能障碍者给予吸氧及其他相应呼吸支持，发生其它并发症的患者应积极采取相应治疗。 (six) in treatment of severe patients. Patients should be hospitalized, support oxygen and other relevant respiration to respiratory dysfunction, patients with other complications should actively take corresponding treatment. 1.呼吸功能支持： 1 respiratory support: (1)机械通气：重症患者病情进展迅速，可较快发展为急性呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS)。在需要机械通气的重症病例，可参照ARDS机械通气的原则进行。 (1) mechanical ventilation: the progression of severe patients rapidly, which can rapidly developed acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). In need of mechanical ventilation in severe cases, can consult ARDS mechanical ventilation principle. ①无创正压通气：出现呼吸窘迫和(或)低氧血症患者，早期可尝试使用无创通气。但重症病例无创通气疗效欠佳，需及早考虑实施有创通气。 The noninvasive positive pressure ventilation: respiratory distress and (or) hypoxemia in patients with early, can try to use noninvasive ventilation. But severe cases of noninvasive ventilation poor efficacy, they should consider implementing invasive mechanical ventilation. ②有创正压通气：鉴于部分患者较易发生气压伤，应当采用ARDS保护性通气策略。 ② invasive positive pressure ventilation: given that some patients are more prone to barotrauma, should adopt the ARDS protective ventilation strategies. (2)体外膜氧合(ECMO)：传统机械通气无法维持满意氧合和(或)通气时，有条件时，推荐使用ECMO。 (2) the extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO): conventional mechanical ventilation is unable to maintain satisfactory oxygenation and (or) ventilation, conditional, recommend the use of ECMO. (3)其他：传统机械通气无法维持满意氧合时，可以考虑俯卧位通气或高频振荡通气(HFOV)。 (3) other: conventional mechanical ventilation is unable to maintain satisfactory oxygenation, can consider the prone position ventilation or high-frequency oscillatory ventilation (HFOV). 2.其他治疗：在呼吸功能支持治疗的同时，应当重视其他器官功能状态的监测及治疗;预防并及时治疗各种并发症尤其是医院获得性感染。 2 other treatment: in the respiratory support therapy at the same time, should pay attention to monitoring and treatment of other organs of state; prevention and timely treatment of complications especially hospital acquired infection. 