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毕业论文外文翻译：将外文参考文献翻译成中文版本。
翻译要求：
1、选定外文文献后先给指导老师看，得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。
2、选择外文翻译时一定选择外国作者写的文章，可从学校中知网或者外文数据库下载。
3、外文翻译字数要求3000字以上，从外文文章起始处开始翻译，不允许从文章中间部分开始翻译，翻译必须结束于文章的一个大段落。
参考文献是在学术研究过程中，对某一著作或论文的整体的参考或借鉴。征引过的文献在注释中已注明,不再出现于文后参考文献中。外文参考文献就是指论文是引用的文献原文是国外的，并非中国的。
原文就是指原作品,原件，即作者所写作品所用的语言。如莎士比亚的《罗密欧与朱丽叶》原文是英语。
译文就是翻译过来的文字，如在中国也可以找到莎士比亚《罗密欧与朱丽叶》的中文版本，这个中文版本就称为译文。
主要标准
翻译是语际交流过程中沟通不同语言的桥梁。一般来说，翻译的标准主要有两条：忠实和通顺。
忠实
是指忠实于原文所要传递的信息，也就是说，把原文的信息完整并且准确地表达出来，使译文读者得到的信息与原文读者得到的信息大致相同。
通顺
是指译文规范、明白易懂，没有文理不通、结构混乱、逻辑不清的现象。
实践产生理论，欧美许多国家的翻译理论是五花八门的。从大的方面来看，可以分为两大派：一派是翻译可能论，一派是翻译不可能论。其实，完完全全百分之百的可能是没有的，完完全全百分之百的不可能也是没有的。
世界上一切翻译活动都是在这两个极端之间进行的。欧洲许多著名的人物，比如马丁·路德、M.阿诺德、F.W.纽曼、J.B.波斯特加特、H.白洛克、Fr.R.诺克斯、V.那巴可夫等等，都对翻译提出了自己的理论。据《开塞尔世界文学百科全书》的意见，这些理论中有些是刚愎自用的。
弹性分组环（ RPR ） ，也称为的IEEE 802.17 ，是一个标准的设计，优化运输的数据流量超过光纤环。它的设计是要提供的应变能力，发现在SONET / SDH的网络（ 50ms保护），而是设立面向电路连接，提供一个基于包的传输。这是为了提高工作效率的以太网和IP服务。RPR的工程，一个概念，双反旋转环所谓的几厘米。这些从几厘米到成立，创造了RPR站节点的交通是要下降，每流（流是侵入和出口的数据流量） 。 RPR的用途MAC （媒体访问控制协议）的讯息，以直接的交通，这两个方向的导线周围的冷力。该节点也进行谈判，为它们之间的带宽使用的公平算法，避免交通挤塞及未能跨越。避免失败的跨越是通过使用其中的两种技术被称为“督导”和“包装” 。督导下，如果一个节点或跨度是打破所有节点通知拓扑的变化和他们重新路由他们的交通。在包装的交通是环回在最后的节点前休息和路由到目的地站。所有的交通环是分配一类的服务（部门主管） ，并且该标准规定在3班。 A级（或高）的交通是一个纯粹的税务局局长（承诺信息速率）和旨在支持应用需要低延迟和抖动，如语音和视频。 B级（或中等）的交通是一个混合既是一个税务局局长和审查机构（过剩的信息率-这是符合公平排队） 。 C级（或低）是最好的努力，交通，利用带宽，无论是可用的。这主要是用来支持互联网接入的交通。另一个概念RPR的是什么是被称为 “空间再利用” 。由于RPR的“带”的信号，一旦到达目的地（不同的SONET / SDH upsr环，在该带宽是消耗左右整个环），它可以重复使用获释空间进行额外的交通。该RPR的标准还支持使用学习桥梁协会（ IEEE 802.1d ），以进一步提高效率，在点，以点对多点的应用和VLAN标记协会（ IEEE 802.1 ） 。有一个缺点， RPR技术是它并没有提供空间复用的框架传输到/从MAC地址不在场，在环形拓扑结构。这是正在处理的第1项修正案在IEEE 802.17b 。在空间上知道子层（ SAS ）的是一个可选层被界定的IEEE 802.17b 。这使得空间重用框架传输到/从MAC地址不在场，在环形拓扑结构。这是一个延伸到弹性分组环标准。
助读系统是语文教材的重要组成部分，它架起了教材、教材编辑者和使用者三者之间沟通的桥梁。助读系统的设计体现了教材编写者对教师教学和学生学习方向和重点的引导，因此它是一套语文教材价值和特色的重要体现。The reading-support system is an important part of the Chinese textbooks. It builds the communicating bridges amount the textbooks, textbook editors and the users. The reading-supportsystem’s design reflects on the textbook editors on teachers’ teaching, the students' learning direction and is the key point guidance. Therefore, it is an important reflection on the Chinese textbooks and their characteristics. 助读系统的建立使语文和生活的关系更进一步，拓展了教学内容。新课标强调学生自主学习能力的培养，因此对助读系统的编辑提出了更高的要求。The creation of the reading-support system has further improved the relationships between the Chinese language and our everyday life, which has also expended the teaching content. The new curriculum emphasizes on the cultivation of the students’ independent learning ability. Therefore, it demands even higher requirement from the reading-support system’s editing. 目前我国语文教材助读系统的研究虽然取得了一定的成果，但不是很令人满意，还存在着不足之处。而中美两国语文教材助读系统比较研究会有助于两者互相借鉴学习，尤其有助于我国语文教材助读系统设计的优化，所以比较研究中美语文教材助读系统既有理论价值，也有重要的实践价值。At present, although the reading-support system of our country’s Chinese textbook has gained a certain degree of achievements, it is not yet satisfactory and it is still imperfect and the reading-support system of the language teaching material in China and the United States' comparison seminar, which would help for both to learn from each other. Especially help to optimize the design ofour country language teachingmaterials’ reading-support system. Therefore, the Chinese and American textbook materials’ comparison seminar not just has its theoretical value but also with an important practical value as well. 谢谢你的求助，希望会令你满意。
Reading-support system is an important part of Chinese textbooks, it has set up a bridge of communication among teaching materials ,textbook editors and users. Textbook editors have designed reading-support system in the purpose of leading teachers of their teaching and students of their studying direction, so it has been an important manifestation of the value and characteristics of a set of language teaching materials.The settlement of reading-support system has improved the relationship betweeen language and life and also extended our content of courses. The new curriculum stress students' self-learning ability and thus request more for the editing of reading-support system. Though we have achieved some success in reading-support system of Chinese textbooks, it's not enough , there are still many weaknesses. And comparision between Chinese and American textbooks of reading-support system may contribute to the two of their promoting,especially to our optimization. So comparision of the two is not only theory valued but also practice valued.
