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论中国的死刑废除　　〔摘 要〕世界上很多国家都已经废除死刑，死刑的废除似乎已经成了一种趋势。既然如此，中国就应该顺应这种历史的潮流，那么中国废除死刑的原因是什么呢？　　〔关键词〕 中国 刑罚 死刑 废除　　从封建社会进入近现代社会后，刑罚体系发生了很大变化。古代的极不人道的刑罚如死刑、杖刑、笞刑已经逐渐被近现代西方的刑罚体系所代替。古代那些如凌迟、枭首、车裂等死刑也被一些能尽量减少人痛苦的死刑如枪决、针刑、毒气所代替，尽量减轻死刑犯的痛苦，以示对生命的尊重。　　可是现在死刑不但失去了其在刑法体系中的核心地位，而且限制、减少死刑乃至废除死刑已经成为世界性的潮流与趋势。 现在尊重人权的呼声越来越烈，而生命权是人权的重要内容，因此许多国家都相继废除了死刑。生命是人类最宝贵的东西，一旦失去，生命便不会重来一次，所有的一切也就无从谈起，所以我认为废除死刑是历史的必然，中国应该废除死刑。　　早在清末时期，著名法学家沈家本就提出了限制乃至废除死刑的观点，沈家本从传统的“王道仁政”出发坚定地认为：“臣等窃维治国之道，以仁政为先，自来议刑法者，亦莫不谓裁之以义而推之以仁，然则刑法之改重为轻，固今日仁政之要务，而即修订之宗旨也。”并且强调“化民之道，固在政教，不在刑威也。”　　可见废除死刑的观点是由来已久的，那么我认为中国应该废除死刑的原因是什么呢？在下文我将浅谈一下我的观点。　　首先，改革开放后，中国积极加入世界市场，并且中国国际化的程度也是越来越深。从2005年10月4日到现在，世界上一半以上的国家在法律或实践上废除了死刑。具体情况如下：对所有罪行都废除死刑的国家有68个，普通罪行废除死刑的国家有11个，实践中废除死刑的国家有24个，所以，在法律或实践中废除死刑的国家总计有121个，保留死刑的国家仅有75个。而且最近几十年情况显示，平均每年有三个国家在法律或实践中废除了死刑。可见废除死刑在整个世界上都已经成为了一种趋势。因此，中国若想在世界舞台上更好的展现自己的魅力，赢得更多国家的尊重，就应该与世界接轨，废除死刑。　　其次，“杀人偿命，欠债还钱”的观念从西汉就根植到了人的脑海中，或许现在这种观念对人还有很大的影响。但是这种观念并不是成为中国废除死刑的一个障碍。　　很多时间若是问大家一个人杀了另外一个人，应该对杀人的人怎么办，大家肯定会说应该给他判处死刑，但是如果情况并不是你想象的那么简单呢？比如，甲要强奸乙，乙在甲未得逞之继而因为防卫过当将甲致死，这时候大家可能并不认为乙应该被处死，反而会因为乙的勇敢而称赞乙。再比如，一个男人回家后看到妻子正和第三者通奸，然后火气大发，用菜刀将妻子和第三者砍死。此时，如果按照中国现行的法律，此男人必将会被处死，可大家可能大多数都会有一些同情该男人，认为他不应该被处死，任何男人遇到了这种情况都会一时间控制不住自己的情绪的。　　可见，“杀人偿命”在很大程度上是受条件的限制的，人们真想让杀人者死的是那些罪大恶极的，极度危害社会的罪犯。但是这种罪犯在社会上不是多数，为何不废除死刑呢？　　再次，死刑并不比终身监禁具有更大的威慑力。迄今为止，并没有研究表明重罪的发案率与死刑的存废之间有必然的联系。有研究表明人在犯罪后被判为死刑对社会的威慑力并不比终身监禁的威慑力大，而且如果被判处死刑，犯罪率依然保持在原先的水平。从实践中考察，死刑也从未对犯罪产生过有效的威慑力。 