六、其它 Six, other 严格规范收治人感染H7N9禽流感患者医疗机构的医院感染控制措施。遵照标准预防的原则，根据疾病传播途径采取防控措施。具体措施依据《人感染H7N9禽流感医院感染预防与控制技术指南(2013年版)》的相关规定。 Strictly regulate the patients medical H7N9 avian influenza were hospital infection control measures. In accordance with the standards of the precautionary principle, control measures according to the disease transmission. "Specific measures on the basis of human infection with the H7N9 avian influenza prevention and control of hospital infection technical guide (2013 Edition)" the relevant provisions. 看完了以上的措施和规定，不知你是否已经明白了呢?快去告诉身边的人吧，预防禽流感，人人有责! After reading the above measures and regulations, I do not know whether you understand? Go and tell the people around it, to prevent bird flu, is everyone's responsibility!
做人难，做医生更难。
文发网 免费提供论文写作的参考资料 直接百度“文发网”就可以找到【关键词】甲型流感；临床症状；流行病学；肺炎2009年11~12月，新疆奎屯地区甲型H1N1流感（甲流）流行，患者达数百人之多。为了掌握甲流的临床特征和发病规律，进而指导今后防控工作，对该时间段内在本院确诊的156例甲流住院病例进行了分析，先将结果报告如下。�1 材料与方法� 对象 2009年11~12月，156例在本院就诊并住院符合卫生部甲流诊疗方案诊断标准的患者，其中29例符合危重病例诊断标准〔1〕。� 资料收集 一般资料，如性别、年龄、职业、其他疾病史、出现症状时间、住院天数等；临床症状与体征，如发热、咳嗽、咳痰、咽部不适、气促、乏力、恶心、呕吐、畏寒、流涕、头痛、肌肉酸痛、腹泻等；实验室及辅助检查，如血常规，胸部X摄片，心电图等；流行病学资料，如与流感患者的接触史等。�2 结果� 一般情况 156例患者中男81例，女75例，男女比例：1。年龄最小3岁，最大78岁，平均9岁，其中≤5岁45例（）、6～10岁39例（）、11~20岁25例（）、21`59岁23例（）、≥60岁24例（）。� 流行病学分析� 接触史 156例患者中，的患者（141例）有与流感或发热患者接触史。其中129例（）能确定与发热1~4 d的患者接触过。� 人群特征 本次以幼儿圆、中小学校群体发病为主，占。� 临床医学分析� 临床表现 156例患者有各种流感样症状。其中以高热（≥3℃）、咽痛、咳嗽三大症状最常见，其次为乏力、肌肉痛、头痛、鼻塞流涕等全身中毒症状，少部分伴有呕吐、钠差、腹泻等消化道症状，见表1。29例危重病例中以小儿并发肺炎为多见（23例），其他为老人、体弱者和原有慢性病（高血压、慢支、肺心病等）病症加重为特征。� 病程 156例患者中，112例潜伏期1~4 d（占），最长潜伏期7 d。患者的症状与体征经治疗后均于16 d内消失，其中重症患者住院天数7~16 d，其他患者3~8 d；住院3日后患者体温恢复正常。� 治疗 以抗病毒和抗细菌感染为主，患者均口服奥司他韦胶囊，同时根据感染情况，合并应用不同抗菌素如头孢类+喜炎平、炎琥宁、利巴韦林等静滴。合并肺炎、支原体感染者，用阿奇霉素+喜炎平等静滴。伴有高热、咳嗽者加用退热、止咳化痰药对症治疗。另外，配合应用一些口服中成药和中药，如莲花清瘟胶囊、感咳双清胶囊、金花清感方加减等，使病情很快得到好转。�3 讨论 �甲流为急性呼吸道传染病。2009年3月在墨西哥暴发以来，迅速在全球蔓延，已有数百万人感染，数千人死亡，成为全球最关注的传染病。从本次的调查可以看出，甲流的症状不具有特异性，跟传统的流感类似，单靠症状很难判断是否感染甲流，但可以参考流行病学资料和全国及其他发病地区和流行情况进行初步诊断〔2〕，其最终确诊还需实验室的检测。�据美国CDC对268例住院患者的调查：发烧93%，咳嗽83%，咳喘54%，流涕36%，咽痛31%，肌肉痛36%，呕吐或腹泻24%~29%〔3〕。新疆奎屯地区的患者除发热外，其余症状出现的频率均低于美国，是否说明欧美患者的甲流患者的症状比新疆患者严重，有待今后观察。�临床实践中还体会到，甲流患者尽早治疗极为重要。早期服用奥司他韦胶囊，及时住院治疗者，病情单纯病程短、疗效好，合并症也少。相反，老幼体弱且延误治疗者，其病程常在1周以上，病情复杂，易出现合并症或原发病征加重，预后也较差，应引起重视。�不知这篇文章可以帮到你不 嘻嘻 还有一篇pdf的 我发到你邮箱里 希望对你有帮助哦