Geometric Design of HighwaysA Alignment DesignThe alignment of a road is shown on the plane view and is a series of straight lines called tangents connected by circular. In modern practice it is common to interpose transition or spiral curves between tangents and circular curves.Alignment must be consistent. Sudden changes from flat to sharp curves and long tangents followed by sharp curves must be avoided; otherwise, accident hazards will be created. Likewise, placing circular curves of different radii end to end (compound curves) or having a short tangent between two curves is poor practice unless suitable transitions between them are provided. Long, flat curves are preferable at all times, as they are pleasing in appearance and decrease possibility of future obsolescence. However, alignment without tangents is undesirable on two-lane roads because some drivers hesitate to pass on curves. Long, flat curves should be used for small changes in direction, as short curves appear as “kink”. Also horizontal and vertical alignment must be considered together, not separately. For example, a sharp horizontal curve beginning near a crest can create a serious accident hazard.A vehicle traveling in a curved path is subject to centrifugal force. This is balanced by an equal and opposite force developed through cannot exceed certain maximums, and these controls place limits on the sharpness of curves that can be used with a design speed.Usually the sharpness of a given circular curve is indicated by its radius. However, for alignment design, sharpness is commonly expressed in terms of degree of curve, which is the central angle subtended by a 100-ft length of curve. Degree of curve is inversely proportional to the radius.Tangent sections of highways carry normal cross slope; curved sections are superelevated. Provision must be made for gradual change from one to the other. This usually involves maintaining the center line of each individual roadway at profile grade while raising the outer edge and lowering the inner edge to produce the desired superelevation is attained some distance beyond the point of curve. If a vehicle travels at high speed on a carefully restricted path made up of tangents connected by sharp circular curve, riding is extremely uncomfortable. As the car approaches a curve, superelevation begins and the vehicle is tilted inward, but the passenger must remain vertical since there is on centrifugal force requiring compensation. When the vehicle reaches the curve, full centrifugal force develops at once, and pulls the rider outward from his vertical position. To achieve a position of equilibrium he must force his body far inward. As the remaining superelevation takes effect, further adjustment in position is required. This process is repeated in reverse order as the vehicle leaves the curve. When easement curves are introduced, the change in radius from infinity on the tangent to that of the circular curve is effected gradually so that centrifugal force also develops gradually. By careful application of superelevation along the spiral, a smooth and gradual application of centrifugal force can be had and the roughness avoided.Easement curves have been used by the railroads for many years, but their adoption by highway agencies has come only recently. This is understandable. Railroad trains must follow the precise alignment of the tracks, and the discomfort described here can be avoided only by adopting easement curves. On the other hand, the motor-vehicle operator is free to alter his lateral position on the road and can provide his own easement curves by steering into circular curves gradually. However, this weaving within a traffic lane (but sometimes into other lanes) is dangerous. Properly designed easement curves make weaving unnecessary. It is largely for safety reasons, then, that easement curves have been widely adopted by highway agencies.For the same radius circular curve, the addition of easement curves at the ends changes the location of the curve with relation to its tangents; hence the decision regarding their use should be made before the final location survey. They point of beginning of an ordinary circular curve is usually labeled the PC (point of curve) or BC (beginning of curve). Its end is marked the PT (point of tangent) or EC (end of curve). For curves that include easements, the common notation is, as stationing increases: TS (tangent to spiral), SC (spiral to circular curve), CS (circular curve to spiral), and ST (spiral go tangent).On two-lane pavements provision of a wilder roadway is advisable on sharp curves. This will allow for such factors as (1) the tendency for drivers to shy away from the pavement edge, (2) increased effective transverse vehicle width because the front and rear wheels do not track, and (3) added width because of the slanted position of the front of the vehicle to the roadway centerline. For 24-ft roadways, the added width is so small that it can be neglected. Only for 30mph design speeds and curves sharper than 22°does the added width reach 2 ft. For narrower pavements, however, widening assumes importance even on fairly flat curves. Recommended amounts of and procedures for curve widening are given in Geometric Design for Highways.B GradesThe vertical alignment of the roadway and its effect on the safe and economical operation of the motor vehicle constitute one of the most important features of road design. The vertical alignment, which consists of a series of straight lines connected by vertical parabolic or circular curves, is known as the “grade line.” When the grade line is increasing from the horizontal it is known as a “plus grade,” and when it is decreasing from the horizontal it is known as a “minus grade.” In analyzing grade and grade controls, the designer usually studies the effect of change in grade on the centerline profile.In the establishment of a grade, an ideal situation is one in which the cut is balanced against the fill without a great deal of borrow or an excess of cut to be wasted. All hauls should be downhill if possible and not too long. The grade should follow the general terrain and rise and fall in the direction of the existing drainage. In mountainous country the grade may be set to balance excavation against embankment as a clue toward least overall cost. In flat or prairie country it will be approximately parallel to the ground surface but sufficiently above it to allow surface drainage and, where necessary, to permit the wind to clear drifting snow. Where the road approaches or follows along streams, the height of the grade line may be dictated by the expected level of flood water. Under all conditions, smooth, flowing grade lines are preferable to choppy ones of many short straight sections connected with short vertical curves.Changes of grade from plus to minus should be placed in cuts, and changes from a minus grade to a plus grade should be placed in fills. This will generally give a good design, and many times it will avoid the appearance of building hills and producing depressions contrary to the general existing contours of the land. Other considerations for determining the grade line may be of more importance than the balancing of cuts and fills.Urban projects usually require a more detailed study of the controls and finer adjustment of elevations than do rural projects. It is often best to adjust the grade to meet existing conditions because of the additional expense of doing otherwise.In the analysis of grade and grade control, one of the most important considerations is the effect of grades on the operating costs of the motor vehicle. An increase in gasoline consumption and a reduction in speed are apparent when grades are increase in gasoline consumption and a reduction in speed is apparent when grades are increased. An economical approach would be to balance the added annual cost of grade reduction against the added annual cost of vehicle operation without grade reduction. An accurate solution to the problem depends on