因为一个人若是明确知道了自己何年何月何日死，刚开始可能会恐惧，但是随着他意识上的逐渐接受，到真正执行死刑时却不是太害怕了，可见死刑的威慑力难以持久，而且威慑效果的巩固期有明显缩短的趋势。如果一个人不知道自己何时会死，整日活在对自己死期的猜测之中，这时的威慑力才是更大的。西方废除死刑的国家对重刑判罪时一判就会判个几百年。中国完全可也借鉴这种刑罚，当人犯也被判几百年后，即使该罪犯在狱中表现良好，获得减刑，那么他还是无法走出牢狱，对社会的危害也就无从谈起。　　第四，当谈到一个人被判为死刑时，大多数人可能都会想是不是该犯人杀了人。其实并不是仅仅杀了人才会被判为死刑的，一些经济犯虽然并没有犯杀人罪但是却也会判为死刑的。经济上的犯罪无非是官僚贪污了，企业逃税了，盗国家财产了，他们之所以会在经济上犯罪很可能是因为自己思想上一时出了差错或者是受到了他人的教唆，如果立即执行死刑，便等于夺取了他们改过自新的机会。他们是完全有可能在经过改造后重新成为对社会主义建设有用的人，可是一旦生命权都没有了，还何谈改过自新呢？还何谈更好的建设祖国呢？从矫正论的角度看，是否所有的死刑犯都不能够改造呢？死刑剥夺了刑罚积极的、改造的价值。　　第五，人无完人，只要是个人即使他再怎么细心也是会犯错的。古往今来，发生了许多的冤假错案，中国古代的窦娥不就是很好的例证吗？　　冤假错案并不会随着时代的进步而消失，好比再精密的仪器也有出差错的时候。德国国际记者协会日前在欧洲范围内进行了一次调查，调查对象是欧洲各国的检察官、法官等执法人员以及一些律师组织。调查的内容是刑事重罪案件的误判比率。调查结果出人意料，这类案件的误判率为5%，记协据此得出结论：欧洲每年至少有数百起重罪案件存在误判现象。由此可以看出，作为大陆法系国家的代表，德国的冤假错案并没有随着时代的进步而消失。那么可以判断出中国每年的冤假错案的数量也是为数不少的。死刑之误判率高，而冤狱之发现与平反又非常困难，所以生命刑应该废止。 如果废除了死刑，虽然嫌疑人被判了终身监禁，可一旦事实的真相被查明，那么嫌疑人就会成为自由身，所有的一切还可以重新开始，如果执行了死刑，不仅仅他被冤枉，而且会给他的家人，亲属带来多么大的伤痛，我相信那个判刑的法官也会一辈子无法安心。　　有学者以充满人文关怀的语调写道：生命一次性让人对它珍惜；生命的美好使人为它感到伤感；死者亲属的伤痛使人同情；罪犯临行前的恐惧让人怜悯；一旦错判难以纠正使人感到后悔；任何罪犯都有可以让人宽宥的原因。　　总之，生命是宝贵的，一旦一个人的生命被剥夺，一切就无从谈起，所以从上面的五个方面我一一论述了我认为中国应该废除死刑的理由。可是从现在中国的国情来看，中国废除死刑仍然是任重而道远的。但是死刑已成为强弩之末，丧失了昔日的威风，废除死刑是人类法制文明高度发展的产物，是刑罚改革的大方向。 废除死刑是历史的必然，因此我依旧会充满信心，我相信死刑会走向它的终点，走进历史博物馆，终究有一天中国大地上不会再出现死刑！　　[参考文献]　　1、崔敏：《死刑考论—历史 现实 未来》，中国人民公安大学出版社2008年版。　　2、陈琴：《刑法中的事实错误》，中国人民公安大学出版社2008年版。　　3、何显兵：《死刑的适用及其价值取向》，中国人民公安大学出版社2008年版。　　4、黄晓亮：《暴力犯罪死刑问题研究》，中国人民公安大学出版社2008年版。　　5、李交发：《简论沈家本的废除死刑观》，载《现代法学》2005年版。　　6、赵秉志主编：《中国废止死刑之路探索》，中国人民公安大学出版社2004年版。　　7、赵秉志主编：《死刑改革研究报告》，法律出版社2007年版。