医学论文写作要点
引言：毕业论文写作是令众多学子头疼的一件事，特别是医学类论文，下面就是我整理的医学论文写作要点，欢迎大家阅读!
(一)题目
医学论文担负着传播医学信息、进行学术交流、指导临床实践的重任，论文的题目是信息的集中点，更要求论文命题能准确反映文章内容，提供有价值的信息，因此，论文题目要求具体、简洁、鲜明、确切而有特异性和可检索性。
1、论文题目要有具体性。题目不具体是初学者撰写医学论文时常见的缺点，例如“矽肺的预防”，“乙型肝炎的流行病学调查”等等。
2、论文题目要有简洁性。题目应简短、精练，言简意赅地表达文章的中心思想。要删除一切可用可不用的字词，以突出主题。一般中文文题字数以20个汉字以内为宜，最多亦不超过30个字，英文以10个实词以内为宜，文题中间不用标点，题末不用句号;尽量少用“的研究”、“的探讨”、“的观察”等非特定词。题目太长就不鲜明简洁和引人注目。例如，《无偿献血者肝炎指标检测结果及不同性别与血型差异分析》，应改为：《无偿献血者肝炎检测结果及相关因素的分析》。非长不可时考虑用加副标题的办法来解决。副标题常常是将主要研究方案列出附在主标题之后，但必须用圆括号或破折号与主题分开，位于正标题之下，以区分于正标题。较大的题目则应分成若干分题。每个分题单独写一篇文章，且尽可能不设副标题。
3、论文题目要确切而有特异性。指的是要求突出论文中特别有独创性、有特色的内容。文题应准确地表达论文的特定内容，实事求是地反映研究的范围和深度，防止小题大作，名不符实。
例1，《剖宫产资料统计分析》，该文仅涉及剖宫产时间的统计分析，其他资料如产妇的年龄、职业、新生儿性别等均未涉及，故应改为：《剖宫产时间统计分析》。
例2，《鼻挫伤、烧伤等38例远期疗效分析》，文中述及的内容还有裂伤、撕脱伤、离断伤、挫伤、烧伤等，单列2种伤不全面，应改为：《鼻创伤38例远期疗效分析》。
例3，《天津市区胃癌危险因素的配对病例对照研究》 (中华流行病学杂志，2001，22(5)：362)这个题目既有特点，也很具体。
题目应突出论文的特异性、新颖性，不要套用“××病××例临床分析”，或千篇一律地冠以“研究”“探讨”、“体会”之类的陈词俗套。题目可有多种类型，有以目的命题、以研究对象命题、以研究方法命题、以研究结论命题等。“研究”、“探讨”、“观察”、“分析”等词不是不能用，而是应在必要时用。例如，《低密度脂蛋白受体基因多态性与高脂血症关系的研究》，宜改为：《低密度脂蛋白受体基因多态性与高脂血症的关系》。
4、论文题目要有可检索性。题目应适应学术交流和信息传递的需要，用词严谨规范，凡病名、解剖生理名词、治疗方法、检查方法等，不得用俗称、习惯用语或社时的旧名词，必须使用全国自然科学名词审定委员会公布的名词。
5、撰写论文题目应注意以下几点(1)文题应避免使用非公用的缩略词语、符号、代号、公式等。外国人名、常见缩略语和符号(如CT、ATP、DNA、HBsAg等)可以使用，但不宜将其原形词同时列出，亦不必再写出中文全名。以外国人命名的综合征或体征，不必译成中文，不加“氏”字。(2)文题中的数字均用阿拉伯数字。但不包括作为名词或形容词的数字，如“十二指肠”不能写成“12指肠”，“三*神经”不能写成“3*神经”。(3)下列情况，应在文题的右上角加角注，并在首页下列出角号及加注内容。论文系某科研基金会资助的课题总结，加注“本文系某科研基金会资助”;论文曾在国际学术会议上作过报告，加注“本文曾在某年某国际学术会议上报告”;论文系在进修或学习时的工作总结，加注“本文系在某院进修期完成”。
(二)作者及其单位
作者姓名在文题下按序排列，作者单位名称及邮政编码脚注于首页左下方。作者应是：①参与选题与设计，或参与资料的分析和解释者;②撰写或修改论文中关键性理论或其他主要内容者;③能对编辑部的修改意见进行核修，在学术界进行答辩，并最终同意该文发表者。仅参与获得资金或收集资料，及对科研小组进行一般管理的人员不宜列为作者，对这些人员的贡献应列人致谢部分。
