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湖北师范学院外国语学院英语专业本科毕业论文撰写基本要求及格式规范本格式规范在参照《湖北师范学院本科毕业论文（设计）工作实施办法》的基础上、结合英语研究论文撰写的特点而制定，适用于湖北师范学院外国语学院英语专业全日制本科毕业论文的撰写。一、 毕业论文（设计）打印页面设置1、页面设置：16开版面，单页打印。2、页边距及行间距：上厘米，左厘米，下2厘米，右2厘米，左侧装订，页眉，页脚。除一二级标题及特别注明外，行间距统一为。3、页眉：目录、摘要、正文、参考文献每页页眉居中标注“湖北师范学院外国语学院**届英语系毕业论文（设计）”字样，五号宋体居中打印。4、字体和字号：按相应部分的要求分别设置。5．页码编号：从正文起每页页脚加注页码（宋体五号居中），封面页、目录页、英、汉摘要页不编页码。二、毕业论文（设计）构件及格式要求外国语学院本科生毕业论文应由以下几个部分构成：1、封面页：独立一页（具体格式见附件1）（1）学号：按学生成绩册的学号填写。（2）编号：按毕业年份+外国语学院编号+班级编号+学号的最后两位共十位填写。如：2008040122。（3）研究类型：按基础研究、应用研究、综合研究等类型填写。（4）分类号：按中国图书分类号填写。（5）封面中论文标题栏部分为Times New Roman三号。封面顶部项目为中文宋体小四号，其余部分用中文宋体三号填写。2、毕业论文诚信承诺书：本科毕业论文诚信承诺书见外国语学院网页提供的附件，按照要求格式填写，该页独立成一页，附于封面页后的第一页。3、目录页（英文）：独立一页，（具体格式见附件2）。（1） 除“Contents”一词用Times New Roman三号加粗外，其他统一用Times New Roman小四号。（2）本页内的论文目录及页码部分由正文标题内容自动生成。请使用word的目录生成功能，具体操作为：分别选择正文中标题文字，用主菜单“格式”中的“样式与格式”功能定义正文中的标题级别，定义完毕后，再点击主菜单中“插入”→“引用”→“索引和目录”即可自动生成目录。（3）目录页只生成至二级标题。4、英文摘要页：独立一页（具体格式见附件3），本页主要由以下内容构成：（1）英文标题：英文标题一般不宜超过10个单词，可加副标题，Times New Roman三号加粗居中。该项与下项内容之间空一行。（2）作者及导师姓名的汉语拼音：例如：WANG Hui (Tutor：ZHANG Yanghong) ，Times New Roman小四号居中。（3）作者个人信息：用圆括号圈起，例如 (Class 0403, College of Foreign Studies, Hubei Normal University, Huangshi 435002, Hubei)，Times New Roman五号居中。该项与下项内容之间空一行。（4）摘要（Abstract）：一般150-200个单词，Times New Roman五号左对齐，abstract一词加粗后用冒号，第一个字母大写。（5）关键词（Key words）： 3～5个英文单词，Times New Roman五号左对齐，key words两词加粗后用冒号，第一个单词首字母大写，每个关键词之间以分号和空格分隔。5、中文摘要页：独立一页，但如果篇幅较少，可以与英文摘要页合并成一页（具体格式见附件4）。本页主要由以下内容构成：（1）中文标题：中文标题不得超过30个字，可加副标题，黑体三号加粗居中。该项与下项内容之间空一行。（2）作者及导师姓名：例如：王慧（指导教师：张阳红）。宋体小四号居中。（3）作者个人信息：用圆括号圈起，例如（湖北师范学院外国语学院 0203班， 湖北 黄石 435002）。宋体五号居中。该项与下项内容之间空一行。（4）中文摘要：论文内容不加评论的简短陈述，中文摘要200-300字。宋体五号左对齐。（5）关键词： 3～5个中文词组，每个关键词之间以分号和空格分隔。宋体五号左对齐。（6）分类号：填写中国图书分类号（见附件5）。6、正文部分：多页（格式见附件6）（1）标题与正文：论文题目不定义为标题级别，统一为Times New Roman三号加粗居中。正文内每部分均用一级编码加标题标识，各部分内可再设二级编码和三级编码表示文章层次（思路发展方向），即全文采用三级编码制，按如下格式定义：标题级别 格式要求1.标题1 标题1：Times New Roman四号加粗，关键词首字母大写，段前行 左对齐标题2 标题2：Times New Roman四号加粗，关键词首字母大写，段前行 左对齐标题3 标题3：Times New Roman小四号加粗，第一个单词首字母大写 左对齐正文 正文： Times New Roman小四号 段首行按Tab键自动缩进（2）表格：尽可能采用三线表，表中段落行距为单倍行距。（3）图形：直接插入的插图应有图标图号，不能直接插入的图应留出插图空位。插图宽度一般不超过10cm， 用绘图纸绘制的，线条要均匀，主线与辅线粗细比例为2∶1。图中文字、符号书写要清楚，并与正文一致，尽可能采用电脑绘图。（4）文字表述：论文要求层次清楚，语言流畅，语句通顺，无语法和逻辑错误，无错字、别字、漏字。论文的表述应当以科学语言描述研究过程和研究结果，不要以口语化的方式表达，论文中科技术语和名词应符合规定的通用词语，并使用法定计量单位和标准符号。文字、图表、公式清晰准确。