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撰写文献综述步骤：1、搜索相关文献 在开始搜索文献之前，需要一个明确定义的主题。如果正在写论文或研究论文的文献综述部分，搜索与之相关的研究问题和问题。如果是以独立作业的形式写一篇文献综述，必须选择一个要点，并提出一个中心问题来指导的搜索。2、评价来源 可能无法完全阅读关于这个主题的所有文章，所以必须评估哪些文章与自己的问题最相关。确保使用的来源是可靠的，并确保阅读了自己所研究领域的任何里程碑式的研究和主要理论。可以找到一篇关于谷歌学术的文章，查看被引用了多少次，高引用数意味着这篇文章在该领域有影响力，当然应该被包括在自己的文献综述中。3、识别主题、辩论和差距 组织文献综述的论点和结构，需要理解所阅读的资料之间的联系和关系。根据阅读和笔记，帮助制定文献综述的结构，并展示自己的研究将如何对现有知识做出贡献。4、概述结构 有各种方法来组织文献综述的主体。在开始写作之前，应该对自己的策略有一个大致的了解。根据文献综述的长度，可以结合这些策略。5、写文献综述 文献综述应该有介绍、主体和结论，每篇文章中包含什么内容取决于文献综述的目标。当写完并修改完文献综述后，不要忘记在提交之前进行校对。
文献综述的写作、步骤和方法 文献综述在硕士，博士论文写作中占据着重要的地位，是论文中的一个重要章节。文献综述的好坏直接关系到论文的成功与否。文献综述是文献综合评述的简称，指在全面搜集，阅读大量的有关研究文献的基础上，经过归纳整理，分析鉴别，对所研究的问题(学科，专题)在一定时期内已经取得的研究成果，存在问题以及新的发展趋势等进行系统，全面的叙述和评论"综"即收集"百家"之言，综合分析整理;"述"即结合作者的观点和实践经验对文献的观点，结论进行叙述和评论其目的并不是将可能找到的文章列出，而是要在辨别相关资料的基础上，根据自己的论文来综合与评估这些资料一个成功的文献综述，能够以其系统的分析评价和有根据的趋势预测，为新课题的确立提供强有力的支持和论证。 《怎样做文献综述——六步走向成功》一书中劳伦斯·马奇和布伦达·麦克伊沃提出了文献综述的六步模型，将文献综述的过程分为六步：选择主题、文献搜索、展开论证、文献研究、文献批评和综述撰写，将文献综述归纳为六个推进性的步骤，其中每一次的工作都为下一步打下基础。第一步：选择主题——从日常兴趣到研究主题 在开始检索文章和书籍之前，你要确定自己的研究范围，确保只获取这一范围里的文章和书籍，即便你碰到了其他领域里出色的文献。研究兴趣大多来自人们对日常生活工作中的一些矛盾、争端、焦点问题和信念的好奇。兴趣成为驱动研究者展开研究的动因，之后，研究者必须对有关兴趣的阿述进行合适的改写，将其从日常生活中的语言转化为专业的学术语言。 这个研究主题必须是一个明确的问题，并与其具体的学术领域相联系。使用学科语言、提炼研究兴趣、选择学术观点，这是建立研究主题的必经之路。第一步也是写作过程的开始，你从这里开始写研究日志，它可以使你的想法和计划更清晰明确。这些任务完成之后就可以得出一个确定的研究主题，从而为第二步指出方向。第二步：文献检索——检索任务和方式 收集文献的方法主要有两种：一是通过各种检索工具，如文献索引，文摘杂志检索，也可利用光盘或网络进行检索;二是从综述性文章，专著，教科书等的参考文献中，摘录出有关的文献目录。各种检索工具文献索引、文摘杂志检索、光盘、网络参考文献综述性文章，专著，教科书等摘录文献目录 选择文献时，应由近及远，因为最新研究常常包括以前研究的参考资料，并且可以使人更快地了解知识和认识的现状首先要阅读文献资料的摘要和总结，以确定它与要做的研究有没有关系，决定是否需要将它包括在文献综述中其次要根据有关的科学理论和研究的需要，对已经搜集到的文献资料做进一步的筛选，详细，系统地记下所评论的各个文献中研究的问题，目标，方法，结果和结论，及其存在的问题，观点的不足与尚未提出的问题将相关的，类似的内容，分别归类;对结论不一致的文献，要对比分析，按一定的评价原则，做出是非的判断同时，对每一项资料的来源要注明完整的出处，不要忽略记录参考文献的次要信息，如出版时间，页码和出版单位所在城市等。 对要评论的文献先进行概括(不是重复)，然后进行分析，比较和对照，目的不是为了对以前的研究进行详细解释，而是确保读者能够领会与本研究相关的以前研究的主要方面个别地和集中地对以前研究的优点，不足和贡献进行分析和评论，这在文献综述中是非常重要的第三步：展开论证——为文献综述建立论证方案 浏览每本书和每篇文章，找到这5点内容：与你研究课题相关的主张、结论以及发现术语的定义对相关后续研究的建议现有文献的不足与你研究观点上的分歧开始撰写高质量的文献综述前，要进行论证的工作。按照种类和主题将资料分类，发现论点；然后分析资料，了解与主题相关的研究已取得了哪些成绩。要成功地完成这个任务，必须建立一个针对研究对象的论证方案，分析相关研究已取得的进展，分析这些研究是如何帮助我们认识研究对象的，它们又是否回答了我们提出的研究问题。 成功的文献综述通过有逻辑的论证建立一个论点。论断、语气和推理构成了逻辑性的论证。一个好的论证可以证明论断。要达到这样的效果，每一个论断必须建立在可信的证据基础之上，这些证据可以证实你的观点。强有力的证据是从相关的、令人信服的资料中来的。 如果不能胸有成竹地阐明研究课题的论点，就不要开始撰写正式的初稿。第四步：文献研究——进行发现式论证 文献研究的目的是发现关于研究问题“我们已经知道些什么”。文献研究收集关于研究课题的已有知识。在文献研究的初始阶段，我们需要对通过文献检索所获得的资料中的发现进行审查；其后，再按照一定的逻辑将这些发现组织起来，最终形成结论。05第五步：文献批评——对研究进行阐释 文献批评回答的问题是：就文献研究的结果，“我们能够做出什么样的决定”。文献批评要对有关研究课题的已有知识加以阐释，并探究这些知识是如何回答研究问题的。当你构思文献批评时，问自己这样一个问题：“基于已有的知识，我提出的研究问题的答案是什么？”如果 这个答案是清晰的，并且经过了发现式论证的界定，那么你就找到了文献综述的主题，达到了文献综述的目的，即对有关主题的已有知识进行综合并总结出一个论点。无论是阐释已有知识还是探究新的研究问题，都必须以切实可信的论证来证实主题。第六步：综述撰写——撰写、审核、修改 撰写文献综述成功的关键在于审慎的态度。建构一个明晰有力的大纲，作为整个工作的基础；确保这一大纲对文章的结构设计进行了合理安排，并包含足够的细节，从而能够有效地引导写作。分两个阶段完成写作，首先“通过写作增进自身理解”，然后再“通过写作促进他人理解自己”。 写作应从一份尝试性的草稿开始，把研究材料转化为自己的视角。把尝试性写作的草稿与研究大纲相结合，为初稿的写作打下一个坚实的基础。然后，通过审核与校对工作，进行必要的修改，创造一份高质量的初稿。 完成这六步，你就完成了文献综述的初稿。这一过程的妙处在于，它将“文献综述”这个看上去让人望而却步的庞大工程分解为了简单易行的具体步骤。研究综述介绍案例 《衍生金融工具确认和计量文献综述》：本文是一篇关于文献综述论文范文，可作为相关选题参考和写作参考文献。 一、我国国内的衍生金融工具确认和计量研究文献综述 我国金融工具确认和会计计量属性研究起步较晚,前期研究主要集中在衍生金融工具对传统会计的冲击以及对会计披露的影响,后期有关衍生金融工具会计的系统论著相继出现 （一）金融工具确认方面,葛家澎教授首开我国金融工具研究先河,其和陈箭深合著的《略论金融工具创新及其对财务会计的影响》（1995）提出,随着金融工具的出现,传统的会计确认标准必然发生改变,可能的做法是保留权责发生制,但必须对“实现原则”加以修订,同时对会计确认的标准也会有相应修改或补充葛家澎（2000）认为要求在表内确认衍生工具之类的资产和负债的呼声甚高,而现行资产定义似乎己不能覆盖人们期望确认的新的资产和负债既然定义是人给出的,人当然可以根据新的情况对过去的要素进行必要的修改卿松、李新（2008）在《金融工具会计准则之国际比较》中从金融工具的分类和终止确认方面进行了比较把金融工具的分类,分为初次分类和重分类 （二）金融工具计量方面,黄世忠（1997）明确提出了公允价值会计是面向世纪的会计模式他指出,公允价值会计既对会计界提出了严峻挑战,同时,也为计量模式的完善和发展提供了契机公允价值计量模式极有可能在下一个世纪的上半叶成为主流,历史成本计量模式将逐步退出会计的历史舞台葛家澎（2000）由于资产和负债的多样性和计量的复杂性,试图用一种计量属性来解决财务报表中的计量恐怕是不可能的多种计量属性仍将同时并用,至少公允价值和历史成本两种计量属性同时并用仍然是符合财务会计的计量实际谢诗芬（2004）提出公允价值有十大理论基础—经济收益概念、全面收益概念、 