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文献综述是对某一方面的专题搜集大量情报资料后经综合分析而写成的一种学术论文， 它是科学文献的一种。 格式与写法 文献综述的格式与一般研究性论文的格式有所不同。这是因为研究性的论文注重研究的方法和结果，特别是阳性结果，而文献综述要求向读者介绍与主题有关的详细资料、动态、进展、展望以及对以上方面的评述。因此文献综述的格式相对多样，但总的来说，一般都包含以下四部分：即前言、主题、总结和参考文献。撰写文献综述时可按这四部分拟写提纲，在根据提纲进行撰写工。 前言部分，主要是说明写作的目的，介绍有关的概念及定义以及综述的范围，扼要说明有关主题的现状或争论焦点，使读者对全文要叙述的问题有一个初步的轮廓。 主题部分，是综述的主体，其写法多样，没有固定的格式。可按年代顺序综述，也可按不同的问题进行综述，还可按不同的观点进行比较综述，不管用那一种格式综述，都要将所搜集到的文献资料归纳、整理及分析比较，阐明有关主题的历史背景、现状和发展方向，以及对这些问题的评述，主题部分应特别注意代表性强、具有科学性和创造性的文献引用和评述。 总结部分，与研究性论文的小结有些类似，将全文主题进行扼要总结，对所综述的主题有研究的作者，最好能提出自己的见解。 参考文献虽然放在文末，但却是文献综述的重要组成部分。因为它不仅表示对被引用文献作者的尊重及引用文献的依据，而且为读者深入探讨有关问题提供了文献查找线索。因此，应认真对待。参考文献的编排应条目清楚，查找方便，内容准确无误。关于参考文献的使用方法，录著项目及格式与研究论文相同，不再重复。
1 综述的定义和特点 综述是查阅了某一专题在一段时期内的相当数量的文献资料，经过分析研究，选取有关情报信息，进行归纳整理，作出综合性描述的文章。 综述的特点： ①综合性：综述要"纵横交错"，既要以某一专题的发展为纵线，反映当前课题的进展；又要从本单位、省内、国内到国外，进行横的比较。只有如此，文章才会占有大量素材，经过综合分析、归纳整理、消化鉴别，使材料更精练、更明确、更有层次和更有逻辑，进而把握本专题发展规律和预测发展趋势。 ②评述性：是指比较专门地、全面地、深入地、系统地论述某一方面的问题，对所综述的内容进行综合、分析、评价，反映作者的观点和见解，并与综述的内容构成整体。一般来说，综述应有作者的观点，否则就不成为综述，而是手册或讲座了。 ③先进性：综述不是写学科发展的历史，而是要搜集最新资料，获取最新内容，将最新的信息和科研动向及时传递给读者。 综述不应是材料的罗列，而是对亲自阅读和收集的材料，加以归纳、总结，做出评论和估价。并由提供的文献资料引出重要结论。一篇好的综述，应当是既有观点，又有事实，有骨又有肉的好文章。由于综述是三次文献，不同于原始论文（一次文献)，所以在引用材料方面，也可包括作者自己的实验结果、未发表或待发表的新成果。 综述的内容和形式灵活多样，无严格的规定，篇幅大小不一，大的可以是几十万字甚至上百万字的专著，参考文献可数百篇乃至数千篇；小的可仅有千余字，参考文献数篇。一般医学期刊登载的多为3000～4000字，引文15～20篇，一般不超过20篇，外文参考文献不应少于1／3。2 综述的内容要求 选题要新：即所综述的选题必须是近期该刊未曾刊载过的。一片综述文章，若与已发表的综述文章"撞车"，即选题与内容基本一致，同一种期刊是不可能刊用的。说理要明：说理必须占有充分的资料，处处以事实为依据，决不能异想天开地臆造数据和诊断，将自己的推测作为结论写。 层次要清：这就要求作者在写作时思路要清，先写什么，后写什么，写到什么程度，前后如何呼应，都要有一个统一的构思。 语言要美：科技文章以科学性为生命，但语不达义、晦涩坳口，结果必然阻碍了科技知识的交流。所以，在实际写作中，应不断地加强汉语修辞、表达方面的训练。文献要新：由于现在的综述多为"现状综述"，所以在引用文献中，70％的应为3年内的文献。参考文献依引用先后次序排列在综述文末，并将序号置入该论据(引文内容)的右上角。引用文献必须确实，以便读者查阅参考。 校者把关：综述写成之后，要请有关专家审阅，从专业和文字方面进一步修改提高。这一步是必须的，因为作者往往有顾此失彼之误，常注意了此一方而忽视了彼一方。有些结论往往是荒谬的，没有恰到好处地反应某一课题研究的"真面目"。这些问题经过校阅往往可以得到解决。3 综述的格式和写法 综述一般都包括题名、著者、摘要、关键词、正文、参考文献几部分。其中正文部分又由前言、主体和总结组成。 前言：用200～300字的篇幅，提出问题，包括写作目的、意义和作用，综述问题的历史、资料来源、现状和发展动态，有关概念和定义，选择这一专题的目的和动机、应用价值和实践意义，如果属于争论性课题，要指明争论的焦点所在。 主体：主要包括论据和论证。通过提出问题、分析问题和解决问题，比较各种观点的异同点及其理论根据，从而反映作者的见解。为把问题说得明白透彻，可分为若干个小标题分述。这部分应包括历史发展、现状分析和趋向预测几个方面的内容。①历史发展：要按时间顺序，简要说明这一课题的提出及各历史阶段的发展状况，体现各阶段的研究水平。②现状分析：介绍国内外对本课题的研究现状及各派观点，包括作者本人的观点。将归纳、整理的科学事实和资料进行排列和必要的分析。对有创造性和发展前途的理论或假说要详细介绍，并引出论据；对有争论的问题要介绍各家观点或学说，进行比较，指问题的焦点和可能的发展趋势，并提出自己的看法。对陈旧的、过时的或已被否定的观点可从简。对一般读者熟知的问题只要提及即可。 趋向预测：在纵横对比中肯定所综述课题的研究水平、存在问题和不同观点，提出展望性意见。这部分内容要写得客观、准确，不但要指明方向，而且要提示捷径，为有志于攀登新高峰者指明方向，搭梯铺路。主体部分没有固定的格式，有的按问题发展历史依年代顺序介绍，也有按问题的现状加以阐述的。不论采用哪种方式，都应比较各家学说及论据，阐明有关问题的历史背景、现状和发展方向。 主体部分的写法有下列几种： (1) 纵式写法 “纵”是“历史发展纵观”。它主要围绕某一专题，按时间先后顺序或专题本身发展层次，对其历史演变、目前状况、趋向预测作纵向描述，从而勾划出某一专题的来龙去脉和发展轨迹。纵式写法要把握脉络分明，即对某一专题在各个阶段的发展动态作扼要描述，已经解决了哪些问题，取得了什么成果，还存在哪些问题，今后发展趋向如何，对这些内容要把发展层次交代清楚，文字描述要紧密衔接。撰写综述不要孤立地按时间顺序罗列事实，把它写成了“大事记”或“编年体”。纵式写法还要突出一个“创”字。有些专题时间跨度大，科研成果多，在描述时就要抓住具有创造性、突破性的成果作详细介绍，而对一般性、重复性的资料就从简从略。这样既突出了重点，又做到了详略得当。纵式写法适合于动态性综述。这种综述描述专题的发展动向明显，层次清楚。 (2) 横式写法 “横”是“国际国内横览”。它就是对某一专题在国际和国内的各个方面，如各派观点、各家之言、各种方法、各自成就等加以描述和比较。通过横向对比，既可以分辨出各种观点、见解、方法、成果的优劣利弊，又可以看出国际水平、国内水平和本单位水平，从而找到了差距。横式写法适用于成就性综述。这种综述专门介绍某个方面或某个项目的新成就，如新理论、新观点、新发明、新方法、新技术、新进展等等。因为是“新”，所以时间跨度短，但却引起国际、国内同行关注，纷纷从事这方面研究，发表了许多论文，如能及时加以整理，写成综述向同行报道，就能起到借鉴、启示和指导的作用。 (3) 纵横结合式写法在同一篇综述中，同时采用纵式与横式写法。例如，写历史背景采用纵式写法，写目前状况采用横式写法。通过 “纵”、“横”描述，才能广泛地综合文献资料，全面系统地认识某一专题及其发展方向，作出比较可靠的趋向预测，为新的研究工作选择突破口或提供参考依据。无论是纵式、横式或是纵横结合式写法，都要求做到：一要全面系统地搜集资料，客观公正地如实反映；二要分析透彻，综合恰当；三要层次分明，条理清楚；四要语言简练，详略得当。 总结：主要是对主题部分所阐述的主要内容进行概括，重点评议，提出结论，最好是提出自己的见解，并提出赞成什么，反对什么。 参考文献：写综述应有足够的参考文献，这是撰写综述的基础。它除了表示尊重被引证者的劳动及表明文章引用资料的根据外，更重要的是使读者在深入探讨某些问题时，提供查找有关文献的线索。综述性论文是通过对各种观点的比较说明问题的，读者如有兴趣深入研究，可按参考文献查阅原文。因此，必须严肃对待。4 综述的写作步骤 选定题目选定题目对综述的写作有着举足轻重的作用。选题首先要求内容新颖，只有新颖的内容才能提炼出有磁石般吸引力的题目。选题还应选择近年来确有进展，适合我国国情，又为本专业科技人员所关注的课题，如对国外某一新技术的综合评价，以探讨在我国的实用性；又如综述某一方法的形成和应用，以供普及和推广。选题通常有几种：一种是与作者所从事的专业密切相关的选题，对此作者有实际工作经验，有比较充分的发言权；一种是选题与作者专业关系不大，而作者掌握了一定的素材，又乐于探索的课题；还有一种是医学科学情报工作者的研究成果。 题目不要过大，过大的题目一定要有诸多的内容来充实，过多的内容必然要查找大量的文献，这不但增加阅读、整理过程的困难，或者无从下手，或顾此失彼；而且面面俱到的文稿也难以深入，往往流于空泛及一般化。实践证明，题目较小的综述穿透力强，易深入，特别对初学写综述者来说更以写较小题目为宜，从小范围写起，积累经验后再逐渐写较大范围的专题。