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文献综述是对某一方面的专题搜集大量情报资料后经综合分析而写成的一种学术论文，它是科学文献的一种。　　格式与写法　　文献综述的格式与一般研究性论文的格式有所不同。这是因为研究性的论文注重研究的方法和结果，特别是阳性结果，而文献综述要求向读者介绍与主题有关的详细资料、动态、进展、展望以及对以上方面的评述。因此文献综述的格式相对多样，但总的来说，一般都包含以下四部分：即前言、主题、总结和参考文献。撰写文献综述时可按这四部分拟写提纲，在根据提纲进行撰写工。　　前言部分，主要是说明写作的目的，介绍有关的概念及定义以及综述的范围，扼要说明有关主题的现状或争论焦点，使读者对全文要叙述的问题有一个初步的轮廓。　　主题部分，是综述的主体，其写法多样，没有固定的格式。可按年代顺序综述，也可按不同的问题进行综述，还可按不同的观点进行比较综述，不管用那一种格式综述，都要将所搜集到的文献资料归纳、整理及分析比较，阐明有关主题的历史背景、现状和发展方向，以及对这些问题的评述，主题部分应特别注意代表性强、具有科学性和创造性的文献引用和评述。　　总结部分，与研究性论文的小结有些类似，将全文主题进行扼要总结，对所综述的主题有研究的作者，最好能提出自己的见解。参考文献虽然放在文末，但却是文献综述的重要组成部分。因为它不仅表示对被引用文献作者的尊重及引用文献的依据，而且为读者深入探讨有关问题提供了文献查找线索。因此，应认真对待。参考文献的编排应条目清楚，查找方便，内容准确无误。关于参考文献的使用方法，录著项目及格式与研究论文相同，不再重复。