流量制和市场价格会计假设、现代会计目标、相关性和可靠性质量特征、会计要素的本质特征、未来会计确认的基础、价值和现值计量理念、计量观和净盈余理论以及财务报表的本原逻辑从理论上肯定了公允价值应用的必要性和必然性但是并未对公允价值具体应该如何在我国进行应用展开具体讨论,这远远不能满足我国经济发展的需要陈小悦（2001）认为由于以公允价值进行计量的金融工具、衍生金融工具在报表中的比例有限,公允价值信息和历史成本信息共存,可能会破坏报表总体的相关性等信息质量特征李荣林（2003）认为对于金融工具,最相关的属性是公允价值,而非历史成本或历史成本、公允价值兼有的混合计量属性常勋（2006）明确金融工具的公允价值信息比历史成本信息对财务信息使用者更具相关性但公允价值计量的可靠性问题,必将制约公允价值的推广应用金融上具的计量还会经历一个以历史摊余成本为主过渡到以公允价值为主的阶段,单一的公允价值计量模式也不是一蹦而就的陈梅（2012）主要从衍生金融工具会计确认、会计计量和信息披露等方面介绍 FASB和IASC 这两个会计组织对衍生金融工具的研究成果,并进行比较和评价,以此作为我国制定衍生金融工具会计准则的借鉴根据我国衍生金融工具发展的实际情况,提出了我国衍生金融工具会计准则的一些设想张杰（2009）在《中外衍生金融工具会计准则的比较》中从衍生金融工具的确认、衍生金融工具的计量和衍生金融工具的披露三个方面进行了比较。 我国新会计则在借鉴国际通行做法、结合我国实际情况的基础上规定：企业将衍生金融工具纳入表内核算并按公允价值计量,相关公允价值变动计入当期损益或所有者权益,改变长期以来衍生工具仅笼统地在表外披露的做法金融资产减值损失采用未来 流量折现法金融资产和其他资产的区别在于承受着较大的金融风险,因此,对金融资产减值损失的确认和计量,国际通行的做法是未来 流量折现法同时,在“金融资产减值损失的转回”上确认和计量准则也和国际会计准则保持高度一致,当有客观证据表明该金融资产价值已恢复“且客观上和确认该损失后发生的事项有关”,原确认的减值损失应予以转回,计入当期损益；只有可供出售权益工具投资发生的减值损失,不得通过损益转回混合计量模式的运用在计量方面,我国跟IASC的规定基本上一样,都是混合计量模式,即公允价值计量跟其他一些计量方式相结合,根据实际情况进行选择 二、国外的衍生金融工具确认和计量研究文献综述 如何对金融工具进行披露,特别是如何确认和计量衍生工具,是一些发达国家以及组织重点关注的问题Ahned et （2006）选取在颁布之前同时持有已经确认和披露的衍生金融工具的银行作为样本,他发现对于已经确认的衍生金融工具而言,具有显著的价值相关性,而对于已经披露的衍生工具而言,价值相关性则并不显著Walter（1995）认为“那些具有合约性质的安排,如果它们的存在会比假如没有它们时对企业在未来提供服务的义务有所增加的话,应该理所当然的被认为是资产负债表的一个组成部分Carrollet （2002）研究了一年期间的143个美国封闭式基金公司,发现股价和公允价值正相关 Eccheret （1996）和B（1996）验证了银行按照FAS107披露的1992年1993年的数据样本,分别对1992年至1993年间美国银行持有的金融资产和金融负债的价值相关性进行研究,以考察作为资产和负债持有的金融工具价值相关性他们的研究都表明,贷款净额和长期债务的公允价值和账目价值之间的差额和股价是相关的,但银行存款和表外金融工具的公允价值和股价之间则没有任何相关性对于为何不存在相关性,研究者们也给出了他们的理由：主要是第一,按照美国当时的GAAP,对于活期存款的公允价值估计已经等于其账目价值第二,1992至1993年期间,表外金融工具的公允价值披露并不是非常清楚,甚至于都不能表明净头寸到底是资产还是负债Venkatachalam（1996）对1994年大型银行价值相关性进行了研究,他发现在控制了所有表内确认金融工具,用于资产负债管理的衍生金融工具的公允价值和股价显著相关,但其他表外披露的金融工具如不用于资产管理或者仅用于经营目的的金融工具等,如贷款承诺和股价之间则不存在相关性,作者认为这些其他表外金融工具相关的披露并不是规定的非常清楚,仍然令人难以理解,甚至感到困惑Wong（2000）对《财富》500强中145家制造型企业进行了研究,他发现按照SFAS119《关于衍生金融工具和金融工具公允价值的披露》披露的衍生金融工具的公允价值信息,无论采取的是合计的形式,还是分项披露的形式,均没有提供有关外汇风险敞口的增量信息作者认为,对公司公允价值的估计过程作补充披露可能提供增量信息,进而有助于投资者对此类估计的可靠性进行研究。
%表示取余；/表示除法，循环中rebmun temp都是整型，所以相除的结果还是整型，是商。还是举例子吧：假设number=123；temp=number=3;第一次循环：rebmun=10*0+123%10=0+3=3;temp=123/10=12;第二次循环：rebmun=3*10+12%10=30+2=32;temp=12/10=1第三次循环：rebmun=32*10+1%10=320+1=321;temp=1/10=0;结束循环rebmun值为321
可以参考TI的PID源文件，里面写的很详细
#include
维基百科找到的Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, due mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, and information theory to study how the brain processes There are a number of subdisciplines; for example, as non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain become more and more widespread, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn Areas of studyPsycholinguistics is interdisciplinary in nature and is studied by people in a variety of fields, such as psychology, cognitive science, and There are several subdivisions within psycholinguistics that are based on the components that make up human Linguistic-related areas:Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech Within psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands these Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between related words (such as dog and dogs) and the formation of words based on rules (such as plural formation) Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined together to form Semantics deals with the meaning of words and Where syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual meaning of Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of Psychology-related areas:The study of word recognition and reading examines the processes involved in the extraction of orthographic, morphological, phonological, and semantic information