此外，题目还必须与内容相称、贴切，不能小题大作或大题小作，更不能文不对题。好的题目可一目了然，看题目可知内容梗概。 查阅文献题目确定后，需要查阅和积累有关文献资料。对初学者来说，查找文献往往不知从哪里下手，一般可首先搜集有权威性的参考书，如专著、教科书、学术论文集等，教科书叙述比较全面，提出的观点为多数人所公认；专著集中讨论某一专题的发展现状、有关问题及展望；学术论文集能反映一定时期的进展和成就，帮助作者把握住当代该领域的研究动向。其次是查找期刊及文献资料，期刊文献浩如烟海，且又分散，但里面常有重要的近期进展性资料，吸收过来，可使综述更有先进性，更具有指导意义。查找文献资料的方法有两种。一种是根据自己所选定的题目，查找内容较完善的近期(或由近到远)期刊，再按照文献后面的参考文献，去收集原始资料。这样"滚雪球"式的查找文献法就可收集到自己所需要的大量文献。这是比较简便易行的查阅文献法，许多初学综述写作者都是这样开始的。另一种较为省时省力的科学方法，是通过检索工具书查阅文献。常用的检索工具书有文摘和索引类期刊，它是查阅国内外文献的金钥匙，掌握这把金钥匙，就能较快地找到需要的文献。此外，在平时工作学习中，随时积累，做好读书文摘或笔记，以备用时查找，可起到拾遗补缺作用。 查找到的文献首先要浏览一下，然后再分类阅读。有时也可边搜集、边阅读，根据阅读中发现的线索再跟踪搜集、阅读。资料应通读、细读、精读，这是撰写综述的重要步骤，也是咀嚼和消化、吸收的过程。阅读中要分析文章的主要依据，领会文章的主要论点，用卡片分类摘记每篇文章的主要内容，包括技术方法、重要数据、主要结果和讨论要点，以便为写作做好准备。 加工处理：对阅读过的资料必须进行加工处理，这是写综述的必要准备过程。按照综述的主题要求，把写下的文摘卡片或笔记进行整理，分类编排，使之系列化、条理化，力争做到论点鲜明而又有确切依据，阐述层次清晰而合乎逻辑。按分类整理好的资料轮廓，再进行科学的分析。最后结合自己的实践经验，写出自己的观点与体会，这样客观资料中就融进了主观资料。 撰写成文：撰写成文前应先拟提纲，决定先写什么，后写什么，哪些应重点阐明，哪些地方融进自己的观点，哪些地方可以省略或几笔带过。重点阐述处应适当分几个小标题。拟写题纲时开始可详细一点，然后边推敲边修改。多一遍思考，就会多一分收获。 提纲拟好后，就可动笔成文。按初步形成的文章框架，逐个问题展开阐述，写作中要注意说理透彻，既有论点又有论据，下笔一定要掌握重点，并注意反映作者的观点和倾向性，但对相反观点也应简要列出。对于某些推理或假说，要考虑到医学界专家所能接受的程度，可提出自己的看法，或作为问题提出来讨论，然后阐述存在问题和展望。初稿形成后，按常规修稿方法，反复修改加工。 撰写综述要深刻理解参考文献的内涵，做到论必有据，忠于原著，让事实说话，同时要具有自己的见解。文献资料是综述的基础，查阅文献是撰写综述的关键一步，搜集文献应注意时间性，必须是近一二年的新内容，四五年前的资料一般不应过多列入。综述内容切忌面面俱到，成为浏览式的综述。综述的内容越集中、越明确、越具体越好。参考文献必须是直接阅读过的原文，不能根据某些文章摘要而引用，更不能间接引用(指阅读一篇文章中所引用的文献，并未查到原文就照搬照抄)，以免对文献理解不透或曲解，造成观点、方法上的失误。5综述论文的遴选及审编 综述论文是多篇研究成果的综合,所涵盖的内容信息量大,使读者费时不多却能得到更多的信息。国内外著名期刊很多都设有综述栏目,并给以较大的篇幅和较多的参考文献数额。综述论文的学术水平和写作要求比较高,只有资深的作者才可能写出合乎要求的综述论文。它要求作者对所综述的资料拥有准确的判断能力,有较强的分析、综合能力,对专业知识的掌握有一定的深度和广度,并有亲身研究的经历和体会,以及有较强的驾驭文字的能力。综述论文能较系统地反映国内外某一学科或专题的研究概况及发展趋势,可以帮助读者了解最新研究的热点及新思路、新方法,对启发读者的研究思路具有向导作用。此外,综述论文的桥梁功能亦很显著。以笔者所编《生理科学进展》为例,这里的"生理科学"是一个大概念,几乎涉及基础医学各学科。有专家说,"我读《生理科学进展》更多的是关注相关学科的进展情况",这可能具有相当的代表性,因此,有人提出《生理科学进展》是生理科学各学科之间的桥梁和纽带。相信,其他刊物的综述文章也有同样的作用与功能。 综述论文的审稿程序遵从一般审稿规则,但具体到某篇综述的取舍上,还是有其特殊性和规律性。1)在平衡比较中遴选。综述论文的资料来源于文献,可以有多个作者就同一个问题在一个时间段内分别向编辑部投稿,因此,编辑部必须对类似稿件进行权衡比较、分析,以决定取舍。如"干细胞的研究"是当前研究热点,本刊在同一时间段内收到3篇文章,经分析比较后认为它们是从不同侧面进行的综述,各有特点,故决定放在同一期刊出。又如,有关"端粒酶"的研究是近年来的热点课题,本刊连续收到多篇同类文章,内容多有重复,结果选取了1篇投稿较早的文章,对后来者只得以"已有类似稿件,请改投他刊"而退稿。2)在达到总体评审要求的稿件中遴选。对一篇达到总体评审要求的综述论文应该是:就某一问题写得系统、深入,能反映该课题当前的研究水平,内容有新意,文字通顺。在这些稿件中再根据其对当前研究的指导意义和参考价值进行分级优选。笔者根据所编期刊近几年来审稿人的意见,并结合自己的工作实践,归纳出对综述稿件的总体评价。1)对录用稿件的评价:属国际研究热点,有较好的指导和参考意义;是该领域重大课题,内容丰富,值得刊登;国内研究较少,对开展此项工作有推动作用;介绍设计的思路及目前动态,对读者有一定启发;综述当前概况,读者将从中汲取教益;内容新颖而重要,能引起有关读者的兴趣与重视;选题很好,对立足国内走向世界有很大的鼓舞作用;目前尚在起始阶段,有利于读者了解其概貌;内容好,文献新,层次清晰,语言通顺;有重要的理论和实际意义,重点突出,分析得当;综述较全面,并较深入,反映了当前研究状况;属前沿进展资料,有较大学术参考价值;内容具有进展性,且有作者自己的工作,值得介绍;问题有新意,且存有争议,本文提供了一定思路。 2)对被退稿件的评价:涉及面太窄,感兴趣的读者不多;实验依据不足,多为推测性内容;内容分散,重点不突出,读后无系统概念;罗列文献,未作分析讨论;题目很大,但具体内容不多;国内已有不少报道,无明显特色;观点有错,原则有误,说服无力;内容肤浅,深度不够,未能反映重大进展;语言表达及结构均差,修改难度很大;资料来源可信度差,分量不够;文献未经充分消化,思路不清,前后矛盾;选题缺乏新意,内容陈旧,文字冗长;材料零散,内容单薄,说理不透;对所综述的领域不熟,写作不得要领。笔者在编辑综述稿件时发现,达到录用要求的稿件,都无一例外地要退修和编辑加工后才能刊出。当然,编辑部对稿件退修是很慎重的,一般情况下,退修的稿件即属准备刊发的稿件。6综述文稿的常见问题及审编 编辑工作中发现,综述论文文稿存在的问题比较多,审编时须慎重处理。 1 根据已有的综述直译转抄这样做,难免有抄袭之嫌,因为"综述论文"不同于"译文"。在写作综述论文时,可以借鉴他人已发表的综述启发思路,但切不可照抄照搬。也就是说,必须结合自己的工作体会写出有别于他文的特色,有自己的侧重点。要做到这一点,首先必须进行文献更新,补足与自己侧重点有关的和该课题最新发表的文献,然后按照自己的侧重点重新命题,将全文重新整理,综合分析,提出自己的见解。如本刊收到一篇综述文稿,列文献30余篇,而正文不足4000字。在初审中发现,其题名直译自其中一篇文献,进一步发现其内容亦基本来自该篇文献,但鉴于选题是当前研究的热点,故决定让作者重新查阅文献,补足近年的研究进展,改写后再投稿,再审编。 2 洋洋大篇,只是资料的堆积 有的来稿超过1万字,但内容既无重点又不深入,层次不清,概念模糊,甚至有误。究其原因,主要是作者对所综述的专题不熟悉,体验不深,不能很好地把握主题,而只是资料的堆积。对于这样的稿件退稿时即提醒作者,倒不如选一个自己比较熟悉的题目,哪怕是写一个较小的题目,只要在该专题范围内写得系统、深入,这样的文章也是一篇好综述。 3 文献开列过多,引文不当 一般要求综述论文著录的文献应是作者亲自阅读过的原文,但也并不是所有读过的文献都统统列出,应选择最主要和最新近的文献:1)综述论文论点和论据来自的文献;2)为分析讨论提供有力依据的文献;3)为理论和机制提供实验依据的文献;4)注意引用知名度高的期刊;5)以新近的文献代替旧的文献。 如本刊曾收到一篇关于微量元素的文稿,字数不过6000,而文献多达97篇,大致可归为4类:1)早期文献(5年前的居多,甚至有20年前的);2)文摘检索类文献;3)见于国内外不知名的书刊;4)新近的、起核心参考作用、较权威期刊刊载的文献(不足10篇)。经审阅,决定此文以"小专论"形式刊出,全文压缩到4000字以内,参考文献限在10篇以内。由此例说开去:1)早期文献,即文献偏旧,无须深入审阅,即给人以资料不新的感觉而留下不好的印象。事实上,科学在不断发展,对一项值得写出综述发表的课题,往往是重要课题或热点课题,其论文每年都以成百上千的数量增长,而新文献又都是旧文献的发展,即新文献能涵盖旧文献;因此,一定要进行文献更新,大胆舍弃旧文献。2)摘要检索类文献,即二次文献甚至三次文献。阅读此类文献是一种快捷的途径,它能引导读者进一步查阅原始文献,但若单用第二手或第三手材料,文章的可信度就会大打折扣。3)关于所引用刊物的知名度问题。在国内外期刊族大家庭中,由于刊物的历史、办刊条件和实力以及地域等不同,不同刊物的知名度是有高下之分的。作为综述论文的主要观点和论据应该是来自最具说服力的研究结果。一般来说,知名度高的刊物所报道的结果应该更具权威性,综述论文引用文献时应特别关注本专业较权威的刊物的动向。 4 把综述写成讲座 讲座和综述的共同点是文章的综合性、新颖性和进展性。一般认为,综述是专业人员写给同专业和相关专业人员看的,要求系统、深入;讲座是专业人员写给相关专业人员和非相关专业的"大同行"看的,一般在深度上不作太高要求。从来稿中看到,把综述写成讲座最显著的特征是,文章中夹带大量的基础知识性的内容,甚至把教科书上的图表也搬了过来,文章冗长而深度不足。对此类文稿应大力删减专业人员所熟知的内容,在深度上下功夫,进一步挖掘提炼原始文献中的科研信息,从理论和机制的高度上进行分析归纳,从而使其达到综述论文的要求。随着我国科技工作与国际接轨,科研论文亦逐步投向国际期刊。相应地,以综合报道国内外科学技术新进展,促进国内科技发展为宗旨的综述性科技论文必将在国内有所加强,因此,科技期刊将会加大综述文章的比重。