the knowledge of traffic volume and type, which can be obtained only by means of a traffic survey.While maximum grades vary a great deal in various states, AASHTO recommendations make maximum grades dependent on design speed and topography. Present practice limits grades to 5 percent of a design speed of 70 mph. For a design speed of 30 mph, maximum grades typically range from 7 to 12 percent, depending on topography.Wherever long sustained grades are used, the designer should not substantially exceed the critical length of grade without the provision of climbing lanes for slow-moving vehicles. Critical grade lengths vary from 1700 ft for a 3 percent grade to 500 ft for an 8 percent grade.Long sustained grades should be less than the maximum grade on any particular section of a highway. It is often preferred to break the long sustained uniform grade by placing steeper grades at the bottom and lightening the grade near the top of the ascent. Dips in the profile grade in which vehicles may be hidden from view should also be avoided.Maximum grade for highway is 9 percent. Standards setting minimum grades are of importance only when surface drainage is a problem as when water must be carried away in a gutter or roadside ditch. In such instances the AASHTO suggests a minimum of 0.35%.C Sight DistanceFor safe vehicle operation, highway must be designed to give drivers a sufficient distance or clear version ahead so that they can avoid unexpected obstacles and can pass slower vehicles without danger. Sight distance is the length of highway visible ahead to the driver of a vehicle. The concept of safe sight distance has two facets: “stopping” (or “no passing”) and “passing”.At times large objects may drop into a roadway and will do serious damage to a motor vehicle that strikes them. Again a car or truck may be forced to stop in the traffic lane in the path of following vehicles. In dither instance, proper design requires that such hazards become visible at distances great enough that drivers can stop before hitting them. Further more, it is unsafe to assume that one oncoming vehicle may avoid trouble by leaving the lane in which it is traveling, for this might result in loss of control or collision with another vehicle.Stopping sight distance is made up of two elements. The first is the distance traveled after the obstruction comes into view but before the driver applies his brakes. During this period of perception and reaction, the vehicle travels at its initial velocity. The second distance is consumed while the driver brakes the vehicle to a stop. The first of these two distances is dependent on the speed of the vehicle and the perception time and brake-reaction time of the operator. The second distance depends on the speed of the vehicle; the condition of brakes, times, and roadway surface; and the alignment and grade of the highway.On two-lane highways, opportunity to pass slow-moving vehicles must be provided at intervals. Otherwise capacity decreases and accidents increase as impatient drivers risk head-on collisions by passing when it is unsafe to do so. The minimum distance ahead that must be clear to permit safe passing is called the passing sight distance.In deciding whether or not to pass another vehicle, the driver must weigh the clear distance available to him against the distance required to carry out the sequence of events that make up the passing maneuver. Among the factors that will influence his decision are the degree of caution that he exercises and the accelerating ability of his vehicle. Because humans differ markedly, passing practices, which depend largely on human judgment and behavior rather than on the laws of mechanics, vary considerably among drivers. To establish design values for passing sight distances, engineers observed the passing practices of many drivers. Basic observations on which passing sight distance standards are based were made during the period 1938-1941. Assumed operating conditions are as follows:1. The overtaken vehicle travels at a uniform speed.2. The passing vehicle has reduced speed and trails the overtaken one as it enters the passing section.3. When the passing section is reached, the driver requires a short period of time to perceive the clear passing section and to react to start his maneuver.4. Passing is accomplished under what may be termed a delayed start and a hurried return in the face of opposing traffic. The passing vehicle accelerates during the maneuver and its average speed during occupancy of the left lane is 10 mph higher than that of the overtaken vehicle.5. When the passing vehicle returns to its lane there is a suitable clearance length between it and an oncoming vehicle in the other lane.The five distances, in sum, make up passing sight distance.
毕业论文外文翻译：将外文参考文献翻译成中文版本。
翻译要求：
1、选定外文文献后先给指导老师看，得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。
2、选择外文翻译时一定选择外国作者写的文章，可从学校中知网或者外文数据库下载。
3、外文翻译字数要求3000字以上，从外文文章起始处开始翻译，不允许从文章中间部分开始翻译，翻译必须结束于文章的一个大段落。
参考文献是在学术研究过程中，对某一著作或论文的整体的参考或借鉴。征引过的文献在注释中已注明,不再出现于文后参考文献中。外文参考文献就是指论文是引用的文献原文是国外的，并非中国的。
原文就是指原作品,原件，即作者所写作品所用的语言。如莎士比亚的《罗密欧与朱丽叶》原文是英语。
译文就是翻译过来的文字，如在中国也可以找到莎士比亚《罗密欧与朱丽叶》的中文版本，这个中文版本就称为译文。
主要标准
翻译是语际交流过程中沟通不同语言的桥梁。一般来说，翻译的标准主要有两条：忠实和通顺。
忠实
是指忠实于原文所要传递的信息，也就是说，把原文的信息完整并且准确地表达出来，使译文读者得到的信息与原文读者得到的信息大致相同。
通顺
是指译文规范、明白易懂，没有文理不通、结构混乱、逻辑不清的现象。
实践产生理论，欧美许多国家的翻译理论是五花八门的。从大的方面来看，可以分为两大派：一派是翻译可能论，一派是翻译不可能论。其实，完完全全百分之百的可能是没有的，完完全全百分之百的不可能也是没有的。
世界上一切翻译活动都是在这两个极端之间进行的。欧洲许多著名的人物，比如马丁·路德、M.阿诺德、F.W.纽曼、J.B.波斯特加特、H.白洛克、Fr.R.诺克斯、V.那巴可夫等等，都对翻译提出了自己的理论。据《开塞尔世界文学百科全书》的意见，这些理论中有些是刚愎自用的。
外文翻译要求：（1）选定外文文献后先给指导老师看，得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。（2）选择外文翻译时一定选择外国作者写的文章，可从学校中知网或者外文数据库下载。（3）外文翻译字数要求3000字以上，从外文文章起始处开始翻译，不允许从文章中间部分开始翻译，翻译必须结束于文章的一个大段落。
毕业设计用的 3000字左右 外文和翻译 谢谢啦
等我下,我帮你重新翻译下
你好：Zhuzhou Shifeng the preliminary design of the bridge (to a row simply supported continuous beam construction program) Abstract The design of the bridge is mainly Zhuzhou Shifeng the preliminary design of the upper structure. Zhuzhou Shifeng Bridge to the use of simply-supported method for first after the lifting of prefabricated construction girder into a simply supported beam, and then inter-beam removal of temporary support to form cast-in-place continuous beam, main beam of the use of such a high degree of box girder, span of 30 meters. The design is composed of eleven chapters, the first chapter for the introduction, a brief bad environment surrounding the project, the design requirements, construction methods; chapter for the bridge-and longitudinal and cross-sectional layout; the third chapter for the cross-section geometric properties;第四五六Chapter for the calculation of internal forces and internal forces at the internal force composition; Chapter VII of the estimates for the pre-stressed beam of steel, arranged;第八九chapter for prestressed reinforcement after the loss and the calculation of internal forces; Chapter beam intensity-based check. Chapter XI for the stress, deformation, and other check. Keywords: prestressed concrete simply supported continuous beam bridge construction for the internal force to the internal force portfolio at pre-camber
PickThis paper their whole meaning, and the cost of the influence of the major stages - cost of investment decision-making, design, execution and completion of construction stage, the status quo and in domestic stage of concrete construction cost control methods, and puts forward the detailed in our Bridges of engineering cost control key to investment decision-making stage and the design phase shift. And that is the focus of control of all projects in themselves, but in charge of the people, professional morality is the core, all control method is one of the tools to achieve the goal. This recommendation from supervision actively design stage, and suggested it early intervention from the start, and make some professional consulting company can trust in the cost. How to describe a degree from the wisdom of all together, comprehensive project cost control of the total bridge.