from patterns in printed Developmental psycholinguistics studies infants' and children's ability to learn and process language, usually with experimental or at least quantitative methods (as opposed to naturalistic observations such as those made by Jean Piaget in his research on the development of children) [edit] TheoriesTheories about how language works in the human mind attempt to account for, among other things, how we associate meaning with the sounds (or signs) of language and how we use syntax—that is, how we manage to put words in the proper order to produce and understand the strings of words we call "" The first of these items—associating sound with meaning—is the least controversial and is generally held to be an area in which animal and human communication have at least some things in common (See animal communication) Syntax, on the other hand, is controversial, and is the focus of the discussion that There are essentially two schools of thought as to how we manage to create syntactic sentences: (1) syntax is an evolutionary product of increased human intelligence over time and social factors that encouraged the development of spoken language; (2) language exists because humans possess an innate ability, an access to what has been called a "universal " This view holds that the human ability for syntax is "hard-wired" in the This view claims, for example, that complex syntactic features such as recursion are beyond even the potential abilities of the most intelligent and social non- (Recursion, for example, includes the use of relative pronouns to refer back to earlier parts of a sentence—"The girl whose car is blocking my view of the tree that I planted last year is my ") The innate view claims that the ability to use syntax like that would not exist without an innate concept that contains the underpinnings for the grammatical rules that produce Children acquiring a language, thus, have a vast search space to explore among possible human grammars, settling, logically, on the language(s) spoken or signed in their own community of Such syntax is, according to the second point of view, what defines human language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal The first view was prevalent until about 1960 and is well represented by the mentalistic theories of Jean Piaget and the empiricist Rudolf C As well, the school of psychology known as behaviorism (see Verbal Behavior (1957) by BF Skinner) puts forth the point of view that language is behavior shaped by conditioned The second point of view (the "innate" one) can fairly be said to have begun with Noam Chomsky's highly critical review of Skinner's book in 1959 in the pages of the journal L[1] That review started what has been termed "the cognitive revolution" in The field of psycholinguistics since then has been defined by reactions to Chomsky, pro and The pro view still holds that the human ability to use syntax is qualitatively different from any sort of animal That ability might have resulted from a favorable mutation (extremely unlikely) or (more likely) from an adaptation of skills evolved for other That is, precise syntax might, indeed, serve group needs; better linguistic expression might produce more cohesion, cooperation, and potential for survival, BUT precise syntax can only have developed from rudimentary—or no—syntax, which would have had no survival value and, thus, would not have evolved at Thus, one looks for other skills, the characteristics of which might have later been useful for In the terminology of modern evolutionary biology, these skills would be said to be "pre-adapted" for syntax (see also exaptation) Just what those