（5）论文注释（Notes）：论文可以有适量、适当的论文注释，用以注明所引资料的来源，或表达作者对文中某观点、某概念等的补充说明。正文内的直接引文和间接引文都采用夹注形式，放在括弧内，例如：（桂诗春，1985：25）或者（Selinger，1998: 29），其中，“桂诗春”和“Selinger”分别为中文学者姓名或英语作者的姓，“1985”和“1998”为著作出版年代，“25”和“29”为观点所在的页码。如果要对文中生僻术语进行说明或有其它说明，则采用附注形式，即在正文需注释处的右上方加注数码，然后在正文之后写明“注释”字样，最后依次写出对应数码和注文，回文时与上一行注文对齐；“Notes”一词居中。7、致谢（Acknowledgements）：（可选项）用于表达作者的写作心得及对有关人员的感谢，表述要求真实自然。致谢在正文结束后隔行排版；“Acknowledgement”一词居中。8、参考文献（Bibliography）：独立一页（具体格式见附件7）（1）数量要求：参考文献只选择最主要的列入，应不低于8种，其中，英文原文文献应不少于4种。（2）编排顺序：英文文献条目在前，中文文献条目在后；英文文献条目按学者姓氏的字母排列，中文文献按学者的姓氏音序排列。每个文献前用编号[1][2][3][4] 等等标出。（3）种类和标识符：参考文献的引用，可以是著作、论文、专利文献、会议论文等，不得引用未公开发表的资料和网络来源的资料。文献标识符号为：专著为[M]、期刊论文为[J]、论文集为[C]、论文集内的文章为[A]、未经出版的会议论文为[P]、博士论文为[D]、硕士论文为[MA]。（4）排版格式：Bibliography一词用Times New Roman 四号加粗居中，英文参考文献用Times New Roman 五号，中文文献用宋体五号；每条文献顶格写，回行缩进4个字符。（5）文献著录格式及示例：[1] 作者．书名[M]．出版地：出版者, 出版年：起止页码． （著作图书文献）英语作者标注方法：作者姓，作者名首字母(大写).（＆ 作者姓，作者名首字母(大写）。如果三人或以上作者共著，其方法是：作者姓，作者名首字母(大写). et al. 例如：[1] Lakoff, G. & Mark, J. Metaphors We Live By [M]. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1980: 24-47.[2] 作者．文章名[A]．论文集名[C]．出版地：出版者, 出版年：起止页码． （论文集内文献）[3] 作者．文章名[J]．学术刊物名, 年, 卷(期)： 起止页码． （学术刊物文献）英文著作、期刊名用斜体。9、附件或附录：（可选项）重要的测试结果、图表、设计图纸、源程序代码、大量的公式、符号、照片等不宜放入正文中的可以附录形式出现。三．篇幅要求英语专业毕业论文正文部分3000-5000单词。四．毕业论文装订要求本专业毕业论文按照下列顺序装订：1.封面2.承诺书3.目录页4.英文摘要页5.中文摘要页 （如果篇幅不长，可以与“英文摘要”合并为一页）6.正文部分7．致谢 （可选项）8.参考文献9.附录或附件 （可选项）10.毕业论文（设计）评审表
英语专业论文格式规范 A Contrastive Study between English and Chinese Idioms （题目：二号，黑体，加粗，居中,除了英语小词外，其他单词首字母都要大写；另外：除了题目外，论文中所有英文的字体均采用“Times New Roman”） （学院、专业、学号、作者姓名、指导教师姓名（小四号宋体字，加粗），依次排印在论文题目下，上空二行，居中） 【Abstract】 This paper centers on the different expressions of …… （英文摘要：上空二行；题目采用五号“Times New Roman”字体，加粗，置于粗体方括号【】内，顶格放置；随后的内容与前面的粗体方括号【】之间空一格，不用其他任何标点符号；采用五号“Times New Roman”字体，不加粗；单倍行距。） 【Key Words】 idiom; comparison; English; Chinese （英文关键词：题目采用五号“Times New Roman”字体，加粗，两个单词的首字母要大写，置于粗体方括号【】内，顶格放置；随后的内容与前面的粗体方括号【】之间空一格，不用任何其他标点符号，采用五号“Times New Roman”字体，不加粗，除了专有名词外，其他单词的首字母不大写，各单词之间用分号“；”隔开，分号之后空一格；最后一个关键词之后不用任何标点符号；单倍行距。）
英语本科生毕业论文格式 首先写学习外语的重要性 然后写学习外语的方法 最后作为外语生应该对。一个国家的风土人情都得了解 再有你现在打的什么程度了