作者署名主要按作者(或单位名称)在研究中的作用、贡献以及所能承担的责任依次写明姓名和所在单位，而不是论资排队。例如，学位论文署名有时研究生名字在前，导师名字在后，实际上整个科研设计导师起了很大作用，而研究生做了大量实际工作，因此列为第一作者。对上述3条作者条件的规定，凡署名的作者均必须具备对文章中各主要结论，至少有一位作者负责，集体署名文章必须注明对该文负责的关键人物。来自不同单位的较多研究可只写研究者(作者)姓名，并于各姓名右上角标一小符号，在第一页脚注上注明符号所代表的作者单位名称。所有参加署名的人，都应对论文的内容负责，需要时能对读者的疑问作出恰当的解释和说明。
另外，还要注意以下几点：
1、一篇论文的署名不宜过多。一般不超过10人，其余作者可采用注释形式列于本篇文章首页下方，指导者、协作者、审阅者可列入致谢中，应征得被致谢者同意。参加研究者或作者已死亡，应在姓名外加黑线框。
2、单名作者则姓与名之间空一格。如作者系论文的整理、执笔、文摘摘稿人、简讯作者、综合者，其姓名一般置于文末，参考文献之前，并加括号。
3、译文文摘的署名应写在全文末右下方，用圆括号括起，译者与校对者之间空一格。
4、署名应署真名、全名，不应署笔名。国内作者的中文署名写全名，其外文署名按1978年国务院规定一律用汉语拼音，也是姓前名后，姓和名的首字符大写，其间留空一格，双名或双姓的拼音字符连写，不加连字号。如郝加虎为“Haojia-hu”，欧阳明为“OuyongMing”。若两字拼音连写处出现元音字符相接而其音节可能发生混拼时，则在两元音字符间的上方加隔音号(，)以示区分。如刘长安为“LiuChang’an”。
5、学位论文的署名应按“实事求是、论功署名”的原则，不计资历深浅、不论学衔高低，而应根据在研究工作中所负的责任和所起的作用来决定。
6、多学科综合研究课题的署名应按课题组组长的姓名一般排列在前，组员按贡献大小依次排列在后的情况处理。若在总的研究课题中又有分课题的情况下，分课题单独发表时，分课题的组长可以名列在前，组员按在研究成果中所起的作用大小排列。
(三)摘要(abstract)与关键词(key words)
摘要是论文中主要内容的高度浓缩并能提供文中的关键信息。论文摘要应简明扼要地描述课题的性质、研究目的与意义、材料与方法、结果、讨论和结论中的重要内容。一般论文摘要不要超过200字。
在论文正文的'前面，需要撰写论文摘要。我国国家级医学期刊，通常都要求中、英文摘要，而且采用了国际医学期刊要求的格式化摘要(structured abstract)。格式化摘要国外期刊大多采用Haynes RB等提出的格式(More informative abstracts revisited. Ann Intern Med，1990，113：69-76.)，包括目的(objective)、设计(design)、研究场所(setting)、病人或其他研究对象(patients or other participants)、干预措施(in-terventions)、主要结果的测量方法(main outcome measures)、结果(results)及结论(conclusions)共8项;我国医学期刊将其简化：目的、方法、结果和结论四部分，各部分冠以相应的标题，并采用第三人称撰写，不用“本文”等主语，文字要极其精练，不一定要用完整句子，字数限于200～250字左右。
论著稿应在摘要下面标出关键词(key words)。关键词为论文正确编目，标出关键词的目的主要为了便于作主题索引，便于电子计算机检索使用，因此要求尽可能准、全。关键词要求简洁、明确，将论文中可供检索点列出。关键词是专业术语，而不是其他词汇，一般要求列25个。要求标出文章所研究和讨论的重点内容，仅在研究方法中提及的手段不予标出。尽量使用美国国立医学图书馆编辑的最新版《Index Medicus))中医学主题词表(MeSH)内所列的词。如最新版MeSH中尚无相应的词，可选用直接相关的几个主题词组配，如无法组配则可选用最直接的上位主题词，必要时可用适当的习用自由词。
(四)前言(introduction)
是写在论文正文前面的一段短文，起提纲挚领作用。论文开始一段是前言，一般文章均不将前言列为标题，只是有一段文字将正文引出，字数不宜过多，一般300字左右。但国外期刊有关研究背景知识介绍的篇幅较长。前言是为了给读者一点预备的知识，并借以引起读者阅读下去的兴趣，因此要特别注意精练、开门见山而有吸引力，对研究历史回顾应避免繁琐。在研究论文的前言中扼要介绍与本文密切有关的史料。
前言部分主要讲清楚所研究问题的来源及本文的目的性。课题来源可以从文献中来，也可从临床实际工作中提出，需要在前言部分简明扼要地写清楚，所要研究的是什么问题，问题的提出是从何而来的?本文准备解决哪些问题。有时一项科研工作已持续多年，该论文是以前某一阶段工作的总结，则要说明该项科研工作总的目的，以前发表的论文已解决了其中的某个问题，本篇论文是准备解决其中哪个问题。总之要将论文的目的写清楚，使读者看了一目了然，知道本文所研究问题的来源、重要性以及研究目的是什么。前言的内容无需在文中重复，初写者常将前言部分内容和讨论部分重复，这是不允许的。