skills might have been is the focus of recent research—or, at least, The con view still holds that language—including syntax—is an outgrowth of hundreds of thousands of years of increasing intelligence and tens of thousands of years of human From that view, syntax in language gradually increased group cohesion and potential for Language—syntax and all—is a cultural This view challenges the "innate" view as scientifically unfalsifiable; that is to say, it can't be tested; the fact that a particular, conceivable syntactic structure does not exist in any of the world's finite repertoire of languages is an interesting observation, but it is not proof of a genetic constraint on possible forms, nor does it prove that such forms couldn't exist or couldn't be Contemporary theorists, besides Chomsky, working in the field of theories of psycholinguistics include George Lakoff and Steven P[edit] MethodologiesMuch methodology in psycholinguistics takes the form of behavioral experiments incorporating a lexical decision In these types of studies, subjects are presented with some form of linguistic input and asked to perform a task ( make a judgment, reproduce the stimulus, read a visually presented word aloud) Reaction times (usually on the order of milliseconds) and proportion of correct responses are the most often employed measures of Such experiments often take advantage of priming effects, whereby a "priming" word or phrase appearing in the experiment can speed up the lexical decision for a related "target" word [2]Such tasks might include, for example, asking the subject to convert nouns into verbs; , "book" suggests "to write," "water" suggests "to drink," and so Another experiment might present an active sentence such as "Bob threw the ball to Bill" and a passive equivalent, "The ball was thrown to Bill by Bob" and then ask the question, "Who threw the ball?" We might then conclude (as is the case) that active sentences are processed more easily (faster) than passive More interestingly, we might also find out (as is the case) that some people are unable to understand passive sentences; we might then make some tentative steps towards understanding certain types of language deficits (generally grouped under the broad term, aphasia)[3]Until the recent advent of non-invasive medical techniques, brain surgery was the preferred way for language researchers to discover how language works in the For example, severing the corpus callosum (the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) was at one time a treatment for some forms of Researchers could then study the ways in which the comprehension and production of language were affected by such drastic Where an illness made brain surgery necessary, language researchers had an opportunity to pursue their Newer, non-invasive techniques now include brain imaging by positron emission tomography (PET); functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); event-related potentials (ERPs) in electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG); and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Brain imaging techniques vary in their spatial and temporal resolutions (fMRI has a resolution of a few thousand neurons per pixel, and ERP has millisecond accuracy) Each type of methodology presents a set of advantages and disadvantages for studying a particular problem in Computational modeling - the DRC model of reading and word recognition proposed by Coltheart and colleagues[4] - is another It refers to the practice of setting up cognitive models in the form of executable computer Such programs are useful because they require theorists to be explicit in their