好留学网英国留学文书基本要求如下： 1.格式 平时的小作业有essay 和 report 两种格式 essay --- 结构分为introduction, main body, 和 conclusion. 不用太复杂的结构 Report ----- 要有 executive summary, 结构要求很高，文章分为几个部分，每个部分都要有大标题，下面还要有副标题，等等。(可以参考一起附上的report例文的结构) 问题 文章一定要有references (参考文献), 就是引用别人文章中的观点，但是这个引用不能整断整段的直接用书上，网上的文章，或者杂志上的文章的内容。如果一段话中有超过三个词是引用的，就要表明 references. (如果完全是用自己的语言将别人的观点说出来了，引用的词是两个或更少，就可以不用标出references)。 *如果整段要直接引用原话，要用引号标出，而且这样的引用的比率不能超过全文字数的5%。 *全文注明references的文字,就是引用的文字不能超过全文字数的30%. *References (参考文献)可以是书，也可以是学术杂志上发表的文章，或者网上的文章，但是引用的文章最好大多数是近十年的文章，而且References一定要按照正确方法标注。 References 在文中是在文中用自己的话说出别人书中或文章中的内容后，用括号标出作者和年代，而在文后的references列表中一定要用Harvard references system的格式来标出参考文献。 参考文献的数量也是有要求的，一般是每1000 字要有5个references. 3．字数问题 字数也是要按照要求写的，否则会扣分 文后的references列表和附录 (appendix)是不算字的。 比如，文章要求如果是4000字，那正文的字数就是4000 +/- 10% 字。 如果要求no more than 4000 words, 那正文的字数就不能超过4000字。 如果要求 no less than 4000 words, 那正文的字数就不能少于4000字。 如果要求4000-4500 words, 那正文的字数就要写4000-4500字之间。 4．人称问题 因为写的作业都属于学术文章，所以不能用第一人称(I, we, in my opinion,…) 这样主观的说法, 可以用被动语态。 *不能说 I DO STH， 要说 XX HAS BEEN DONE。。。特别是写REPORT的时候， 老师喜欢看到被动语句 和Executive summary 的区别 Introduction: 不能在introduction说出文章的结论，introduction是对文章的要写内容的介绍，结构的介绍。 Executive summary: 阐述文章得出的finding, conclusion, recommendations. (这个文件的最后几页有两者比较的具体阐述，如果需要可以看看。) 写作内容注意事项 1. 英国人的思维是反方向的，所以，我们写东西也要这样。 不要在文章开始就写出结论(你自己的观点)，而是要先阐述能验证结论的论证，最后在得出结论。 比如我们的习惯，是先有观点譬如：我想吃蔬菜，(这就是你的观点)，然后你会去论证你的观点，譬如：我今天需要补充维生素，维生素对于我身体有好处，(这些是你的论证)，这些论证放在一起，就是你对观点“我想吃蔬菜”的总结，而在外国人眼里，你要先说“蔬菜有很多的维生素”，都有哪些种每一种对人体有什么好处你为什么要吃蔬菜，，最后再说出你的观点，“我想吃蔬菜”，这样就是有说服力的说法，可以的话在举个Reference什么的，“人或者离不开蔬菜”看看那个明人说过，拿来就可以引用一下。 2. 得出结论的时候要把自己的观点放在最前面，因为自己的观点在他们的眼里才是最重要的，Reference要引用人说的东西，要放在自己观点后面，作为辅助，证明自己观点使用，不要他人家观点写出来，自己再作分析，因为，论文要看得是你想的东西，人家观点已经是得出来的结果，用结果在写分析，老师会觉得你没有自己的观点，甚至认为你是抄的。 3. 引用观点的时候不要整段引用，挑出关键词，多过3个字，要标明那里引用的，如果需要大量引用观点,不妨尝试把观点拆开引用,并且在每个观点之前先写上自己的观点,或者理解. 如果你引用不够三个字,可以不标明为Reference可以直接使用,当作自己的观点. 还有一点我觉得，就是可以根据老师给的资料，HANDOUT和推荐的书写，不要盲目的全部在GOOGLE上搜。特别如果那本书是你老师写的而且他有推荐你去看去买的话，就引用点里面的做REFERENCE 4. 英国老师很喜欢表格,图表,等等,来表示各种数据,在他们看来这是专业的象征,所以只要是和数字有关的,不妨都多画一个图表,excel就可以帮你画里面什么样子的都有，立体的平面的，把你文章里的数据套进去就可以，尝试一下，效果不错，数据可以是你验证后得到的，也可以使自己估计的，详细地要文章解释。 5. 千万不要为了凑字数，车轱辘话，来回绕，得不偿失，但是可以从不同的角度来验证自己这句话，或者人家的话，不同角度一写字数就多了，而且只要这个观点是对的，老师会觉得你很有见地，分析全面，而且只会长分，不会减分。
当你在撰写英国毕业论文时，Methodology的部分是非常重要的，因为它涉及到你如何进行研究并获取数据和信息的方法。下面我将介绍一些写英国毕业论文Methodology的建议：1. 介绍你的研究方法你的Methodology应当阐述你选择特定的研究方法的原因，并解释为什么这种方法最适合你的研究。例如，你的研究可能是基于文献综述或实证研究，你应解释选择该方法的原因，以及相应的样本大小和调查参与者的特质等。2. 研究设计你需要详细描述你的研究设计，通常包括以下几个方面：- 研究对象- 数据收集方法- 研究时间和地点- 研究工具和设备- 参与研究的人- 数据分析方法3. 数据收集方法在这个部分，你需要描述你用来收集数据的方法，包括调查问卷、采访、实验和观察等。 你需要解释你选择该方法的原因，以及如何获取和处理数据。4. 样本选择和处理你需要详细描述你如何选择样本，如果样本选择具有代表性，并且你如何处理样本数据以支持你的研究。5. 数据分析该部分解释你如何处理和分析数据，包括利用统计学和其他方法进行数据分析。在撰写英国毕业论文Methodology时，要记住清晰且明确地解释你的研究方法，根据你的项目的需求对各个方面进行详细说明，这样读者可以理解你的研究方法及其可靠性。此外，要根据你所参考的文献进行撰写，这可以增强你的Methodology的可信度。希望以上建议能够给你带来些许帮助。