维基百科找到的Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, due mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, and information theory to study how the brain processes There are a number of subdisciplines; for example, as non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain become more and more widespread, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn Areas of studyPsycholinguistics is interdisciplinary in nature and is studied by people in a variety of fields, such as psychology, cognitive science, and There are several subdivisions within psycholinguistics that are based on the components that make up human Linguistic-related areas:Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech Within psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands these Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between related words (such as dog and dogs) and the formation of words based on rules (such as plural formation) Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined together to form Semantics deals with the meaning of words and Where syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual meaning of Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of Psychology-related areas:The study of word recognition and reading examines the processes involved in the extraction of orthographic, morphological, phonological, and semantic information from patterns in printed Developmental psycholinguistics studies infants' and children's ability to learn and process language, usually with experimental or at least quantitative methods (as opposed to naturalistic observations such as those made by Jean Piaget in his research on the development of children) [edit] TheoriesTheories about how language works in the human mind attempt to account for, among other things, how we associate meaning with the sounds (or signs) of language and how we use syntax—that is, how we manage to put words in the proper order to produce and understand the strings of words we call "" The first of these items—associating sound with meaning—is the least controversial and is generally held to be an area in which animal and human communication have at least some things in common (See animal communication) Syntax, on the other hand, is controversial, and is the focus of the discussion that There are essentially two schools of thought as to how we manage to create syntactic sentences: (1) syntax is an evolutionary product of increased human intelligence over time and social factors that encouraged the development of spoken language; (2) language exists because humans possess an innate ability, an access to what has been called a "universal " This view holds that the human ability for syntax is "hard-wired" in the This view claims, for example, that complex syntactic features such as recursion are beyond even the potential abilities of the most intelligent and social non- (Recursion, for example, includes the use of relative pronouns to refer back to earlier parts of a sentence—"The girl whose car is blocking my view of the tree that I planted last year is my ") The innate view claims that the ability to use syntax like that would not exist without an innate concept that contains the underpinnings for the grammatical rules that produce Children acquiring a language, thus, have a vast search space to explore among possible human grammars, settling, logically, on the language(s) spoken or signed in their own community of Such syntax is, according to the second point of view, what defines human language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal The first view was prevalent until about 1960 and is well represented by the mentalistic theories of Jean Piaget and the empiricist Rudolf C As well, the school of psychology known as behaviorism (see Verbal Behavior (1957) by BF Skinner) puts forth the point of view that language is behavior shaped by conditioned The second point of view (the "innate" one) can fairly be said to have begun with Noam Chomsky's highly critical review of Skinner's book in 1959 in the pages of the journal L[1] That review started what has been termed "the cognitive revolution" in The field of psycholinguistics since then has been defined by reactions to Chomsky, pro and The pro view still holds that the human ability to use syntax is qualitatively different from any sort of animal That ability might have resulted from a favorable mutation (extremely unlikely) or (more likely) from an adaptation of skills evolved for other That is, precise syntax might, indeed, serve group needs; better linguistic expression might produce more cohesion, cooperation, and potential for survival, BUT precise syntax can only have developed from rudimentary—or no—syntax, which would have had no survival value and, thus, would not have evolved at Thus, one looks for other skills, the characteristics of which might have later been useful for In the terminology of modern evolutionary biology, these skills would be said to be "pre-adapted" for syntax (see also exaptation) Just what those skills might have been is the focus of recent research—or, at least, The con view still holds that language—including syntax—is an outgrowth of hundreds of thousands of years of increasing intelligence and tens of thousands of years of human From that view, syntax in language gradually increased group cohesion and potential for Language—syntax and all—is a cultural This view challenges the "innate" view as scientifically unfalsifiable; that is to say, it can't be tested; the fact that a particular, conceivable syntactic structure does not exist in any of the world's finite repertoire of languages is an interesting observation, but it is not proof of a genetic constraint on possible forms, nor does it prove that such forms couldn't exist or couldn't be Contemporary theorists, besides Chomsky, working in the field of theories of psycholinguistics include George Lakoff and Steven P[edit] MethodologiesMuch methodology in psycholinguistics takes the form of behavioral experiments incorporating a lexical decision In these types of studies, subjects are presented with some form of linguistic input and asked to perform a task ( make a judgment, reproduce the stimulus, read a visually presented word aloud) Reaction times (usually on the order of milliseconds) and proportion of correct responses are the most often employed measures of Such experiments often take advantage of priming effects, whereby a "priming" word or phrase appearing in the experiment can speed up the lexical decision for a related "target" word [2]Such tasks might include, for example, asking the subject to convert nouns into verbs; , "book" suggests "to write," "water" suggests "to drink," and so Another experiment might present an active sentence such as "Bob threw the ball to Bill" and a passive equivalent, "The ball was thrown to Bill by Bob" and then ask the question, "Who threw the ball?" We might then conclude (as is the case) that active sentences are processed more easily (faster) than passive More interestingly, we might also find out (as is the case) that some people are unable to understand passive sentences; we might then make some tentative steps towards understanding certain types of language deficits (generally grouped under the broad term, aphasia)[3]Until the recent advent of non-invasive medical techniques, brain surgery was the preferred way for language researchers to discover how language works in the For example, severing the corpus callosum (the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) was at one time a treatment for some forms of Researchers could then study the ways in which the comprehension and production of language were affected by such drastic Where an illness made brain surgery necessary, language researchers had an opportunity to pursue their Newer, non-invasive techniques now include brain imaging by positron emission tomography (PET); functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); event-related potentials (ERPs) in electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG); and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Brain imaging techniques vary in their spatial and temporal resolutions (fMRI has a resolution of a few thousand neurons per pixel, and ERP has millisecond accuracy) Each type of methodology presents a set of advantages and disadvantages for studying a particular problem in Computational modeling - the DRC model of reading and word recognition proposed by Coltheart and colleagues[4] - is another It refers to the practice of setting up cognitive models in the form of executable computer Such programs are useful because they require theorists to be explicit in their hypotheses and because they can be used to generate accurate predictions for theoretical models that are so complex that they render discursive analysis One example of computational modeling is McClelland and Elman's TRACE model of speech [5]More recently, eye tracking has been used to study online language Beginning with Rayner (1978)[6] the importance and informativity of eye-movements during reading was Tanenhaus et ,[7] have performed a number of visual-world eye-tracking studies to study the cognitive processes related to spoken Since eye movements are closely linked to the current focus of attention, language processing can be studied by monitoring eye movements while a subject is presented with linguistic [edit] Issues and areas of researchPsycholinguistics is concerned with the nature of the computations and processes that the brain undergoes to comprehend and produce For example, the cohort model seeks to describe how words are retrieved from the mental lexicon when an individual hears or sees linguistic [8][2]Recent research using new non-invasive imaging techniques seeks to shed light on just where certain language processes occur in the There are a number of unanswered questions in psycholinguistics, such as whether the human ability to use syntax is based on innate mental structures or emerges from interaction with other humans, and whether some animals can be taught the syntax of human Two other major subfields of psycholinguistics investigate first language acquisition, the process by which infants acquire language, and second language In addition, it is much more difficult for adults to acquire second languages than it is for infants to learn their first language (bilingual infants are able to learn both of their native languages easily) Thus, sensitive periods may exist during which language can be learned [9] A great deal of research in psycholinguistics focuses on how this ability develops and diminishes over It also seems to be the case that the more languages one knows, the easier it is to learn [10]The field of aphasiology deals with language deficits that arise because of brain Studies in aphasiology can both offer advances in therapy for individuals suffering from aphasia, and further insight into how the brain processes