hypotheses and because they can be used to generate accurate predictions for theoretical models that are so complex that they render discursive analysis One example of computational modeling is McClelland and Elman's TRACE model of speech [5]More recently, eye tracking has been used to study online language Beginning with Rayner (1978)[6] the importance and informativity of eye-movements during reading was Tanenhaus et ,[7] have performed a number of visual-world eye-tracking studies to study the cognitive processes related to spoken Since eye movements are closely linked to the current focus of attention, language processing can be studied by monitoring eye movements while a subject is presented with linguistic [edit] Issues and areas of researchPsycholinguistics is concerned with the nature of the computations and processes that the brain undergoes to comprehend and produce For example, the cohort model seeks to describe how words are retrieved from the mental lexicon when an individual hears or sees linguistic [8][2]Recent research using new non-invasive imaging techniques seeks to shed light on just where certain language processes occur in the There are a number of unanswered questions in psycholinguistics, such as whether the human ability to use syntax is based on innate mental structures or emerges from interaction with other humans, and whether some animals can be taught the syntax of human Two other major subfields of psycholinguistics investigate first language acquisition, the process by which infants acquire language, and second language In addition, it is much more difficult for adults to acquire second languages than it is for infants to learn their first language (bilingual infants are able to learn both of their native languages easily) Thus, sensitive periods may exist during which language can be learned [9] A great deal of research in psycholinguistics focuses on how this ability develops and diminishes over It also seems to be the case that the more languages one knows, the easier it is to learn [10]The field of aphasiology deals with language deficits that arise because of brain Studies in aphasiology can both offer advances in therapy for individuals suffering from aphasia, and further insight into how the brain processes
维基百科找到的Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, due mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, and information theory to study how the brain processes There are a number of subdisciplines; for example, as non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain become more and more widespread, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn Areas of studyPsycholinguistics is interdisciplinary in nature and is studied by people in a variety of fields, such as psychology, cognitive science, and There are several subdivisions within psycholinguistics that are based on the components that make up human Linguistic-related areas:Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech Within psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands these Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between related words (such as dog and dogs) and the formation of words based on rules (such as plural formation) Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined together to form Semantics deals with the meaning of words and Where syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual meaning of Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of Psychology-related areas:The study of word recognition and reading examines the processes involved in the extraction of orthographic, morphological, phonological, and semantic