先澄清一下，写研究生毕业论文和中国、英国没什么关系，都是一套科学评价体系下来的，没有区别。 研究生毕业论文的主要目的是通过一个完整的研究项目，体现你的科研能力，所以一切都是围绕科研项目为中心来写的。和一个paper相比，毕业论文从逻辑结构上是类似的，主体部分都是分为介绍、理论、实验、结果与讨论、结论这几个主要部分。但paper一般有篇幅限制（12-13页，再长就要收费了），所以必须简练再简练，而毕业论文没有篇幅限制，所以你可以啰嗦再啰嗦。而且paper有比较严格的评审制度，文章质量（包括研究质量和写作质量）差是不行的。而毕业论文通常在这方面要求要低得多，只要老板觉得可以了，通常就可以通过了。 再说一下paper和毕业论文为什么要分介绍、理论、实验、结果与讨论、结论这么几个部分。 做一个科研项目，或者发一个paper让别人认可，通常要回答这么几个问题。 1，你做的东西有什么科学价值？ 有很多学生在论述这一点时，往往强调我做的这个东西别人没做过，是全世界、或全国第一个。这陷入了一个误区，别人没做过的事就是有价值的事。显然二者不是等价的。别人没做过的事，这是你做科研的一个基本要求，但不代表有科学价值。
在毕业阶段最头疼的就是毕业论文的写作，其主要原因在于：一是不少学生知识面比较狭窄，专业知识较为薄弱，研究性学习不足；二是基本功较差，没有毕业论文的写作经验或是自身写作能力差；第三是不会安排毕业论文的完成时间，总是压到最后再去完成像在赶作业。三言两语是说不清怎么写论文的，这是一个非常系统化的辅导，如果在英国毕业论文写作中遇到困难可以看下我们哈
1. 关于……人们有不同的观点。一些人认为…… There are different opinions among people as to ____ .Some people suggest that ____. 2. 俗话说（常言道）……，它是我们前辈的经历，但是，即使在今天，它在许多场合仍然适用。 There is an old saying______. It’s the experience of our forefathers，however，it is correct in many cases even today. 3. 现在，……，它们给我们的日常生活带来了许多危害。首先，……；其次，……。更为糟糕的是……。 Today, ____, which have brought a lot of harms in our daily life. First, ____ Second,____. What makes things worse is that______. 4. 现在，……很普遍，许多人喜欢……，因为……，另外（而且）……。 Nowadays, it is common to ______. Many people like ______ because ，______. 5. 任何事物都是有两面性，……也不例外。它既有有利的一面，也有不利的一面。 Everything has two sides and ______ is not an exception，it has both advantages and disadvantages. 6. 关于……人们的观点各不相同，一些人认为（说）……，在他们看来，…… People's opinions about ______ vary from person to person. Some people say that them,_____. 7. 人类正面临着一个严重的问题……，这个问题变得越来越严重。 Man is now facing a big problem ______ which is becoming more and more serious. 8. ……已成为人的关注的热门话题，特别是在年青人当中，将引发激烈的辩论。 ______ has become a hot topic among people，especially among the young and heated debates are right on their way. 9. ……在我们的日常生活中起着越来越重要的作用，它给我们带来了许多好处，但同时也引发一些严重的问题。 ______ has been playing an increasingly important role in our day-to-day life. It has brought us a lot of benefits but has created some serious problems as well. 10. 根据图表/数字/统计数字/表格中的百分比/图表/条形图/成形图可以看出……。很显然……，但是为什么呢？ According to the figure/number/statistics/percentages in the /chart/bar graph/line/graph，it can be seen that ______ while. Obviously, ______, but why?