维基百科找到的Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, due mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, and information theory to study how the brain processes There are a number of subdisciplines; for example, as non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain become more and more widespread, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn Areas of studyPsycholinguistics is interdisciplinary in nature and is studied by people in a variety of fields, such as psychology, cognitive science, and There are several subdivisions within psycholinguistics that are based on the components that make up human Linguistic-related areas:Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech Within psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands these Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between related words (such as dog and dogs) and the formation of words based on rules (such as plural formation) Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined together to form Semantics deals with the meaning of words and Where syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual meaning of Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of Psychology-related areas:The study of word recognition and reading examines the processes involved in the extraction of orthographic, morphological, phonological, and semantic information from patterns in printed Developmental psycholinguistics studies infants' and children's ability to learn and process language, usually with experimental or at least quantitative methods (as opposed to naturalistic observations such as those made by Jean Piaget in his research on the development of children) [edit] TheoriesTheories about how language works in the human mind attempt to account for, among other things, how we associate meaning with the sounds (or signs) of language and how we use syntax—that is, how we manage to put words in the proper order to produce and understand the strings of words we call "" The first of these items—associating sound with meaning—is the least controversial and is generally held to be an area in which animal and human communication have at least some things in common (See animal communication) Syntax, on the other hand, is controversial, and is the focus of the discussion that There are essentially two schools of thought as to how we manage to create syntactic sentences: (1) syntax is an evolutionary product of increased human intelligence over time and social factors that encouraged the development of spoken language; (2) language exists because humans possess an innate ability, an access to what has been called a "universal " This view holds that the human ability for syntax is "hard-wired" in the This view claims, for example, that complex syntactic features such as recursion are beyond even the potential abilities of the most intelligent and social non- (Recursion, for example, includes the use of relative pronouns to refer back to earlier parts of a sentence—"The girl whose car is blocking my view of the tree that I planted last year is my ") The innate view claims that the ability to use syntax like that would not exist without an innate concept that contains the underpinnings for the grammatical rules that produce Children acquiring a language, thus, have a vast search space to explore among possible human grammars, settling, logically, on the language(s) spoken or signed in their own community of Such syntax is, according to the second point of view, what defines