我服了你，学了四年不知道要写什么。我也不知道你对什么问题有研究。万一出个题你不会怎么办？

文献综述是对论文选题研究现状的梳理，但并不仅仅是把文献进行简单的堆砌与罗列，而是需要在总结梳理别人研究的同时，对已有的研究做出评价，也就是说有述有评，这也是为什么文献综述也叫做文献述评的原因。

煌本早

？好的一．课题的意义：委婉语是人类语言使用过程中的一种普遍现象 , 是人们谈论那些令人不快或尴尬的事情时 , 所使用的较为温和、礼貌的说法。它是一种修辞格 , 也 是一种文化现象。使用委婉语有利于提高交际效果和保持和谐的人际关系，在人类文明日益发展和人际交往不断扩大的今天，委婉语更是发挥着其不可或缺的作用。合作原则是确保人际交往成功的重要的语用原则，它是指人们在交际过程中遵守质 量 相关和方式准则。而委婉语恰恰违反这些准则，由此导致会话含义的产生。文章试从语用学的新角度讨论了合作原则与委婉语之间的关系，而跳出长期以来的修辞学角度二．所属领域研究现状：本在各种语言中，几乎都有委婉语的大量存在和它们的广泛使用，这一特殊的语言形式已引起语言研究者的重视， 英语委婉语研究发展至今，主要是从修辞学的角度着手。 对委婉语的研究集中在分析委婉语的分类情况，构成方式。有些学者从不同国家委婉语的使用差异分析中西文化差异，有些学者分析委婉语产生的原因及其心理折射现象，有些学者研究委婉语翻译及其所反映出来的交际障碍的解决。总的来说， 我国古代学者对委婉语的研究内容可分为两个方面：一是对避讳的研究；二是对民间风俗的研究 。外国学者对委婉语的研究也是先从修辞着手，发展到一定的程度也开始引入心理学，社会学的概念。从目前的发展趋向来看，对委婉语在社会应用学，心理学的研究处于发展阶段 ，在语用方面的研究则相对不足。本文将在讨论委婉语的定义，来源，分类，构成，发展后，重点分析委婉语在语用学中的应用，与合作原则的关系等讨论较少的问题。

选题①选取护理工作中急需研究、解决的问题。②选取位于学科前沿，有一定超前性，能反映新成果、新技术、新动向或矛盾焦点的问题。③选取自己熟悉或有一定研究基础的题目。④选题要大小适度。⑤希望在杂志发表的综述，应注意期刊的要求。总之，选题要实事求是，量力而行，掌握四个相符：与个人主观条件相符、与自身客观条件相符、与护理进展现实相符、与自己今后的研究方向相符。检索途径①题名途径(主要按书名、刊名检索)。②著者途径(按作者姓名检索)。③分类途径(按文献所属学科类查)。中国图书分类法规定，“R”是医药卫生，如R4为临床医学，R47为护理学，R248为中医护理学，R5为内科学等。④主题途径(按规范化术语即主题词查)。整理加工文献①阅读(浏览、粗读、精读;应确定优先阅读的文献)。②整理、分类、筛选。③综合组织(可按主论点、分论点组织论证材料，确定论证方法，安排层次结构)。④拟定提纲，完成全文。以上就是小编关于护理专业的文献综述写作步骤的分享，希望对各位小伙伴们有所帮助，想要了解更多毕业论文相关内容，请关注本平台，小编将会做及时的整理并发布的。

[1] 鲁枢元《生态文艺学》，147页，陕西人民教育出版社，2000年12月第1版[2] 盖光，美的多重自由与人类存在的生态系统【J】，江汉大学学报04年第5期34页[3 鲁枢元,《文学艺术与生态学时代——兼谈“地球精神圈”》,学术月刊,3[4 鲁枢元，《生态文艺学》，西安：陕西人民出版社，2000年12月第1版，