二.中间段落句1. 相反，有一些人赞成……，他们相信……，而且，他们认为……。On the contrary, there are some people in favor of the same time, they . ……对我们国家的发展和建设是必不可少的，(也是)非常重要的。首先，……。而且……，最重要的是……______is necessary and important to our country’s development and construction. First，_，What’s more, important of all,. 有几个可供我们采纳的方法。首先，我们可以……。There are several measures for us to adopt. First, we can______5. 面临……，我们应该采取一系列行之有效的方法来……。一方面……，另一方面，Confronted with______, we should take a series of effective measures to______. For one thing，______For another, ______6. 早就应该拿出行动了。比如说……，另外……。所有这些方法肯定会……。It is high time that something was done about it. For example. addition. measures will . 然而，正如任何事物都有好坏两个方面一样，……也有它的不利的一面，象……。However, just like everything has both its good and bad sides, ______also has its own disadvantages, such as . 尽管如此，我相信……更有利。Nonetheless, I believe that ______is more advantageous.
英语学术论文常用句型英语学术论文常用句型 Beginning 1. In this paper。。 2. This paper proceeds as follow. 3. The structure of the paper is as follows. 4. In this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related concepts 5. To begin with we will provide a brief background on the Introduction 1. This will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the problem and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are defined. 2. Details on xx and xx are discussed in later sections. 3. In the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various situations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely possibility model is proposed; then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stochastic arrivals and non fuzzy service rule is studied; lastly, fuzzy service rule are considered. Review 1. This review is followed by an introduction. 2. A brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx is presented in Section 2. 3. In the next section, a brief review of the .... is given. 4. In the next section, a short review of ... is given with special regard to ... 5. Section 2 reviews relevant research related to xx. 6. Section briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action, while looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and outlines the need for development of possibility methods.