information from patterns in printed Developmental psycholinguistics studies infants' and children's ability to learn and process language, usually with experimental or at least quantitative methods (as opposed to naturalistic observations such as those made by Jean Piaget in his research on the development of children) [edit] TheoriesTheories about how language works in the human mind attempt to account for, among other things, how we associate meaning with the sounds (or signs) of language and how we use syntax—that is, how we manage to put words in the proper order to produce and understand the strings of words we call "" The first of these items—associating sound with meaning—is the least controversial and is generally held to be an area in which animal and human communication have at least some things in common (See animal communication) Syntax, on the other hand, is controversial, and is the focus of the discussion that There are essentially two schools of thought as to how we manage to create syntactic sentences: (1) syntax is an evolutionary product of increased human intelligence over time and social factors that encouraged the development of spoken language; (2) language exists because humans possess an innate ability, an access to what has been called a "universal " This view holds that the human ability for syntax is "hard-wired" in the This view claims, for example, that complex syntactic features such as recursion are beyond even the potential abilities of the most intelligent and social non- (Recursion, for example, includes the use of relative pronouns to refer back to earlier parts of a sentence—"The girl whose car is blocking my view of the tree that I planted last year is my ") The innate view claims that the ability to use syntax like that would not exist without an innate concept that contains the underpinnings for the grammatical rules that produce Children acquiring a language, thus, have a vast search space to explore among possible human grammars, settling, logically, on the language(s) spoken or signed in their own community of Such syntax is, according to the second point of view, what defines human language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal The first view was prevalent until about 1960 and is well represented by the mentalistic theories of Jean Piaget and the empiricist Rudolf C As well, the school of psychology known as behaviorism (see Verbal Behavior (1957) by BF Skinner) puts forth the point of view that language is behavior shaped by conditioned The second point of view (the "innate" one) can fairly be said to have begun with Noam Chomsky's highly critical review of Skinner's book in 1959 in the pages of the journal L[1] That review started what has been termed "the cognitive revolution" in The field of psycholinguistics since then has been defined by reactions to Chomsky, pro and The pro view still holds that the human ability to use syntax is qualitatively different from any sort of animal That ability might have resulted from a favorable mutation (extremely unlikely) or (more likely) from an adaptation of skills evolved for other That is, precise syntax might, indeed, serve group needs; better linguistic expression might produce more cohesion, cooperation, and potential for survival, BUT precise syntax can only have developed from rudimentary—or no—syntax, which would have had no survival value and, thus, would not have evolved at Thus, one looks for other skills, the characteristics of which might have later been useful for In the terminology of modern evolutionary biology, these skills would be said to be "pre-adapted" for syntax (see also exaptation) Just