撰写文献综述步骤：1、搜索相关文献 在开始搜索文献之前，需要一个明确定义的主题。如果正在写论文或研究论文的文献综述部分，搜索与之相关的研究问题和问题。如果是以独立作业的形式写一篇文献综述，必须选择一个要点，并提出一个中心问题来指导的搜索。2、评价来源 可能无法完全阅读关于这个主题的所有文章，所以必须评估哪些文章与自己的问题最相关。确保使用的来源是可靠的，并确保阅读了自己所研究领域的任何里程碑式的研究和主要理论。可以找到一篇关于谷歌学术的文章，查看被引用了多少次，高引用数意味着这篇文章在该领域有影响力，当然应该被包括在自己的文献综述中。3、识别主题、辩论和差距 组织文献综述的论点和结构，需要理解所阅读的资料之间的联系和关系。根据阅读和笔记，帮助制定文献综述的结构，并展示自己的研究将如何对现有知识做出贡献。4、概述结构 有各种方法来组织文献综述的主体。在开始写作之前，应该对自己的策略有一个大致的了解。根据文献综述的长度，可以结合这些策略。5、写文献综述 文献综述应该有介绍、主体和结论，每篇文章中包含什么内容取决于文献综述的目标。当写完并修改完文献综述后，不要忘记在提交之前进行校对。

撰写文献综述步骤：1、搜索相关文献 在开始搜索文献之前，需要一个明确定义的主题。如果正在写论文或研究论文的文献综述部分，搜索与之相关的研究问题和问题。如果是以独立作业的形式写一篇文献综述，必须选择一个要点，并提出一个中心问题来指导的搜索。2、评价来源 可能无法完全阅读关于这个主题的所有文章，所以必须评估哪些文章与自己的问题最相关。确保使用的来源是可靠的，并确保阅读了自己所研究领域的任何里程碑式的研究和主要理论。可以找到一篇关于谷歌学术的文章，查看被引用了多少次，高引用数意味着这篇文章在该领域有影响力，当然应该被包括在自己的文献综述中。3、识别主题、辩论和差距 组织文献综述的论点和结构，需要理解所阅读的资料之间的联系和关系。根据阅读和笔记，帮助制定文献综述的结构，并展示自己的研究将如何对现有知识做出贡献。4、概述结构 有各种方法来组织文献综述的主体。在开始写作之前，应该对自己的策略有一个大致的了解。根据文献综述的长度，可以结合这些策略。5、写文献综述 文献综述应该有介绍、主体和结论，每篇文章中包含什么内容取决于文献综述的目标。当写完并修改完文献综述后，不要忘记在提交之前进行校对。