要自己去找字典的呀
This design uses the ANSYS software to optimize the drive axle shell of a off-road vehicle. Firstly, to establish a three-dimensional model of drive axle and analyze the stress conditions of the drive axle shell in different conditions, then figure out the maximum pressure of the driving axle shell. Secondly, to import the Three-dimensional model to the ANSYS software to do some works such as gridding partition, freedom of motion adding, pressure adding and so on，then make a finite element analysis to the strained status of the drive axle shell in order to output the results. Finally, to optimize the objective with the lightest weight, and to equalize the stress distribution。Analysis verified that this optimal design conforms the engineering requirements.驱动桥桥壳有多种译法：drive axle housing ，drive axle shell， driving axle shell 等等，为了简洁起见用drive axle shell给你全文分成三个层次，用firstly，sencondly和finally 分开，开头结尾句另起一行分段，显得条理清晰。
Motorvehicle suspension on the vehicle suspension system is a very important system.Not only does it affect the comfort of the car (ride), but also to otherproperties such as the adoption, as well as the stability of the attachmenthave a significant impact on performance, each of the suspension by the elasticcomponents (buffers), body-oriented (from Chuan And stabilizing role), as wellas shock absorbers (from the role of shock absorption). However, not all of thesuspension must have three components. As long as we can play to the role ofthe three. Vehiclemaintenance for the conservation network 1, flying the classification 1.Non-independent suspension: on both sides of the wheel mounted on atotal-vehicle-bridge, the train-bridge to fly through the frame and connected.This suspension structure is simple and reliable power-but by two rounds ofshock and vibration affecting each other. But also because of the quality offlying non-serious suspension of the poor performance of the buffer, the vibrationof a moving car, the greater the impact. The suspension generally used fortrucks, buses and a number of other ordinary vehicles. (2) independentsuspension: each individual through a set of wheels mounted on the body orsuspension of vehicular bridge, the use of off-Axle, in the middle of a fixedframe or body; such wheel on both sides of the suspension by the shockHubuyingxiang, but due to non-flying than by the quality; buffer with a strongshock absorption capacity, ride comfort. The indicators are better thannon-independent suspension, but the complex structure of the suspension, but italso drive axle, steering system has become complicated. The use of suchsuspension of the following two categories of vehicles. Cars, buses andpassenger vehicles. Can be improved ride comfort, and high speed when drivingthe car to improve stability. Off-road vehicles, military vehicles andmining vehicles. In a bad way and have no say under the circumstances, we canmake sure all the wheels on the ground and contacts to enhance stability anddriving the car attached, to play a speed of the car. 2.Flexibleyuan for the type of (1) of the leaf spring: the long-range multi-chip andcurvature ranging from the composite plate. After installed at both ends of thenatural upward curve. In addition to the leaf spring with a buffer, there is acertain degree of shock absorption, vertical layout also has a force-oriented,non-independent suspension using most of the leaf spring so flexiblecomponents, save-oriented devices and shock absorbers, simple structure . (2)of the coil spring: only a cushion for the multi-car independent suspension. Inthe absence of damping force and mass functions must also be equipped withspecial shock absorbers and device-oriented. (3) oil and gas spring: a flexiblemedium as a gas, liquid as a medium-power, which not only has a good buffercapacity, also has a role in shock absorption and at the same time frame of ahigh degree of regulation may also be applicable to the use of heavy vehicles andbuses. (4), torsion bar springs; will be made under the torsion bar springsfixed at one end of the frame, on the other side through the arm and connectedto the wheels, and beat at wheel torsion bar the use of reverse deformationplayed the role of buffer, is suitable for independent The use of suspension. 