总之，前言就是用简单的文字描述该项研究的背景与动向、研究目的(包括思路)、范围、历史、意义、方法及重要研究结果和结论，前言要切题，起到给读者一些预备知识的作用，并能引人人胜。
(五)材料与方法(materials and method)
应体现科研构思和实验设计的各项要求。这部分是论文的重要组成部分，其篇幅较大，一般分析性和实验性研究大约需要1500字左右才能写清楚。需要详细撰写的理由是：使读者看了后能重复，以及便于审稿者复核。“材料”主要交待作者用什么具体实验对象或什么具体的资料来进行研究，“方法”指用什么具体实验方法或搜集资料的方法来收集资料。因此“材料与方法”在有些研究的论文中也称为“对象与方法”或“资料来源与方法”。“材料和方法”不能和“结果”部分合并撰写。撰写的内容包括：
1、对象
①研究对象人选的方法：即如何从目标人群选人样本人群，撰写时应使用下列名词：随机样本(random sample)、选自人群的样本(population-based sample)、转诊样本(referred sample)、连续样本(consecutive sample)、志愿者样本(volunteer sam-ple)及随便抽取的样本(convenience sample)，将研究对象的来源介绍清楚，其主要目的除了估计抽样误差外，尚能帮助读者了解论文结论的适用范围。②诊断标准和纳入/排除标准：尽量使用“金标准”，并标明诊断标准的出处，切不可笼统地冠以“全部研究对象符合全国统一诊断标准”。③入选研究对象的样本数：如有拒绝人选者应注明人数，并说明原因。④研究对象的一般特征：包括年龄、性别、民族及其他重要特征。⑤研究对象的分组方法：是否随机分配，采用何种随机分配方法：简单随机化，区组随机化或分层随机化，切不可简单地写“随机分组”一句话。
2、研究方法
①基本设计方案：基本设计方案应写明，下列名词可供撰写用：如治疗性研究应使用“随机对照试验”、“非随机对照试验”、“交*对照试验”、“前后对照试验”、“双盲”、“安慰剂对照”等名词;诊断研究应使用“金标准对照”、“盲法”等名词;预后研究应使用“前瞻性队列研究”、“回顾性队列研究”、“起始队列(inception cohort)”广等名词;病因研究应使用“随机对照试验”、“队列研究”、“病例对照研究”、“横断面研究”等名词;描述性研究应写明是“病例分析”、“普查”、“抽样调查”等;临床经济学分析应写明“成本 效果分析”、“成本 效用分析”、“成本 效益分析”等。②研究场所：要写清楚在“人群或社区”、“医学中心”、“基层医院”、“门诊”、“住院”等。③干预措施：试验的措施及执行方法应详细交待;投于患者的药物应写明化学名、商品名、生产厂名，中药还应注明产地，并详细说明每日剂量、次数、用药途径和疗程;试剂应写明生产厂家名，试验方法如是作者新建立的要详细介绍，老的方法应注明出处，所采用的仪器须注明型号及生产厂名。④盲法：盲法的具体实施情况应交待，包括安慰剂的制作，保证盲法成功的措施等。⑤测量指标及判断结果的标准：如暴露及疗效标准等的确定都有公认的标准，撰写时都应注明。⑥质量控制：控制偏倚发生所采用的措施。
3、统计分析方法：包括资料收集方法的介绍，采用何种统计方法，如采用计算机分析，计算机的型号及何种计算机软件都必须一一交待。如在《银屑病危险因素研究》[中华流行病学杂志，200l，22(3)]一文中，作者撰写的材料与方法如下。
一、研究对象
1、病例组
220例有家族史银屑病患者，年龄分布在6-72岁之间，平均年龄为34-35岁，其中男125例，女95例;547例无家族史银屑病患者，年龄分布在3-76岁之间，平均年龄岁，均来自我院皮肤科门诊1997年12月1日至1999年8月31日确诊的病人，病例间无亲缘关系。
2、对照组
同时选择我院外科住院病人的健康家属(无任何皮肤病)647名作为对照，男378名，女269名，年龄分布在3-73岁之间，平均年龄为岁;对照间亦无亲缘关系;病例组与对照组在性别、年龄方面经统计学处理差异无显著性。
二、家庭史的确认
除先证者外，其一级或二级亲属中至少还有一位银屑病患者。
三、资料的收集与分析
在门诊对每位先证者进行详细询问，记录其一般情况、家庭史、发病情况等，以了解先证者一、二级亲属的患病情况(二级以上亲属未统计)，对患病亲属进行随访，以确诊是否患病。一级亲属包括先证者的父母、子女及同胞，二级亲属包括先证者祖父母、外祖父母、伯叔、姑舅、侄子女、外甥子女、孙子女、外孙子女。所有病例、对照均用EPIinfo 软件包进行统计学分析。