忘了

维基百科找到的Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, due mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, and information theory to study how the brain processes There are a number of subdisciplines; for example, as non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain become more and more widespread, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn Areas of studyPsycholinguistics is interdisciplinary in nature and is studied by people in a variety of fields, such as psychology, cognitive science, and There are several subdivisions within psycholinguistics that are based on the components that make up human Linguistic-related areas:Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech Within psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands these Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between related words (such as dog and dogs) and the formation of words based on rules (such as plural formation) Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined together to form Semantics deals with the meaning of words and Where syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual meaning of Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of Psychology-related areas:The study of word recognition and reading examines the processes involved in the extraction of orthographic, morphological, phonological, and semantic information from patterns in printed Developmental psycholinguistics studies infants' and children's ability to learn and process language, usually with experimental or at least quantitative methods (as opposed to naturalistic observations such as those made by Jean Piaget in his research on the development of children) [edit] TheoriesTheories about how language works in the human mind attempt to account for, among other things, how we associate meaning with the sounds (or signs) of language and how we use syntax—that is, how we manage to put words in the proper order to produce and understand the strings of words we call "" The first of these items—associating sound with meaning—is the least controversial and is generally held to be an area in which animal and human communication have at least some things in common (See animal communication) Syntax, on the other hand, is controversial, and is the focus of the discussion that There are essentially two schools of thought as to how we manage to create syntactic sentences: (1) syntax is an evolutionary product of increased human intelligence over time and social factors that encouraged the development of spoken language; (2) language exists because humans possess an innate ability, an access to what has been called a "universal " This view holds that the human ability for syntax is "hard-wired" in the This view claims, for example, that complex syntactic features such as recursion are beyond even the potential abilities of the most intelligent and social non- (Recursion, for example, includes the use of relative pronouns to refer back to earlier parts of a sentence—"The girl whose car is blocking my view of the tree that I planted last year is my ") The innate view claims that the ability to use syntax like that would not exist without an innate concept that contains the underpinnings for the grammatical rules that produce Children acquiring a language, thus, have a vast search space to explore among possible human grammars, settling, logically, on the language(s) spoken or signed in their own community of Such syntax is, according to the second point of view, what defines human language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal The first view was prevalent until about 1960 and is well represented by the mentalistic theories of Jean Piaget and the empiricist Rudolf C As well, the school of psychology known as behaviorism (see Verbal Behavior (1957) by BF Skinner) puts forth the point of view that language is behavior shaped by conditioned The second point of view (the "innate" one) can fairly be said to have begun with Noam Chomsky's highly critical review of Skinner's book in 1959 in the pages of the journal L[1] That review started what has been termed "the cognitive revolution" in The field of psycholinguistics since then has been defined by reactions to Chomsky, pro and The pro view still holds that the human ability to use syntax is qualitatively different from any sort of animal That ability might have resulted from a favorable mutation (extremely unlikely) or (more likely) from an adaptation of skills evolved for other That is, precise syntax might, indeed, serve group needs; better linguistic expression might produce more cohesion, cooperation, and potential for survival, BUT precise syntax can only have developed from rudimentary—or no—syntax, which would have had no survival value and, thus, would not have evolved at Thus, one looks for other skills, the characteristics of which might have later been useful for In the terminology of modern evolutionary biology, these skills would be said to be "pre-adapted" for syntax (see also exaptation) Just what those skills might have been is the focus of recent research—or, at least, The con view still holds that language—including syntax—is an outgrowth of hundreds of thousands of years of increasing intelligence and tens of thousands of years of human From that view, syntax in language gradually increased group cohesion and potential for Language—syntax and all—is a cultural This view challenges the "innate" view as scientifically unfalsifiable; that is to say, it can't be tested; the fact that a particular, conceivable syntactic structure does not exist in any of the world's finite repertoire of languages is an interesting observation, but it is not proof of a genetic constraint on possible forms, nor does it prove that such forms couldn't exist or couldn't be Contemporary theorists, besides Chomsky, working in the field of theories of psycholinguistics include George Lakoff and Steven P[edit] MethodologiesMuch methodology in psycholinguistics takes the form of behavioral experiments incorporating a lexical decision In these types of studies, subjects are presented with some form of linguistic input and asked to perform a task ( make a judgment, reproduce the stimulus, read a visually presented word aloud) Reaction times (usually on the order of milliseconds) and proportion of correct responses are the most often employed measures of Such experiments often take advantage of priming effects, whereby a "priming" word or phrase appearing in the experiment can speed up the lexical decision for a related "target" word [2]Such tasks might include, for example, asking the subject to convert nouns into verbs; , "book" suggests "to write," "water" suggests "to drink," and so Another experiment might present an active sentence such as "Bob threw the ball to Bill" and a passive equivalent, "The ball was thrown to Bill by Bob" and then ask the question, "Who threw the ball?" We might then conclude (as is the case) that active sentences are processed more easily (faster) than passive More interestingly, we might also find out (as is the case) that some people are unable to understand passive sentences; we might then make some tentative steps towards understanding certain types of language deficits (generally grouped under the broad term, aphasia)[3]Until the recent advent of non-invasive medical techniques, brain surgery was the preferred way for language researchers to discover how language works in the For example, severing the corpus callosum (the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) was at one time a treatment for some forms of Researchers could then study the ways in which the comprehension and production of language were affected by such drastic Where an illness made brain surgery necessary, language researchers had an opportunity to pursue their Newer, non-invasive techniques now include brain imaging by positron emission tomography (PET); functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); event-related potentials (ERPs) in electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG); and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Brain imaging techniques vary in their spatial and temporal resolutions (fMRI has a resolution of a few thousand neurons per pixel, and ERP has millisecond accuracy) Each type of methodology presents a set of advantages and disadvantages for studying a particular problem in Computational modeling - the DRC model of reading and word recognition proposed by Coltheart and colleagues[4] - is another It refers to the practice of setting up cognitive models in the form of executable computer Such programs are useful because they require theorists to be explicit in their hypotheses and because they can be used to generate accurate predictions for theoretical models that are so complex that they render discursive analysis One example of computational modeling is McClelland and Elman's TRACE model of speech [5]More recently, eye tracking has been used to study online language Beginning with Rayner (1978)[6] the importance and informativity of eye-movements during reading was Tanenhaus et ,[7] have performed a number of visual-world eye-tracking studies to study the cognitive processes related to spoken Since eye movements are closely linked to the current focus of attention, language processing can be studied by monitoring eye movements while a subject is presented with linguistic [edit] Issues and areas of researchPsycholinguistics is concerned with the nature of the computations and processes that the brain undergoes to comprehend and produce For example, the cohort model seeks to describe how words are retrieved from the mental lexicon when an individual hears or sees linguistic [8][2]Recent research using new non-invasive imaging techniques seeks to shed light on just where certain language processes occur in the There are a number of unanswered questions in psycholinguistics, such as whether the human ability to use syntax is based on innate mental structures or emerges from interaction with other humans, and whether some animals can be taught the syntax of human Two other major subfields of psycholinguistics investigate first language acquisition, the process by which infants acquire language, and second language In addition, it is much more difficult for adults to acquire second languages than it is for infants to learn their first language (bilingual infants are able to learn both of their native languages easily) Thus, sensitive periods may exist during which language can be learned [9] A great deal of research in psycholinguistics focuses on how this ability develops and diminishes over It also seems to be the case that the more languages one knows, the easier it is to learn [10]The field of aphasiology deals with language deficits that arise because of brain Studies in aphasiology can both offer advances in therapy for individuals suffering from aphasia, and further insight into how the brain processes