3.the use of shock absorber tube shock absorbers, the use of oil in the smallrole to cut energy consumption vibration. Shock absorber and the upper bodyframe or connected with the lower end of the train-bridge connected. Most ofthe trip can be done and the compression of the dual role of the role of shockabsorber.4.device-oriented:the flexibility in the independent suspension components, most of them can onlytransfer the vertical loads and can not transmit vertical and horizontal, mustbe a separate device-oriented. As noted, under the arm and vertical, horizontalstabilizer, and so on. 5.non-independent suspension: before and after the truckswere non-independentsuspension bridge, some vehicles such as buses and cars and so on, after thebridge is also a non-independent suspension. Each car of the sedan chair byhoisting two independent non-vertical arrangement of the composition of theleaf spring. Leaf spring fixed in the middle of the train-bridge, with thefront end hinged frame or body, the back-end with the frame or body through theear hanging hinged or connected to use of skateboards. Top of the frame with ashock absorber then, with the lower end of the next school Axle. The truck rearaxle and more without shock absorbers.6.many types of independent suspension, coil spring as the use of flexiblecomponents. Torsion bar springs for the independent suspension is also dividedinto vertical and horizontal torsion torque Cup two-under. Although many of theadvantages of an independent suspension, but the car would turn the system, theDepartment of driving and driving more complicated structure of the bridge.Keywords:structure of the engine engine performance merits of a direct impact on theperformance of motor vehicles. First, the use of fuel by the differentcategories according to engine fuel, gasoline engine and the engine is dividedinto two major categories of diesel engines.1.network Motor conservation maintenance, gasoline engine small size, lightweight, low prices; good start, when the maximum power of high-speed;work in asmall vibration and noise; suitable for small and medium-sized car inparticular, the use of high-speed car.Gasoline deflagration due to the restrictionscan not be too high compression ratio, thermal efficiency and economy are not,such as diesel. Gasoline is a mixture of the main gas pipeline in the form overinto the cylinder, compressed by the end of close to the spark plugs fire. Thedriver to speed up the adoption of the control pedal into the cylinder of thegas mixture to control the load on the engine, known as the volume ofregulation. Gasoline engine’s fuel supply system and ignition system is a gasoline enginefailure on the part of a higher proportion. Gasoline engine emissions ofharmful material composition of carbon monoxide, carbon compounds and nitrogenoxides than diesel, and so on, but with the current electronically controlledfuel injection system and other exhaust gas purification devices, which havegreatly improved. In addition, the gasoline engine’storque characteristics are very suitable for automotive use, can significantlyreduce the labor intensity of the driver.2.diesel and gasoline engine, diesel engine size, weight, high prices, poor start(especially when the low temperature); work more vibration and noise; easy tooverload when the black smoke. Diesel is characterized by: 1)the absence of the deflagration, as well as restrictions on the needs of thespontaneous combustion of diesel, diesel engine compression ratio high. Thermalefficiency and economy must be better than the gasoline engine. 2)the same power, the diesel engine’s torque, maximum power at the time of low speed, suitable for theuse of the truck. 3)is a mixture of diesel engine cylinder internal form, no inlet throttle, theintake of small resistance. The driver to speed up the adoption of fuelinjection control board, to change the engine load, known as the regulation ofquality, as there is no problem of hypoxia, emissions of hydrocarbons andcarbon monoxide content of less than gasoline.4)In the absence of the ignition system, as well as fuel supply device failurerate low. Therefore, failure to less than diesel gasoline engine. 5)diesel engine torque characteristics are not suitable for car driving cycleneeds, moving the stalls to use frequently, an increase of pilot laborintensity. The main diesel engine for use in medium and heavy vehicles. Second, the number of engine cylinder andarrangement of the engine cylinder displacement equal to the volume of workand. Increasein the number of cylinder engine will not only increase capacity, improve theengine output power, but also to enable the smooth operation of the engine toreduce noise and vibration. Hyundai Motor have adopted multi-cylinder engine.Mini-car for more than 3-cylinder engine, small trucks, passenger cars andmedium-sized following for more than 4-cylinder engine; medium-sized trucks,large cars and buses for more than 6-cylinder engine; Heavy-Duty Truck Generalof 6-8 cylinder. 