针对不同类型论文还应提供一些资料
(1)临床研究：1)病例来源及选择标准：病例是住院还是门诊病人，或是普查普治;病例选择标准(引用者要注明出处，自订者要说明根据)，诊断及分型标准，分型分组标准(应考虑随机分配和双盲观察)。2)一般资料：病人例数、性别、年龄、职业、病程、病因、病情、病型，主要症状和体征，实验室及其他检查结果，临床或病理诊断依据，观察方法与指标等，对病例摘要可不写姓名和住院号，内容包括：·主诉、现病史、重要的有意义的家族史和既往史，体格检查、实验室检查及其他特殊检查结果，住院经过，治疗方法和疗效等。3)治疗方法：如药物名称、剂量、剂型、使用方法及疗程、生产厂及出厂日期(批号)等。如为手术治疗则需写出手术名称、术式、麻醉方法等。4)疗效观察项目及疗效标准：如症状体征、实验室检查及现代医学器械检查、病理检查、观察方法与指标、疗效标准(痊愈、显效、好转、无效、死亡)。
(2)实验研究：1)实验条件：动物名称、种系、品系、数量、来源、性别、年龄、身长、体重、健康状况、分组标准和方法、手术和标本制备过程，实验、观察、记录的手段、方法及注意事项。2)实验方法与质量：感染接种方法，仪器种类及其精密度、测定结果，描记图像，试剂种类、规格、来源、成分、纯度、浓度、配制、操作方法及过程，生产单位、出厂日期及批号等。3)其他：季节、室温、湿度以及其他条件等。
(3)现场调查研究：要阐明何时、何地进行本次调查，设计类型是队列研究、病例对照研究或现况调查，随机抽样的方法，样本量大小的估计。调查对象是普通人群或高危人群，甚至病人。如果调查对象为病例，则必须有一个正确的诊断标准，还需注明病例来自医院还是从普查中获得。由于资料来源能反映调查结论的可信性，所以应实事求是的详尽叙述，使读者可以从中判定该文是否有进一步阅读价值及结论的可*性。方法包括实验室检测及其统计方法。实验室检测应介绍使用的方法、步骤、试剂来源、批号及诊断标准，如果应用新的方法则应介绍具体操作过程。统计方法如果是众所周知，则毋须详述，如果采用新的统计方法，应介绍计算公式，引自文献等，使读者了解应用是否确切。
(六)结果(results)
要求如实具体交待经审查核对后用统计学处理的实验观察数据资料，而不要求把原始数据全部写出。主要介绍全部的发现及数据，是论证的重要依据。结果的中心内容是经过科学地统计学处理得来的数据，而不是原始数据，更不是原始记录。结果应当客观完整和可*，所有的结果项目，均要围绕研究主题，有逻辑、有层次地层开，与主题无关的部分，不宜全部列出，但在材料与方法中列出的项目与标准，在结果中必须反映出来，并且要吻合一致。
结果是论文的核心，它反映了论文水平的高低及其价值，是结论的依据，是形成观点与主题的基础和支柱，约用全文的1/31/4篇幅书写这部分内容。由结果引发讨论，导出推理。结果的内容包括真实可*的观察和研究结果，测定的数据，导出的公式，典型病例、取得的图像、效果的差异(有效与无效)、科学研究的理论结论等。对不符合主观设想的数据和结果，应作客观的分析报道。有的医学论文可将实验方法与结果连写。临床医学论文中也可将疗效标准、治疗结果和并发症写在结果内。
结果部分应根据不同情况分段叙述，可以设小标题，小标题之下亦可再设分标题。结果表达时应注意：①数据表达要完整：报告结果的例数与人选研究对象的例数应吻合，剔除例数与剔除理由应交待，失访例数及因其他原因死亡例数也应写清楚，如有数据不全应作解释。如进行两组比较，应列出两组除研究因素以外的其他临床基线情况(base line)，并进行均衡性检验，两组是否可比。②科研设计时确定的科研假设主要测量指标，如在结果部分作丁更改应作解释。③统计处理注意事项：当相对数的分母太小时，应报道绝对数，如10/20例，而不能只报告50%病例;应用的率和比应正确，选择的各种统计分析方法要正确，复杂的统计分析要作解释;应同时报道95%可信区间(95%CI)④诊断试验的研究应报告灵敏度、特异度、预测值、似然比及受试者工作特征(ROC)曲线。
统计学处理主要使原始数据从难理解变成易于理解，并从原始数据的偶然性中揭示出隐藏在其中的某些必然规律。用统计学处理原始数据时，首先要通过分组将原始数据重新排列，制作频数表，然后算出均数或百分率，并用显著性检验所得的P值来判定其组间差异的意义，以获得包含在原始数据中的信息，其次是用文字或统计图表将它们表示出来。结果的表达形式有表、图、文字3种。统计图比统计表更便于理解与比较，但统计图中不能获得确切数字，所以不能完全代替统计表。图的标题应置于图的下端，图有纵轴和横轴，两轴应有标目，标目应注明单位，横轴尺度自左至右，纵轴尺度自下而上，尺度必须等距，数值一律由小到大，一般纵轴尺度必须从0点起始(对数图及点图等除外)，图中用不同线条应注明，图的长、宽比例一般以7：5为宜。