what those skills might have been is the focus of recent research—or, at least, The con view still holds that language—including syntax—is an outgrowth of hundreds of thousands of years of increasing intelligence and tens of thousands of years of human From that view, syntax in language gradually increased group cohesion and potential for Language—syntax and all—is a cultural This view challenges the "innate" view as scientifically unfalsifiable; that is to say, it can't be tested; the fact that a particular, conceivable syntactic structure does not exist in any of the world's finite repertoire of languages is an interesting observation, but it is not proof of a genetic constraint on possible forms, nor does it prove that such forms couldn't exist or couldn't be Contemporary theorists, besides Chomsky, working in the field of theories of psycholinguistics include George Lakoff and Steven P[edit] MethodologiesMuch methodology in psycholinguistics takes the form of behavioral experiments incorporating a lexical decision In these types of studies, subjects are presented with some form of linguistic input and asked to perform a task ( make a judgment, reproduce the stimulus, read a visually presented word aloud) Reaction times (usually on the order of milliseconds) and proportion of correct responses are the most often employed measures of Such experiments often take advantage of priming effects, whereby a "priming" word or phrase appearing in the experiment can speed up the lexical decision for a related "target" word [2]Such tasks might include, for example, asking the subject to convert nouns into verbs; , "book" suggests "to write," "water" suggests "to drink," and so Another experiment might present an active sentence such as "Bob threw the ball to Bill" and a passive equivalent, "The ball was thrown to Bill by Bob" and then ask the question, "Who threw the ball?" We might then conclude (as is the case) that active sentences are processed more easily (faster) than passive More interestingly, we might also find out (as is the case) that some people are unable to understand passive sentences; we might then make some tentative steps towards understanding certain types of language deficits (generally grouped under the broad term, aphasia)[3]Until the recent advent of non-invasive medical techniques, brain surgery was the preferred way for language researchers to discover how language works in the For example, severing the corpus callosum (the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) was at one time a treatment for some forms of Researchers could then study the ways in which the comprehension and production of language were affected by such drastic Where an illness made brain surgery necessary, language researchers had an opportunity to pursue their Newer, non-invasive techniques now include brain imaging by positron emission tomography (PET); functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); event-related potentials (ERPs) in electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG); and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Brain imaging techniques vary in their spatial and temporal resolutions (fMRI has a resolution of a few thousand neurons per pixel, and ERP has millisecond accuracy) Each type of methodology presents a set of advantages and disadvantages for studying a particular problem in Computational modeling - the DRC model of reading and word recognition proposed by Coltheart and colleagues[4] - is another It refers to the practice of setting up cognitive models in the form of executable computer Such programs are useful because they require theorists to be explicit