human language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal The first view was prevalent until about 1960 and is well represented by the mentalistic theories of Jean Piaget and the empiricist Rudolf C As well, the school of psychology known as behaviorism (see Verbal Behavior (1957) by BF Skinner) puts forth the point of view that language is behavior shaped by conditioned The second point of view (the "innate" one) can fairly be said to have begun with Noam Chomsky's highly critical review of Skinner's book in 1959 in the pages of the journal L[1] That review started what has been termed "the cognitive revolution" in The field of psycholinguistics since then has been defined by reactions to Chomsky, pro and The pro view still holds that the human ability to use syntax is qualitatively different from any sort of animal That ability might have resulted from a favorable mutation (extremely unlikely) or (more likely) from an adaptation of skills evolved for other That is, precise syntax might, indeed, serve group needs; better linguistic expression might produce more cohesion, cooperation, and potential for survival, BUT precise syntax can only have developed from rudimentary—or no—syntax, which would have had no survival value and, thus, would not have evolved at Thus, one looks for other skills, the characteristics of which might have later been useful for In the terminology of modern evolutionary biology, these skills would be said to be "pre-adapted" for syntax (see also exaptation) Just what those skills might have been is the focus of recent research—or, at least, The con view still holds that language—including syntax—is an outgrowth of hundreds of thousands of years of increasing intelligence and tens of thousands of years of human From that view, syntax in language gradually increased group cohesion and potential for Language—syntax and all—is a cultural This view challenges the "innate" view as scientifically unfalsifiable; that is to say, it can't be tested; the fact that a particular, conceivable syntactic structure does not exist in any of the world's finite repertoire of languages is an interesting observation, but it is not proof of a genetic constraint on possible forms, nor does it prove that such forms couldn't exist or couldn't be Contemporary theorists, besides Chomsky, working in the field of theories of psycholinguistics include George Lakoff and Steven P[edit] MethodologiesMuch methodology in psycholinguistics takes the form of behavioral experiments incorporating a lexical decision In these types of studies, subjects are presented with some form of linguistic input and asked to perform a task ( make a judgment, reproduce the stimulus, read a visually presented word aloud) Reaction times (usually on the order of milliseconds) and proportion of correct responses are the most often employed measures of Such experiments often take advantage of priming effects, whereby a "priming" word or phrase appearing in the experiment can speed up the lexical decision for a related "target" word [2]Such tasks might include, for example, asking the subject to convert nouns into verbs; , "book" suggests "to write," "water" suggests "to drink," and so Another experiment might present an active sentence such as "Bob threw the ball to Bill" and a passive equivalent, "The ball was thrown to Bill by Bob" and then ask the question, "Who threw the ball?" We might then conclude (as is the case) that active sentences are processed more easily (faster) than passive More interestingly, we might also find out (as is the case) that some people are unable to understand passive sentences; we might then make some tentative steps towards understanding certain types of language deficits (generally grouped under the broad term, aphasia)[3]Until the recent advent of non-invasive medical techniques, brain surgery was the preferred way for language researchers to discover how language works in the For example, severing the corpus callosum (the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) was at one time a treatment for some forms of Researchers could then study the ways in which the comprehension and production of language were affected by such drastic Where an illness made brain surgery necessary, language researchers had an opportunity to pursue their Newer, non-invasive techniques now include brain imaging by positron emission tomography (PET); functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); event-related potentials (ERPs) in electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG); and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Brain imaging techniques vary in their spatial and temporal resolutions (fMRI has a resolution of a few thousand neurons per pixel, and ERP has millisecond accuracy) Each type of methodology presents a set of advantages and disadvantages for studying a particular problem in Computational modeling - the DRC model of reading and word recognition proposed by Coltheart and colleagues[4] - is another It refers to the practice of setting up cognitive models in the form of executable computer Such programs are useful because they require theorists to be explicit in their hypotheses and because they can be used to generate accurate predictions for theoretical models that are so complex that they render discursive analysis One example of computational modeling is McClelland and Elman's TRACE model of speech [5]More recently, eye tracking has been used to study online language Beginning with Rayner (1978)[6] the importance and informativity of eye-movements during reading was Tanenhaus et ,[7] have performed a number of visual-world eye-tracking studies to study the cognitive processes related to spoken Since eye movements are closely linked to the current focus of attention, language processing can be studied by monitoring eye movements while a subject is presented with linguistic [edit] Issues and areas of researchPsycholinguistics is concerned with the nature of the computations and processes that the brain undergoes to comprehend and produce For example, the cohort model seeks to describe how words are retrieved from the mental lexicon when an individual hears or sees linguistic [8][2]Recent research using new non-invasive imaging techniques seeks to shed light on just where certain language processes occur in the There are a number of unanswered questions in psycholinguistics, such as whether the human ability to use syntax is based on innate mental structures or emerges from interaction with other humans, and whether some animals can be taught the syntax of human Two other major subfields of psycholinguistics investigate first language acquisition, the process by which infants acquire language, and second language In addition, it is much more difficult for adults to acquire second languages than it is for infants to learn their first language (bilingual infants are able to learn both of their native languages easily) Thus, sensitive periods may exist during which language can be learned [9] A great deal of research in psycholinguistics focuses on how this ability develops and diminishes over It also seems to be the case that the more languages one knows, the easier it is to learn [10]The field of aphasiology deals with language deficits that arise because of brain Studies in aphasiology can both offer advances in therapy for individuals suffering from aphasia, and further insight into how the brain processes