6-cylinder engine under a single row multi-cylinder in-linemode; 8-cylinder V-type engines for alignment; some of the cars in order toreduce engine height, length shortened, using V6, V8-type arrangement. Mini-caruse of 3-cylinder engine, most oblique way. In-line engine structure is simpleand cheap. The disadvantage is that a high degree of the engine higher longerlength.Is more a way. V-type engines with low height, short length, but thestructure of the complex, more expensive price, suitable for large-scaleengine. Water-cooled engine block using the whole cast. Small engines usedaluminum alloy materials, large-scale multi-engine for the cast iron. Cylinderhead bolts used in a fixed block on the plane, in addition to constitute aclosed cylinder combustion room, into the exhaust, valves are installed, andspark plug valve, and so on. Third,the gasoline engine’sfuel supply 1, the fuel-supply system carburetor gasoline engine fuel supplyline into carburetor and fuel-injection two major categories of carburetor mainoil installations operating principle is: the work of the engine when the outside air Inthe cylinder under the suction air filter to filter through into the cylinder.When the air flow through the pipe section due to the smaller increase in thevelocity and pressure led to the decline in a certain vacuum. Float on theinterior of gasoline in the vacuum from the role of the main inlet into thespray nozzle, the gas emitted by high-speed air currents disperse into mist,known as fogging. And then to oil and oil-film evaporation space in the form ofevaporation, and the airway had mixed into the air mixture into the cylinder.In order to achieve the economy, the main oil loading also uses the air brake.The main nozzle at the indoor air, and along with a few scheduled to openaround the through-hole and air the same room. When the throttle openinggradually increases, the air hole gradually connected with the air. Not onlyreduces the vacuum so that the mixture-thinning, the main air nozzle is alsobeneficial to the atomization of gasoline. 2. electronically controlled fuelinjection fuel-supply system carburetor fuel-supply device structure is simple,reliable, cheap, easy maintenance. But the biggest drawback is that it can notbe precisely controlled mixture of concentration, resulting in incompletecombustion, emissions of harmful ingredients, do not meet the stringentrequirements of environmental protection today. In addition, due to theexistence of the pipe so that the air resistance increases. There is also thecylinder uneven distribution of gasoline and easy to produce and Qizu ice andso on. In order to solve these problems, 80 electronically controlled fuelinjection system in the car engine on a wide range of applications more andmore.electronicallycontrolled fuel injection system advantages: electronically controlled fuelinjection system (referred to as English EFI) has the following advantages:1.no matter under what conditions and in what conditions the engine canaccurately control the mixture of concentration, To make gasoline burncompletely full. This greatly reduces the emission of harmful components ofcontent, also has an excellent combustion engine of the economy. 2.can supply, ignition temperature, such as centralized control, so that the workof the engine performance, increased engine power output, lower fuelconsumption. 3.the engine can always operate in a stable condition in a variety of conditionsso that all car drivers in accordance with the requirements of normal traffic. 4. In the absence of pipes, a small airresistance. At the same time, difficult to produce Qizu, to the distribution ofgas cylinder uniform, and so on. The shortcomings of the fuel injection systemis the high cost structure of the complex and difficult to repair, and so on. electronicallycontrolled fuel injection system of classification: 1) by way of testing the air quality into theway traffic density and speed of the way the two categories. 2) by way of fuel injection, the following twocategories. According to the location of the jet, into intake manifold junction(SPI) and the jet intake manifold Department (MPI) are two jet, respectively,also known as single-point and multi-point injection jet. MPI iscurrently widely used in the way.MPI is currently widely used in theway. Department of gasoline ignition gasoline engine ignition system aregenerally three categories: contact-type ignition system, electronic ignitionsystem, computer-controlled ignition system.车辆悬架系统中的机动车辆悬架系统是一种非常重要的系统。它不仅对乘坐汽车的舒适度有影响，而且对附件的稳定性等其他性能有着显著的影响。每个悬挂的弹性元件(弹簧),是车架(起稳定作用)， 以及减振器的角色(减震)组成然而,并非所有的悬架必须有三个组成部分。只要我们能发挥三个作用。汽车的维护，悬架分类：一 非独立悬架：两侧车轮安装在一根整体式车桥上，车轮连同车桥一起通过框架与车身相连。但这种悬架结构简单，可靠，制造方便，而是由两个轮冲击和振动轮互相影响。在载重汽车上被广泛应用。 但减震器的表现不佳，汽车行进中的震动越大，影响越严重，所以这种悬挂通常被用在卡车、客车和其他的普通车辆。 独立悬架:每个元件通过两侧车轮安装或悬挂在车架上，并且采用断开式车桥。安装了这种减震系统的车轮不易失重飞起，具有强大减震能力的缓冲器更是提供了舒适的乘驾感受。若一侧车轮相对于车架(或车身)的位置发生变化时，另一侧车轮不受影响。这种悬架结构复杂，且车身的平稳性和高速行驶的稳定性较好，因此在轿车和小客车上得到普遍采用。以上指标均优于非独立悬架，但是悬架的结构越复杂，驱动桥和转向系统也就越复杂。使用这种悬架的交通工有以下两种：1汽车和客车等客运车辆：可以提高乘驾舒适度，并且当高速驾驶时能提高稳定性。mining vehicles.越野车，军用车和采矿车。