好像微软的word就有拼写检查功能。简单的语法错误，也会自动标出。
到现在为止，很少会写到英语论文，一般的中英文翻译还是有道翻译用得比较多。纠正单词的拼写还是可以的，至于语法的话就不行了。但是说到纠正英语语法跟单词的软件和网页其实也不是没有，关键是看你想要纠正到什么程度。下面我推荐一些，希望可以帮到你。
这是个国内的网站，它是根据网站内现有的资料库来进行匹配打分的，可以有效纠正语法错误，而且还会给一些词汇的应用方式供你参考。句酷批改网是比较适合学术写作的，特别注重逻辑连词。但这个网站也存在不少问题，只注重语法，不注重内容。不过这一点其实问题不大，因为到了写英语论文这一步，英语基础应该不差，内容可以自己判断。还有一个问题就是，由于句酷批改网是根据现有资料库来评分的，所以现有的资料库难免会有不全面的地方。
这是完全的机器修改，只能改拼写或者基本的语法错误，需要修改程度更深的话就不建议用了。
国内针对英文的修改工具怎么说也是不及国外的，下面就介绍国外的修改网站。
这是个高质量英文辅助工具，受到很多英文写作人士的极力推荐。它的一大好处就是可以根据即时的语境变化进行修改，纠正你的语法错误，添加更符合语境的高级词汇，同时还提供了词典检查单词拼写的功能，可谓是十分尽善尽美了。
一般的软件就可以满足要求了，比如有道翻译，百度翻译，在线翻译等等，基本可以满足
英语论文翻译软件好用的如下：
1、CNKI翻译助手。CNKI翻译助手是“中国知网”开发的大型在线辅助翻译系统，词汇、句子均可进行翻译检索。系统对翻译请求中的每个词给出准确翻译和解释，同时给出大量与翻译请求在结构上相似、内容上相关的例句。
2、Google语言工具。Google语言工具界面更友好。不仅支持中文与英文互译,也可以直接与英、法、德、等大语种或捷克、朝鲜语等小语种进行语无伦次的互译。总得来说 google 的翻译功能很强大。
3、Yahoo在线翻译。和谷歌相似，提供多种语言的全文翻译，翻译准确率较高。
4、微软WindowsLive在线翻译。这是软件专门用于提供翻译服务的网站，微软的翻译还是相当准确的，每次最多翻译500字，同时也提供网站全站翻译，支持多种语言。
5、金山爱词霸。最老牌的在线词典。词汇主要是从金山词霸整理而来，解释权威准确；用户也可以添加爱心词典，这部分词汇的准确性无法保证。常用词汇提供了真人发音和相关词汇释意。
6、海词在线词典。海词在线词典由在美国印第安纳大学的中国留学生范剑淼创建。正式使用于2003年11月27日（美国的感恩节）。词汇主要由计算机生成，准确性相对爱词霸弱，但是它提供了大量例句并且有发音，可以帮助矫正发音问题。
7、百度词典。百度词典的释义来自译典通，并且没有太大改进，无拼写提示无发音，基本上没有什么特点。类似于Handbook一类的工具书。
以下是 英文写作翻译频道为大家整理的《英语议论文常用写作句型》，供大家参考。更多内容请看本站 写作翻译 频道。 一、开头句型 我们常说，良好的开端等于成功的一半。做事如此，作文也是如此。所以我们颇有必要在作文的开头花一番心思。 在写议论文时，你通常以什么样的方式开头呢？最简单也最常用的可能就是开门见山法。也就是说——直截了当地提出你对这个问题的观点，点出文章的中心思想。 I．．．．has both advantages and disadvantages．……既有利又有弊。例如： 1．Obviously television has both advantages and disadvantages． 2．Living in a city has both advantages and disadvantages． 3．Compared with cars，bikes have their advantages and disadvantages． 举一反三： 1．Although computers bring people a lot of convenience，they have many disadvantages． 2．．．．has many advantages．For example，．．．However，just as every coin has two sides，．．．has its disadvantages．（本例将利弊分开讲，转折过渡自然。just as every coin has two sides也很值得背诵。） II．．．．play（s）an important role ／part in．．．……在……中扮演重要角色／起重要作用。例如： 1．Computers play an important role in science and technology． 2．Computers play a more and more important role in our life． Computers play an increasingly important role in our studies． 3．Education plays an important part in developing our mind． 4．Addiction to alcohol and drugs play a role in homelessness． 举一反三： 1．Advertisement plays an informative role in our daily life． 2．In the past，letters played a decisive role in long-distance communication．But now ，telephone，email，fax have taken their place． III．With the development of．．．，随着……的发展，例如： 1．With the development of our economy，m any Chinese families can afford a car． 2．With the development of our economy and society，pollution is more and more serious． 3．With the rapid development of science and technology，people can get a college degree by taking online-courses at home． 4．With the current social and technological developments，employees with more knowledge and higher academic degrees are needed． 举一反三： 1．With the rapid increase of China's population，housing problem is becoming more and more serious． 随着中国人口的急剧增加，住房问题越来越突出。 2．With more and more women entering society，people's attitude towards women is changing． 随着越来越多的妇女走入社会，人们对妇女的态度也在改变。 