维基百科找到的Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, due mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, and information theory to study how the brain processes There are a number of subdisciplines; for example, as non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain become more and more widespread, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn Areas of studyPsycholinguistics is interdisciplinary in nature and is studied by people in a variety of fields, such as psychology, cognitive science, and There are several subdivisions within psycholinguistics that are based on the components that make up human Linguistic-related areas:Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech Within psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands these Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between related words (such as dog and dogs) and the formation of words based on rules (such as plural formation) Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined together to form Semantics deals with the meaning of words and Where syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual meaning of Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of Psychology-related areas:The study of word recognition and reading examines the processes involved in the extraction of orthographic, morphological, phonological, and semantic information from patterns in printed Developmental psycholinguistics studies infants' and children's ability to learn and process language, usually with experimental or at least quantitative methods (as opposed to naturalistic observations such as those made by Jean Piaget in his research on the development of children) [edit] TheoriesTheories about how language works in the human mind attempt to account for, among other things, how we associate meaning with the sounds (or signs) of language and how we use syntax—that is, how we manage to put words in the proper order to produce and understand the strings of words we call "" The first of these items—associating sound with meaning—is the least controversial and is generally held to be an area in which animal and human communication have at least some things in common (See animal communication) Syntax, on the other hand, is controversial, and is the focus of the discussion that There are essentially two schools of thought as to how we manage to create syntactic sentences: (1) syntax is an evolutionary product of increased human intelligence over time and social factors that encouraged the development of spoken language; (2) language exists because humans possess an innate ability, an access to what has been called a "universal " This view holds that the human ability for syntax is "hard-wired" in the This view claims, for example, that complex syntactic features such as recursion are beyond even the potential abilities of the most intelligent and social non- (Recursion, for example, includes the use of relative pronouns to refer back to earlier parts of a sentence—"The girl whose car is blocking my view of the tree that I planted last year is my ") The innate view claims that the ability to use syntax like that would not exist without an innate concept that contains the underpinnings for the grammatical rules that produce Children acquiring a language, thus, have a vast search space to explore among possible human grammars, settling, logically, on the language(s) spoken or signed in their own community of Such syntax is, according to the second point of view, what defines human language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal The first view was prevalent until about 1960 and is well represented by the mentalistic theories of Jean Piaget and the empiricist Rudolf C As well, the school of psychology known as behaviorism (see Verbal Behavior (1957) by BF Skinner) puts forth the point of view that language is behavior shaped by conditioned The second point of view (the "innate" one) can fairly be said to have begun with Noam Chomsky's highly critical review of Skinner's book in 1959 in the pages of the journal L[1] That review started what has been termed "the cognitive revolution" in The field of psycholinguistics since then has been defined by reactions to Chomsky, pro and The pro view still holds that the human ability to use syntax is qualitatively different from any sort of animal That ability might have resulted from a favorable mutation (extremely unlikely) or (more likely) from an adaptation of skills evolved for other