在路况不佳时，可以确保所有的车轮接触地面并提高稳定性，避免汽车起伏，发挥出汽车的速度。二.弹性元件类型：1 钢板弹簧：它是由若干片长方形的钢板组合成的复合板，呈弯曲形。安装在自然向上的曲线两端。此外,钢板弹簧通过减震器起到某种程度的减震、传递垂直载荷的作用。在非独立悬架和导向机构中，也使用钢板弹簧这种弹性元件和减震器这样简单的结构。2螺旋弹簧；只为多汽车独立悬架缓冲，在缺少阻尼力和质量职能的情况下，还必须具备特殊的减震器和导向装置。 3油气弹簧: 使用油液和高压气体作为弹性材料，不仅有很好的减震能力，可以吸收冲击。在同样情况下能够提供更好的调节作用，适用于重型车辆和客车。4扭杆弹簧：汽车车架与车轮用扭杆弹簧，其一端固定在车架上而另一端与车轮连接，车轮上下跳动时扭杆产生扭转变形，靠扭转弹力来吸收振动能量适合独立悬架系统。三.减震器减震筒的使用，油的使用可以切断震动造成的能里损耗。减震器上端与车底架相连，下端与车桥相连。减震器在大部分的行程可以起到压缩的双重作用四.导向机构：独立悬架的弹性元件，大多数只能传递垂直载荷，并不能传递水平载荷，必须是分离的导向机构。如上所述，在力臂和垂直和水平稳定器等。五.非独立悬架：非独立悬架位于卡车的前部和后部，像客车，汽车等一些车辆的后桥也是非独立悬架。每个轿车均由两个独立的非垂直的钢板弹簧构成。钢板弹簧固定在车桥中间,其前后端车架或车身通过耳朵悬铰链或使用滑板连接的。上面的框架用减振器的下端连接轴。车后桥一般无减震器。六 .螺旋弹簧作为弹性元件被用在多种类型的独立悬架。 扭杆弹簧torque Cup two-under.为独立悬架分成纵向和横向扭力矩杯两杆。 虽然独立悬架具有许多优点，但汽车将会通过更复杂的桥结构改进系统，驱动和驾驶。 关键词：发动机的结构发动机的性能对机动车辆的性能有着直接的影响。首先，燃料使用不同类别根据发动机的燃料，分为汽油发动机和柴油发动机。1网络汽车养护维修，汽油发动机体积小，重量轻，价格低；当最大速度运行是，启动好；运行时震动小，噪音小，适合小型和中型汽车，尤其是高速车。由于爆燃的限制，汽油机不可以有过高的压缩比，热效率，而且不如柴油经济。汽油是一种进入气缸中的主要气体管道的混合物，在压缩到接近底部的火花塞时点火。驾驶者加速踩油门时混合气体进入气缸来控制发动机的负载，这是常规。汽油发动机的燃料供给系统和点火系统是发生汽油发动机故障的比例较高的一部分。虽然汽油发动机比柴油排放更多的一氧化碳，碳化合物和氮氧化物等有害物质成分，但是,现在的电控燃油喷射系统和其他废气净化装置却有了很大的改善。但与目前的电控燃油喷射系统和其他尾气净化装置，极大地改善。此外，汽油发动机的扭矩特性非常适用于汽车，可以大大降低司机的劳动强度。2柴油发动机和汽油发动机，柴油发动机的大小，重量，价格高，启动差（尤其是低温时），运行时震动和噪音大; 有黑烟，容易超负荷。柴油发动机机的特点是：1）没有爆燃的限制，但柴油需要自燃，所以柴油发动机压缩比很高。 .热效率和经济性比汽油发动机更好。2）柴油发动机适用于卡车，因为同样的功率，扭矩大，最大功率也大。3）柴油发动机汽缸内的内部是的混合物，没有进油门，小阻力的进气管。 司机.司机加快采用燃油喷射控制板，通过改变发动机负荷，作为规管的质量，因为不存在缺氧问题，碳氢化合物和一氧化碳的排放量低于汽油。4）由于没有点火系统，燃料供应设备故障率低。 因此，不低于汽油发动机。5）柴油发动机扭矩特性并不适用于汽车驾驶循环的需求，移动的摊位，经常使用，是适合飞行员劳动强度的增加。主要适用于中型和重型车辆。第二，发动机缸体及发动机缸体位移量相等的工作。因此，增加汽缸发动机的数量，不仅能增加容量，提高发动机输出功率，而且能够使发动机顺利运作，以减少噪音和振动。现代汽车公司已采用多缸发动机。微型车超过3缸发动机，小卡车，客车和中型以下超过4缸发动机;中型卡车，大型轿车和客车超过6缸发动机;重型卡车一般6-8缸。6缸下单列多缸模式下，8缸V型直列发动机，有些的汽车，为减少发动机的高度，将长度缩短，安装使用V6发动机，V8发动机类型。微型汽车使用3缸发动机，大多是倾斜的。 .在直列发动机结构简单，便宜。 .缺点是，发动机的高度更高，长度更长。更是一个方式。.V型发动机高度低，长度短，但其结构复杂，价格更昂贵，适用于大型发动机。.水冷式发动机缸体采用整体铸造。小型发动机采用铝合金材料，而大型发动机多采用铸铁材料。 and so on.气缸盖螺栓是用在飞机上的固定块，除了构成一个封闭的汽缸燃烧室，进入排气管，阀门和火花塞等。第三，汽油发动机的燃料供应1，燃料供应系统汽化器汽油发动机燃料进入汽化器和燃油喷射器两种主要设备工作原理：发动机工作时，外界空气被吸入空气过滤器，通过过滤器进入气缸。当空气流过管道部分由于较小的增长速度及压力的减少导致了真空。
[1] S. Kilicaslan, T. Balkan,S.K.Ider, Tipping load ofmobile cranes with flexible booms,J. SoundVib. 223 (4)(1999) 645–657.[ 1]美国kilicaslan，吨巴尔干，s.k.ider，倾翻载荷移动起重机柔性臂soundvib，J .。223（4）（1999）645–657。[2] A. Myklebust, Dynamic response of an electric motor-linkage system during start-up, J. Mech. Des. 104 (1982) 137–142.[ 2]的myklebust，动态响应电motor-linkage系统启动期间，J .机甲。德。104（1982）137–142。[3] A. Smaili, M. Kopparapu, M. Sannah, Elastodynamic response of a d.c. motor driven flexible mechanism system with compliant drive train components during start-up, Mech. Mach. Theory 31 (5) (1996) 659–672.[ 3]的smaili，kopparapu先生，先生sannah，动态响应一个直流电机驱动的柔性机构系统的柔性传动部件在启动过程中，机械。马赫数。31（5）（1996）659–672。[4] H. Peeken, K. Menninger, Dynamische Kr €aafte beim Drehen eines Mobilkranes, Foordern und Heben 24 (12) (1974) 1143–1147.[ 4] H . peeken，K门宁格，dynamische氪€aafte在旋转一mobilkranes，foordern和赫本24（12）（1974）1143–1147。[5] K. Maczynski, S. Wojciech, Bin diskretes Modell fur Teleskopdrehkrane zur Anylyse der Bewegung der Last beim Drehen des Kranes, Hebezeuge und F€oordermittel 21 (1981) 333–337.[ 5] k . maczynski，S沃伊切赫，本diskretes莫代尔毛皮teleskopdrehkrane楚最后在旋转运动分析德德德kranes，新乡和女€oordermittel21（1981）333–337。[6] B. Posiadala, B. Skalmierski, L. Tomski, Motion of the lifted load brought by a kinematic forcing of the crane telescopic boom, Mech. Mach. Theory 25 (1990) 547–555.[ 6] B posiadala，B skalmierski，L .托姆斯基，运动解除负荷带来的运动迫使起重机伸缩臂，机械。马赫数。25（1990）547–555。[7] B. Posiadala, Influence of crane support system on motion of the lifted load, Mech. Mach. Theory 32 (1) (1997) 9–20.[ 7] B posiadala，影响起重机支持系统的运动解除负荷，机械。马赫数。32（1）（1997）9–20。[8] W.S.M. Lau, K.H. Low, Motion analysis of a suspended mass attached to a crane, Comput. Struct. 52 (1) (1994)169–178.[ 8] w.s.m.刘，KH低，运动分析暂停大规模连接到一个起重机，计算机。结构。52（1）（1994）169–178。[9] W.A. G €uunthner, M. Kleeberger, Zum Stand der Berechnung von Gittermast-Fahrzeugkranen, dhf 43 (3) (1997)56–61.[ 9] W克€uunthner，柯利博格先生，去站在了德国berechnung冯gittermast-fahrzeugkranen登革出血热，43（3）（1997）56–61。[10] M. Kleeberger, Nichtlineare dynamische Berechnung von Gittermast-Fahrzeugkranen, M€uunchen, Technische Universit €aat, Dissertation, 1996.[ 10]·柯利博格，nichtlineare dynamische berechnung冯gittermast-fahrzeugkranen，米€uunchen，理工大学€亚洲空运中心，论文，1996。[11] J. Maier, Untersuchung zur nichtlinearen Berechnung dynamischer Belas-tungsvorga nge an Turmdrehktanen,M €uunchen, Technische Universit €aat, Dissertation, 1999.[ 11]·麦尔，检查楚nichtlinearen berechnung dynamischer belas-tungsvorga民营企业一个turmdrehktanen，米€uunchen，理工大学€亚洲空运中心，论文，1999。[12] G.Sun,BerechnungvonGittermast-Fahrzeugkranen unter Ber€uucksichtigung der Antriebs-und Regelungssysteme, M €uunchen, Technische Universit €aat, Dissertation, 2001.[ 12]如太阳，berechnungvongittermast-fahrzeugkranen在误码率€uucksichtigung明镜antriebs-und regelungssysteme，米€uunchen，理工大学€亚洲空运中心，论文，2001。