论文文献综述怎么写

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论文文献综述怎么写

您的会计电算化专业论文具体是什么题目呢有什么要求呢论文是需要多少字呢开题报告 任务书 都搞定了不你可以告诉我具体的排版格式要求，希望可以帮到你，祝写作过程顺利会计电算化论文如何定题目 首先看是什么专业的题目其次根据专业和教授的口味来定题目尽可能不要大众化 （一）选题毕业论文（设计）题目应符合本专业的培养目标和教学要求，具有综合性和创新性。本科生要根据自己的实际情况和专业特长，选择适当的论文题目，但所写论文要与本专业所学课程有关。（二）查阅资料、列出论文提纲题目选定后，要在指导教师指导下开展调研和进行实验，搜集、查阅有关资料，进行加工、提炼，然后列出详细的写作提纲。（三）完成初稿根据所列提纲，按指导教师的意见认真完成初稿。（四）定稿初稿须经指导教师审阅，并按其意见和要求进行修改，然后定稿。 会计电算化专业论文题目仅供参考： (某一)新旧会计准则的比较研究 关于企业内部控制问题的探讨 试论人力资源会计 浅议会计发展的新领域---网络会计 论当前会计职业道德与诚信 论会计信息失真的成因以及对策 关于提高会计电算化系统安全性的思考 论谨慎性原则在企业会计中的运用 应收帐款管理对策研究论企业财务风险的成因与控制浅谈会计监督弱化的原因及对策会计电算化存在的问题及对策探讨中小企业财务管理存在的问题与对策浅析企业避税行为知识经济对会计的挑战及其对策提高会计信息质量的思考会计信息质量与公司治理结构问题研究我国会计信息披露的现状及其完善民营科技企业筹资融资问题探析知识经济条件下的成本核算研究1、论文题目：要求准确、简练、醒目、新颖。　　2、目录：目录是论文中主要段落的简表。（短篇论文不必列目录）　　3、提要：是文章主要内容的摘录，要求短、精、完整。字数少可几十字，多不超过三百字为宜。　　4、关键词或主题词：关键词是从论文的题名、提要和正文中选取出来的，是对表述论文的中心内容有实质意义的词汇。关键词是用作机系统标引论文内容特征的词语，便于信息系统汇集，以供读者检索。 每篇论文一般选取3-8个词汇作为关键词，另起一行，排在“提要”的左下方。　　主题词是经过规范化的词，在确定主题词时，要对论文进行主题，依照标引和组配规则转换成主题词表中的规范词语。　　5、论文正文：　　（1）引言：引言又称前言、序言和导言，用在论文的开头。 引言一般要概括地写出作者意图，说明选题的目的和意义, 并指出论文写作的范围。引言要短小精悍、紧扣主题。　　〈2）论文正文：正文是论文的主体，正文应包括论点、论据、 论证过程和结论。主体部分包括以下内容：　　提出-论点；　　分析问题-论据和论证；　　解决问题-论证与步骤；　　结论。　　6、一篇论文的参考文献是将论文在和写作中可参考或引证的主要文献资料，列于论文的末尾。参考文献应另起一页，标注方式按《GB7714-87文后参考文献著录规则》进行。　　中文：标题--作者--出版物信息（版地、版者、版期）：作者--标题--出版物信息所列参考文献的要求是：　　（1）所列参考文献应是正式出版物，以便读者考证。　　（2）所列举的参考文献要标明序号、著作或文章的标题、作者、出版物信息。