That is, precise syntax might, indeed, serve group needs; better linguistic expression might produce more cohesion, cooperation, and potential for survival, BUT precise syntax can only have developed from rudimentary—or no—syntax, which would have had no survival value and, thus, would not have evolved at Thus, one looks for other skills, the characteristics of which might have later been useful for In the terminology of modern evolutionary biology, these skills would be said to be "pre-adapted" for syntax (see also exaptation) Just what those skills might have been is the focus of recent research—or, at least, The con view still holds that language—including syntax—is an outgrowth of hundreds of thousands of years of increasing intelligence and tens of thousands of years of human From that view, syntax in language gradually increased group cohesion and potential for Language—syntax and all—is a cultural This view challenges the "innate" view as scientifically unfalsifiable; that is to say, it can't be tested; the fact that a particular, conceivable syntactic structure does not exist in any of the world's finite repertoire of languages is an interesting observation, but it is not proof of a genetic constraint on possible forms, nor does it prove that such forms couldn't exist or couldn't be Contemporary theorists, besides Chomsky, working in the field of theories of psycholinguistics include George Lakoff and Steven P[edit] MethodologiesMuch methodology in psycholinguistics takes the form of behavioral experiments incorporating a lexical decision In these types of studies, subjects are presented with some form of linguistic input and asked to perform a task ( make a judgment, reproduce the stimulus, read a visually presented word aloud) Reaction times (usually on the order of milliseconds) and proportion of correct responses are the most often employed measures of Such experiments often take advantage of priming effects, whereby a "priming" word or phrase appearing in the experiment can speed up the lexical decision for a related "target" word [2]Such tasks might include, for example, asking the subject to convert nouns into verbs; , "book" suggests "to write," "water" suggests "to drink," and so Another experiment might present an active sentence such as "Bob threw the ball to Bill" and a passive equivalent, "The ball was thrown to Bill by Bob" and then ask the question, "Who threw the ball?" We might then conclude (as is the case) that active sentences are processed more easily (faster) than passive More interestingly, we might also find out (as is the case) that some people are unable to understand passive sentences; we might then make some tentative steps towards understanding certain types of language deficits (generally grouped under the broad term, aphasia)[3]Until the recent advent of non-invasive medical techniques, brain surgery was the preferred way for language researchers to discover how language works in the For example, severing the corpus callosum (the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) was at one time a treatment for some forms of Researchers could then study the ways in which the comprehension and production of language were affected by such drastic Where an illness made brain surgery necessary, language researchers had an opportunity to pursue their Newer, non-invasive techniques now include brain imaging by positron emission tomography (PET); functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); event-related potentials (ERPs) in electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG); and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Brain imaging techniques vary in their spatial and temporal resolutions (fMRI has a resolution of a few thousand neurons per pixel, and ERP has millisecond accuracy) Each type of methodology presents a set of advantages and disadvantages for studying a particular problem in Computational modeling - the DRC model of reading and word recognition proposed