[13] M. G €uunthner, Statische Berechnung vom Gittermast-Auslegerkranen mit Hilfe finiter Turmelemente unter Ber€uucksigtigung der Elastizit €aat des Kranwagens und von Messungen, M€uunchen, Technische Universit€aat, Dissertation, 1985.[ 13]·克€uunthner，statische berechnung从gittermast-auslegerkranen麻省理工学院的帮助finiter turmelemente在误码率€uucksigtigung明镜elastizit€亚洲空运中心德kranwagens以及messungen，米€uunchen，理工大学€亚洲空运中心，论文，1985。[14] K. Sato, Y. Sakawa, Modelling and control of a flexible rotary crane, Int. J. Control 48 (5) (1988) 2085–2105.[ 14] K . Y佐藤，佐川，建模和控制灵活旋转起重机，int.48（5）（1988）2085–2105。[15] T. Gustafsson, Modelling and control of a rotary crane. In: Proceedings of 3rd European Control Conference, Rome Italy, September 1995, pp. 3085–3810.[ 15]古斯塔夫森，建模和控制旋转起重机。：第三届欧洲控制会议，罗马意大利，九月，1995，页3085 -–3810。[16 ]Z.Towarek,Thedynamicstabilityofacranestandingonsoilduringtherotationoftheboom,Int.J.Mech.Sci.40(6) (1998) 557–574.[ 16] z.towarek，thedynamicstabilityofacranestandingonsoilduringtherotationoftheboom，int.j.mech。脊髓损伤。40（6）（1998）557–574。[17] A.A. Shabana, Dynamics of Multibody Systems, Cambridge University Press, 1998.[ 17]机管局谢花，多体系统动力学，剑桥大学出版社，1998。[18] N.D.Manring,G.R.Luecke,Modellinganddesigningahydrostatictransmissionwithafixed-displacementmotor,J. Dyn. Syst. Meas. Control 120 (45) (1998) 45–49.[ 18] n.d.manring，g.r.luecke，modellinganddesigningahydrostatictransmissionwithafixed-displacementmotor达因，J .。系统的。多边的。120（45）（1998）45–49。[19] P. Dreansfield, Hydraulic Control Systems. Design and Analysis of their Dynamics, Springer-Verlag, 1981.[ 19] P . dreansfield，液压控制系统。设计与动态分析，科学出版社，1981。[20] H.E. Merritt, Hydraulic Control Systems, John Wiley, New York, 1967.[ 20]梅利特阁下，液压控制系统，约翰威利，纽约，1967。
标点符号问题或正文结果与图片结果不符合等笔误问题，这一种我们只需要在自己的文章中核实后进行改正即可；北京译顶科技做的不错，可以联系他们一下若是还有不明白可以统一去知道了解下
问题一：毕业论文外文翻译是什么意思？有什么要求？ 外文翻译要求：（1）选定外文文献后先给指导老师看，得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。（2）选择外文翻译时一定选择外国作者写的文章，可从学校中知网或者外文数据库下载。（3）外文翻译字数要求3000字以上，从外文互章起始处开始翻译，不允许从文章中间部分开始翻译，翻译必须结束于文章的一个大段落。 问题二：如果参考文献是由国外的书翻译过来的，该怎么写 格式如下： 原作者.译文名[M].译者.出版地：出版者，出版年：引文页码. 问题三：大家做毕业设计的时候外文翻译怎么做的 1.确定自己的毕业课题方向； 2.了解自己学浮翻译要求，比如说字数、格式、对参考考文献是否要翻译等等； 3.找好相关的英文原文，估计一下，比如要翻5000字，则英文原文不加图要4页左右； 4.配好专业词汇软件和GOOGLE翻译，这两者会帮上大忙的，前者对一些专业词汇独到，后者可以让你对译文有个初步了解； 5.注意语句通顺，还有就是有些要意译，不然就会很别扭； 6.对于文中的公式最好用MATHTYPE编辑或者用WORD里的公式编辑器编辑，图片可以不用自己重新画，截过来在画图板里把要改的英文改成中文，其他工具也行，如果有严格要求就要用VISIO画了，对于图表，最好自己重新画； 7.因为有些图式粘过来的，所以编辑格式的时候要注意； 8.对参考文献的翻译：作者姓名可不用翻译，后面的基本都要翻译。 问题四：翻译过来的书当作参考文献应该怎么写啊? [序号] 主钉责任者．文献题名[M] ．出版地：出版者，出版年：起止页码． 例如：[1] 【英】亚当.斯密 著 王秀莉等 译 问题五：中文论文中引用英文著作的翻译版，如何写参考文献？ 按照下面的格式写： （《从混沌到有序的英文书名》by作者A，作者B，translated by Zeng Qinghong,上海译文出版社的英文名称，1987） 书名和作者等请自行查找英文名称 问题六：毕设中的英文文献翻译怎么写，是自己写一篇介绍然后自己翻译成中文吗 毕业设计的英文翻译有两类 第一种，是将毕业实际中的摘要用英文进行翻译 第二种，是自己找一篇与毕业设计相关的论文，将它翻译为英文哗翻译的时候可以用专业的翻译工具。 问题七：关于文献翻译 5分 knowledge about customer, knowledge from customer and knowledge for customer 关于顾客的知识 从顾客那儿获得的知识 对于顾客的知识 关于客户的知识、客户拥有的知识、客户需要的知识 问题八：毕业论文的外文翻译怎么写啊？ 是找一篇相关专业的英文文章再翻译，又不是让你写 麻烦采纳，谢谢! 问题九：《论文外文翻译怎么写》 英文摘要吧，一般自己根据中文摘要翻译的，不要用网上的翻译软件，错误百出，最好找个英语老师改改。 问题十：外文书籍的中文翻译版本作参考文献，格式应该是什么样的呢？ [2] （美）Bruce Eckel著． C++编程思想．刘综田等译．北京：机械工业出版社，2000 [3] （美）William Ford等著． 数据结构C++语言描述（第2版）．陈君译鸡北京：清华大学出版社，2003
去百度搜索，需要什么语言直接在线翻译就OK啦
我觉的科技论文翻译首先要做到以下几点：一、做好译前准备在翻译论文前，译者应先将要译的论文全文通读一遍，深刻理解原文每句话的含义以及其总体的结构。要在阅读的基础上，抓住该文的主要内容及特点。然后，在此基础上记下自己无法翻译的单词或术语及必要的句型。最后查阅有关词典或参考书，找出其相应的英语译法及句式表达。另外将其用铅笔轻轻加注在汉语论文无法翻译的词语或句型等下方，以便后续进行定稿整理。具体地说来，译前准备阶段有下列几个步聚：1、审读全文审读全文过程中要考虑下列几个问题：（1）你是否抓住了全文的中心内容？如果读完后还不知道该文的中心内容，你得考虑是否有把握翻译该文？（2）汉语论文中是否有文理不通或表达不清楚的地方？你能否把这些文理不通或表达不清楚的地方加以修改，使其文字通顺？（3）汉语论文中有否语言拖沓之处？应该怎么修改？（4）有没有修辞不当之处？你能对其加以改正吗？（5）汉语论文中的标点符号是否都正确？如有不当可以根据上、下文的意思将其改正？如果汉语论文中有上述之一点（或者有上述几点）的话，译者一般情况下是有能力独立处理的。如果万一自己无法处理，就应设法寻求帮助。否则，你自己就不具备翻译论文的最起码的汉语语言水平的条件。2、二次审读全文在第一次审读全文的基础上，现在就需要译者抛开汉语的思维习惯，一边读汉语的论文一边用英语进行思维了。当遇到某一（些）不知道如何译的专业术语时应当划下线，对于较生疏的汉语句式应当记下来。具体步聚是： 在二次阅读的基础上，用铅笔划出汉语论文中不熟悉（不会译）的词语和句型。查字典翻译出这些生疏的词语和句型，注在原文划下线的下方。看一看汉语中是否有句子长短不合适的地方？一般说来，中国人喜欢用短语，英美人（尤其在科技论文中）喜欢用多层次的长句。英译汉时常用折译法，而汉译英时却常常合（并）译。所以有些汉语句子可以根据其上下文的逻辑关系将两句译成一句。译者在二次阅读时应思考这个问题。二、仔细翻译论文一般说来，做好译前准备工作后，就可以开始仔细认真地手译（或用word整理好）。如果在翻译的过程中每一句话，每一个词，甚至每一个标点符号都准确无误的话，那么这次翻译基本可以定稿。但是译者只能尽量做到这一点。翻译时就应注意：句与句之间（除标点外）应当留一个字母的空隙；行与行之间留一行的空白。以便最后修改、加工时使用。如有因手误而导致译错的地方，应当及时在该行的左边页空处用铅笔加写正确的译文，同时将错译处划掉（注意不要涂抹），以便译完后及时修改。初译完后首先要自己审读一遍。看看除了自己在初译时及时发现的误译处外，有否别的不当之处：有否其它的译文用词不当？有否其它的标点错误？有否用词错误之处？有否句型等不合适的地方？有否译文的整体逻辑不清之处？如果上述几点均不存在，那么初译的论文在稍加工的基础上便可交付使用。三、做好论文加工论文加工指的是论文翻译大体得当，只有少数地方需要加工。一般说来，技术性的加工方法如下：（1）剪贴：指的是在论文的错（漏）处把正确的译文译好剪贴在错（漏）处。剪贴时应当注意：①纸质要与原纸质一致。②笔迹要一样。③如原文用打字译出，剪贴时也应打字。④剪贴时不应与前句（或后句），或上下文的最末（第一个）字母重叠。也不应覆盖原有的标点符号，以免影响原意。（2）局部修改：指的是论文在翻译中有较大的误译或错译。如果仅有几行错译或误译可以将其重新改写或打印。但一定要整齐、干净、达到“美”的标准。四、把控论文修改当初译的论文有取局部加工或剪贴的办法，需要重译。通过重译以更好地的把控质量，重译时有下列几点注意事项：（1）只重译有误译（错译）的那一页或那几页，没有必要全文重译。（2）避免改动过大，要保持上下文的一致。