in their hypotheses and because they can be used to generate accurate predictions for theoretical models that are so complex that they render discursive analysis One example of computational modeling is McClelland and Elman's TRACE model of speech [5]More recently, eye tracking has been used to study online language Beginning with Rayner (1978)[6] the importance and informativity of eye-movements during reading was Tanenhaus et ,[7] have performed a number of visual-world eye-tracking studies to study the cognitive processes related to spoken Since eye movements are closely linked to the current focus of attention, language processing can be studied by monitoring eye movements while a subject is presented with linguistic [edit] Issues and areas of researchPsycholinguistics is concerned with the nature of the computations and processes that the brain undergoes to comprehend and produce For example, the cohort model seeks to describe how words are retrieved from the mental lexicon when an individual hears or sees linguistic [8][2]Recent research using new non-invasive imaging techniques seeks to shed light on just where certain language processes occur in the There are a number of unanswered questions in psycholinguistics, such as whether the human ability to use syntax is based on innate mental structures or emerges from interaction with other humans, and whether some animals can be taught the syntax of human Two other major subfields of psycholinguistics investigate first language acquisition, the process by which infants acquire language, and second language In addition, it is much more difficult for adults to acquire second languages than it is for infants to learn their first language (bilingual infants are able to learn both of their native languages easily) Thus, sensitive periods may exist during which language can be learned [9] A great deal of research in psycholinguistics focuses on how this ability develops and diminishes over It also seems to be the case that the more languages one knows, the easier it is to learn [10]The field of aphasiology deals with language deficits that arise because of brain Studies in aphasiology can both offer advances in therapy for individuals suffering from aphasia, and further insight into how the brain processes
英语毕业论文文献综述好写的，根据题目写相关学者的总结，开始我也不会，还是师姐介绍的莫文网，专业的就是不一样，很快就帮忙完成了对大学英语翻译教学若干问题的思考应用英语翻译呼唤理论指导大学英语翻译教学:现状与对策国内商务英语翻译研究综述商务英语翻译中存在的问题与对策顺应理论视角下科技英语翻译切雅实证分析经济一体化环境下的商务英语翻译教学新世纪十年来商务英语翻译研究:回顾与前瞻语用观视角下的中医英语翻译教学实证研究翻译——找到源语的所指——对规划教材《商务英语翻译》误译译例的批判研究从功能对等角度看商务英语翻译高校科技英语翻译课程设置探讨科技英语汉译的英语翻译技巧研究——以船舶英语文本中的汉译为例功能对等视角下的科技英语翻译论商务英语翻译的4Es标准大学英语翻译教学存在的问题与对策关联理论在科技英语翻译中的应用——以Climate Change and Peak Oil文本的翻译为例功能对等理论指导下的商务英语翻译大学英语翻译教学:问题与对策英语翻译专业本科生的笔译能力调查分析——以某师范大学英语翻译专业为例中国职业篮球俱乐部体育英语翻译人员现状及发展对策研究从目的论的角度下看商务英语翻译论高职商务英语翻译教学中学生跨文化交际意识的培养试论近代国人英语翻译任务型教学法在《商务英语翻译》教学中的运用商务英语翻译与文化信息等值研究大学英语翻译教学教材编写探讨——以《新时代交互英语(读写译1-4册)》为例东西方文化差异对商务英语翻译的影响顺序分析在科技英语翻译中的应用——以翻译项目《大气污染排放系数手册》为案例从关联理论分析法律英语翻译中的文化差异及其翻译补偿商务英语翻译原则探讨跨文化因素对商务英语翻译的影响及调整策略
持续性交际法对商务英语学习者口语和能力提高的研究分析商务英语中模糊语言的应用及其语用分析从功能对等角度看商务英语翻译基于学生需求分析的商务英语专业英语课程设置研究英语商务付款信函中言语行为的语用策略研究合作学习理论在商务英语谈判课堂中的应用研究商务英语对话中的会话含义研究基于体裁分析的教学法在商务英语信函作教学中的应用中职校电子商务专业英语课程模式的调查研究商务英语教学中跨文化交际能力的培养成人商务英语教学中学生自主学习能力的培养商务英语作中介语错误分析的研究功能对等理论视角下的商务英语翻译商务英语网络课件的评估：TMM个案研究商务英语中复合形容词的研究图式理论在商务英语口译中的应用英语商务谈判中模糊语的顺应论阐释语域理论与英语商务合同汉译关联理论在商务英语阅读教学中的应用商务谈判英语的人际意义研究基于体裁的商务英语阅读教学研究英语商务报告的语体分析商务英语阅读策略和词汇策略相关性研究教师反馈对提高商务英语作准确性作用的研究功能加忠诚模式对商务英语翻译的启示商务英语信函的词汇特点研究商务英语词汇的一词多义现象研究剑桥商务英语证书考试中句子填空的衔接分析论任务型教学法在商务英语作教学中的运用商务英语报忧类信函的人际意义研究商务英语电子邮件的体裁特征研究商务英语信函翻译的语用充实策略任务型语言教学在中等职业学校商务英语中的应用研究跨文化情境下商务英语口译研究基于文化图式理论下的商务英语翻译教学研究迁移理论在大学商务英语口语中的应用研究商务英语中带连字符复合形容词的认知研究关联顺应模式下的商务英语翻译
ok ,俺棒吧。