常用的统计图有直条图、圆形图、百分直条图、线图、直方图、散点图等。直条图利用直条的长短来表达按性质分类资料各类别的数值，如疾病分类、性别、治疗效果等，表示它们之间的对比关系。圆形图和百分直条图适用于百分构成的资料，表示事物各组成部分的构成情况。线图和直方图用于按数量分组的资料如时间、年龄、身高、体重及血压等有连续性的指标。散点图用以表示两种事物的相关性和趋势，一般横线代表白变量，纵轴代表因变量。临床医学研究的论文结果中往往还会运用插图和照片如心电图、脑电图、X线片、CT片等来表示研究中的发现，插图的画面要重点突出，照片要注意拍摄的环境及技术条件的一致性。文字表达和图表表达不要重复，文字是表达结果重要的、不可缺少的手段，要简明扼要，力求用最少的文字、最简洁的语言把结果表达清楚，一般不宜引用参考文献。文字表达应当是要点式叙述，可分几项撰写，每一项报告一组数据，使读者看了一目了然。图表的表达应符合统计学的规定。
总之，结果是论文中的主体，是作者的主要劳动成果，结果必须完整、清晰、准确无误，不允许有丝毫的含混和差错。
(七)讨论(discussion)
主要是对实验观察结果或调查结果做出理论性分析。这是全篇文章的精华所在。讨论是为了寻找事物之间的内在联系，可把本文取得的结果与文献或过去的工作进行对比，寻找其间的关系，讨论所需引用的文献材料应尽量抽象概括，而不是抄袭别人的文献资料。讨论部分是从理论上对实验和观察结果进行分析和综合，为文章的结论提供理论依据。讨论部分是以结果部分为基础和线索进行分析和推理，表达作者在结果部分所不能表达的推理性内容。讨论的内容应当从实验和观察结果出发，实事求是，切不可主观推测，超越数据所能达到的范围。很大程度上取决于作者文献掌握的多少，作者的分析能力如何，切忌将讨论部分写成他人文献的综述。归纳起来，讨论部分应表达下列内容：
1、应紧密结合本文研究所获得的重要发现，以及从中引出的结论进行讨论，而不是重复结果部分的内容。特别是要对新的发现、文献尚未报道的内容进行深入讨论，包括可能的机制、临床应用范围以及从研究结果对总体的推论。必须强调应紧密结合本文发现进行讨论，且所作的推论必须恰当。
2、应讨论本文发现和文献报道同类研究的结论有何不同，哪些文献支持本文发现，哪些文献报道与本文结论不同，切忌冗长的文献综述式的阐述。
3、应对本文研究不足之处进行讨论;可能存在的偏倚，以及偏倚的来源;对本文研究的内部真实性和外部真实性进行讨论;要肯定本文的结论尚需进行哪些项目的研究等等。
4、提出进一步的研究方向、展望、建议和设想。
以上内容并非每篇论文的讨论都必须涉及，面面俱到。应从论文的研究内容出发，突出重点，紧扣题目，围绕一个至几个“小核心”进行。对于新的临床病例报告，还应讲清楚诊断标准和鉴别诊断。如果是有关新药疗效，还要说明如何肯定疗效，疗效的指标是否合理，今后治疗方法上还需如何改进等。要集中围绕几个观点讲深述透，不必面面俱到。每个讨论最好有一个小标题，提示讨论的中心内容，按结果栏目中的顺序并结合文献分段撰写，或标出序号。其次序应从时间、因果、重要性、复杂性，相似与相反的对比等方面来考虑，使内容有条理，有联系，重点突出。讨论部分不使用图和表，篇幅亦不宜过长，一般占全文的1/31/2即可。文献一般不整段引用，而是摘其观点或结论，用角码标出参考文献。
流行病学的研究范围及应用（一）、描述疾病与健康状态的分布特点（二）、探讨病因与影响流行的因素及确定预防方法（三）、应用于诊断、疗效判断、选择治疗方案及预后的评价（四）、疾病的预防与控制的对策与措施（五）、应用于医疗、卫生、保健服务的决策和评价由于几乎各种疾病及健康状况都存在着与流行病学有关的问题，因此，在临床各科日常工作中，都会遇到应用流行病学观点和方法的场合。更加上随着医学模式由生物医学模式发展到心理－社会－生物医学模式，以及WHO提出“到2000年人人享有卫生保健”及发展初级卫生保健，应用流行病学的范围日益扩大，归纳起来大约可分为：（一）描述疾病与健康状态的分布特点所谓疾病（或健康状态）的分布是指它在不同时间、不同地区及人群（年龄、性别、种族、职业等）中的发生率、现患率或死亡率等。这些分布经常并非千篇一律、平均分布的。这些分布特点应该用数量正确地把它表示出在地区、时间、人群的分布上。在不同的时间、地区、人群发生某种疾病或数量有不同，提示发病因素的分布的不同。我国进行了1973-1975年全国恶性肿瘤死亡的大规模调查，自始至终有流行病学专家参加，所以在较短时间内获得全国资料。全国进行的大规模的调查，如精神病、神经病、心血管疾病、糖尿病、眼科疾病、老年病、计划生育等等，都需要应用流行病学方法才易顺利完成。