by Coltheart and colleagues[4] - is another It refers to the practice of setting up cognitive models in the form of executable computer Such programs are useful because they require theorists to be explicit in their hypotheses and because they can be used to generate accurate predictions for theoretical models that are so complex that they render discursive analysis One example of computational modeling is McClelland and Elman's TRACE model of speech [5]More recently, eye tracking has been used to study online language Beginning with Rayner (1978)[6] the importance and informativity of eye-movements during reading was Tanenhaus et ,[7] have performed a number of visual-world eye-tracking studies to study the cognitive processes related to spoken Since eye movements are closely linked to the current focus of attention, language processing can be studied by monitoring eye movements while a subject is presented with linguistic [edit] Issues and areas of researchPsycholinguistics is concerned with the nature of the computations and processes that the brain undergoes to comprehend and produce For example, the cohort model seeks to describe how words are retrieved from the mental lexicon when an individual hears or sees linguistic [8][2]Recent research using new non-invasive imaging techniques seeks to shed light on just where certain language processes occur in the There are a number of unanswered questions in psycholinguistics, such as whether the human ability to use syntax is based on innate mental structures or emerges from interaction with other humans, and whether some animals can be taught the syntax of human Two other major subfields of psycholinguistics investigate first language acquisition, the process by which infants acquire language, and second language In addition, it is much more difficult for adults to acquire second languages than it is for infants to learn their first language (bilingual infants are able to learn both of their native languages easily) Thus, sensitive periods may exist during which language can be learned [9] A great deal of research in psycholinguistics focuses on how this ability develops and diminishes over It also seems to be the case that the more languages one knows, the easier it is to learn [10]The field of aphasiology deals with language deficits that arise because of brain Studies in aphasiology can both offer advances in therapy for individuals suffering from aphasia, and further insight into how the brain processes
英语毕业论文文献综述好写的，根据题目写相关学者的总结，开始我也不会，还是师姐介绍的莫文网，专业的就是不一样，很快就帮忙完成了对大学英语翻译教学若干问题的思考应用英语翻译呼唤理论指导大学英语翻译教学:现状与对策国内商务英语翻译研究综述商务英语翻译中存在的问题与对策顺应理论视角下科技英语翻译切雅实证分析经济一体化环境下的商务英语翻译教学新世纪十年来商务英语翻译研究:回顾与前瞻语用观视角下的中医英语翻译教学实证研究翻译——找到源语的所指——对规划教材《商务英语翻译》误译译例的批判研究从功能对等角度看商务英语翻译高校科技英语翻译课程设置探讨科技英语汉译的英语翻译技巧研究——以船舶英语文本中的汉译为例功能对等视角下的科技英语翻译论商务英语翻译的4Es标准大学英语翻译教学存在的问题与对策关联理论在科技英语翻译中的应用——以Climate Change and Peak Oil文本的翻译为例功能对等理论指导下的商务英语翻译大学英语翻译教学:问题与对策英语翻译专业本科生的笔译能力调查分析——以某师范大学英语翻译专业为例中国职业篮球俱乐部体育英语翻译人员现状及发展对策研究从目的论的角度下看商务英语翻译论高职商务英语翻译教学中学生跨文化交际意识的培养试论近代国人英语翻译任务型教学法在《商务英语翻译》教学中的运用商务英语翻译与文化信息等值研究大学英语翻译教学教材编写探讨——以《新时代交互英语(读写译1-4册)》为例东西方文化差异对商务英语翻译的影响顺序分析在科技英语翻译中的应用——以翻译项目《大气污染排放系数手册》为案例从关联理论分析法律英语翻译中的文化差异及其翻译补偿商务英语翻译原则探讨跨文化因素对商务英语翻译的影响及调整策略
持续性交际法对商务英语学习者口语和能力提高的研究分析商务英语中模糊语言的应用及其语用分析从功能对等角度看商务英语翻译基于学生需求分析的商务英语专业英语课程设置研究英语商务付款信函中言语行为的语用策略研究合作学习理论在商务英语谈判课堂中的应用研究商务英语对话中的会话含义研究基于体裁分析的教学法在商务英语信函作教学中的应用中职校电子商务专业英语课程模式的调查研究商务英语教学中跨文化交际能力的培养成人商务英语教学中学生自主学习能力的培养商务英语作中介语错误分析的研究功能对等理论视角下的商务英语翻译商务英语网络课件的评估：TMM个案研究商务英语中复合形容词的研究图式理论在商务英语口译中的应用英语商务谈判中模糊语的顺应论阐释语域理论与英语商务合同汉译关联理论在商务英语阅读教学中的应用商务谈判英语的人际意义研究基于体裁的商务英语阅读教学研究英语商务报告的语体分析商务英语阅读策略和词汇策略相关性研究教师反馈对提高商务英语作准确性作用的研究功能加忠诚模式对商务英语翻译的启示商务英语信函的词汇特点研究商务英语词汇的一词多义现象研究剑桥商务英语证书考试中句子填空的衔接分析论任务型教学法在商务英语作教学中的运用商务英语报忧类信函的人际意义研究商务英语电子邮件的体裁特征研究商务英语信函翻译的语用充实策略任务型语言教学在中等职业学校商务英语中的应用研究跨文化情境下商务英语口译研究基于文化图式理论下的商务英语翻译教学研究迁移理论在大学商务英语口语中的应用研究商务英语中带连字符复合形容词的认知研究关联顺应模式下的商务英语翻译
ok ,俺棒吧。
主要看你擅长语言学的哪个领域哦，这样吧，你去看下现代语言学这本期刊上的相关文献，看看这本期刊的文献有什么领域是你想研究的，你学习学习
论文最后不是都有一章来总结？概括地说下自己的研究，包括策略、分析、研究结论等，可以再说下自己研究的不足，再进行下展望。