（二）探讨病因与影响流行的因素及确定预防方法有许多种疾病的病因至今尚不完全明了（如恶性肿瘤、原发性高血压、心肌梗死、克山病、大骨节病等等）。流行病学可以探讨促成发病的因素，从而探讨预防或控制这些疾病的方法。传染病虽然病因已知，根据其分布特点可探讨引起散发、爆发或流行的因素，从而可以提出有效的控制措施。1．察布查尔病系新疆察布查尔锡伯族曾发生的一种病死率较高的疾病。经过仔细的流行病学调查分析，查明是肉毒中毒。2．晶体后纤维增生症是40年代初在美国儿童中发现的一种逐渐使人失明的疾病。经流行病学研究，查明该病与早产儿吸入高浓度的氧有关系。以后减低氧的浓度即减少了此病的发生。3．先天性白内障于40年代初在澳大利亚突然增多。经眼科医师Gregg用流行病学方法分析得出与孕妇在妊娠早期患风疹有关的结论。4．少女阴道腺癌是一种少见的疾病，Herbst医师用流行病学研究，得出与其母亲在妊娠早期使用已烯雌酚有关的结论。5．随着医学模式的发展，习惯与生活方式（lifestyle）(如吸烟、酗酒等)、心理、社会、遗传因素等在疾病发生上的作用日益受到重视。遗传因素与环境因素交互作用引致疾病等等，均可用流行病学方法加以探讨。（三）应用于诊断、疗效判断、选择治疗方案及预后的评价1．应用流行病学知识提高诊断、鉴别诊断水平与认识疾病的自然史许多种疾病的临床症状轻重变动较大，轻型病人很少到医院就诊。仅在医院内工作的医师经常见到的是症状比较重的，常把这些当作疾病的“典型”。应用流行病学方法可到各种类型的病例，从而可以了解个体和群体疾病的过程和结局，即该病的自然史（natural history）。如在诊断时不运用流行病学知识，就可能误诊。现举几例：（1）麻疹：由于广泛应用疫苗及球蛋白，现在不少病人症状很轻，缺少Koplik斑及“典型”皮疹。在病程早期如能了解他与麻疹病例的接触史及他周围儿童正在患麻疹的事实，则不易误诊或漏诊。（2）钩端螺旋体病：本病临床症状多种多样，可以像流行性乙型脑炎、流行性感冒、伤寒；也有的可以有咳血、高烧，病死率很高，甚至于误诊为肺鼠疫；还有的在烧退后出现眼色素膜炎等症。仅按临床症状，极易误诊为其他病，耽误治疗，也耽误预防与防疫工作。上述几种疾病，尽管有的病临床症状类似，但各有各的流行病学特点，如乙型脑炎是高度散发的，极少能见到多数病例在一个小地区内同时发生，而钩端螺旋体病爆发时则可以。如果注意到该病所表现的流行病学特点就不易诊断错误。2．判断某些症状有无诊断价值过去所记载的认为可诊断某病的某些临床症状（如蛔虫斑诊断蛔虫症），是有诊断价值，还是仅仅按机遇二者在同一人同时存在的偶合。如为后者，则没有临床诊断价值。此点可以用流行病学方法加以判断。3．判断药物疗效及安全性判断某种治疗方法（或药物）的疗效、某种药物（如口服避孕药、氯霉素）的安全性或某种新药的副作用，都要应用流行病学方法。4．选择治疗方案一位临床医生对于任何病例在选择治疗方案时，需要知道用不同治疗方案时，病人好转的可能性的大小或病死的危险性的大小，需要知道各种治疗方法的治疗效果，否则不易做出正确的决定。医生选择治疗方法或建议时所需的这些资料，可用流行病学方法协助取得。医院儿科医生对于用抗生素治疗急性哮喘的重要性的认识，被其在医院的经验所限制。因为，大量病例在家中用抗生素治疗是成功的，许多转到医院的病例是早期治疗不成功的。这些病例与在家治疗成功的病例，对药物反应不相同。在确定急性哮喘的药物治疗时，应看到全部病例治疗情况，而不应只看到自己在医院内治疗的几例。流行病学的原理、方法应用于医学在处理个体病人的实践中所遇到的问题，发展了流行病学的一个分支——临床流行病学。（四）疾病的预防与控制的对策与措施比如，用什么办法使有些疾病（特别是传染病）病人少发生；用什么对策或措施能最快、最经济地在一个地区控制或消灭一种疾病；用什么办法不让一种病传入一个地区。这些对策或措施的效果又如何？（五）应用于医疗、卫生、保健服务的决策和评价流行病学描述人群中有关疾病与健康状况，使卫生行政主管部门知道人群中的疾病及有关因素所造成的负担，可以使有限的卫生资源发挥最好的效益，可以有助于确定优先的预防及保健项目的卫生规划。在某些特殊地区着重研究某些暴露的特殊环境。可用于评价卫生服务的效果及效益，如确定某病（如心肌梗死）的最合宜住院期限，确定治疗某病（如高血压）的价值，确定什么治疗方案最为经济有效（如对肾衰、心肌梗死等等），确定应用卫生措施控制腹泻病的效果等。应用流行病学方法评价“到2000年人人享有卫生保健”的进展是很重要的。由上述一些例子可以看到，一名临床医生在临床工作过程中，诊断、治疗、判断效果等等，以至于探讨病因，进行医疗、卫生保健服务都需要流行病学知识。所以，临床医学专业的学员为了今后在工作中能更好地完成防治疾病，保护人民健康的任务，在学好临床课的同时还要认真学好流行病学。