3．With the deepening of Chinese reform and opening up，an increasing number of Chinese families can afford a car． 随着中国改革开放的深入，越来越多的中国家庭买得起车了。（“越来越多”除了常用的more and more外，还可以用an increasing number of， a growing number of，a significant number of，a great number of等来表达。） 本结构看似固定，实则富于变化，只要记住with有“随着”的意思，相信大家可以根据实际的需要造出更多的句子。 我们已经看到，开门见山的开头使论文直切主题，直白明确地提出了论点。不过在讨论某些有争议性的问题时，就显得有欠缺，因为我们必须在文章的开头引出人们对要讨论的问题的不同看法，然后再表明自己的观点。下面就是专门针对争议性论文的一种句型。 IV．When it comes to．．．，some people think ／believe that．．．，others argue ／claim that opposite ／reverse is true．There is probably some truth in both arguments ／statements，but．．．当说到……，有些人认为……，但另一些人则持相反的观点……。这两种观点可能都有点道理，但……。 本结构先用when it comes to ．．．引出话题，再用some．．．others ．．．这个对立的结构引出了两种相反的观点，然后说There is some truth in both．．．表明严谨公正的态度，最后用but．．．很自然地引出了自己的论点。请看下面这个例子： TV，a good thing or bad thing When it comes to TV，some people believe that it is extremely valuable，as it provides relaxation， entertainment and education． Others argue that it is harmful for it begins to control our lives and deprives people of time to do other activities．There is probably some truth in both sides．But we must realize that television itself is neither good or bad．It is the uses to which it is put that determines its value to society． 二、结尾句型 英语议论文多以简要总结全文或对所讨论的问题提出解决办法来结尾。总结全文时除常用到in one ／a word，generally speaking等外，没有固定模式。提出解决办法时却常使用下一句型。 V．．．．take measures to do sth．例如： 1．We should take measures to control pollution in order to save the world． 2．We'd better take effective measures to prevent students from cheating on exams． 3．The government decided to take strong measures against drug abuse． 4．Urgent measures should be taken to prevent terrorists from carrying out further attacks． 常用句型二 一，开头句型 far as ...is concerned goes without saying that... can be said with certainty that... the proverb says has to be noticed that... `s generally recognized that... `s likely that `s hardly that... It’s hardly too much to say that... What calls for special attention is that...需要特别注意的是 There’s no denying the fact that...毫无疑问，无可否认 Nothing is more important than the fact that... what’s far more important is that... 二，衔接句型 A case in point is ... As is often the case... As stated in the previous paragraph如前段所述 But the problem is not so simple. Therefore然而问题并非如此简单，所以…… But it’s a pity that... For all that...In spite of the fact that... Further, we hold opinion that... However , the difficult lies in... Similarly, we should pay attention to... not(that)...but(that)...不是，而是 In view of the present station.鉴于目前形势 As has been mentioned above... In this respect, we many as well (say)从这个角度上我们可以说 However, we have to look at the other side of the coin, that is...然而我们还得看到事物的另一方面，即 三，结尾句型 I will conclude by saying... Therefore, we have the reason to believe that... All things considered,总而言之 It may be safely said that... Therefore, in my opinion, it’s more advisable... It can be concluded from the discussion that...从中我们可以得出这样的结论 From my point of view, it would be better if...在我看来……也许更好 四，能句型 Let’s take...to illustrate this.试举例以兹证明 let’s take the above chart as an example to illustrate this. It’s remains to be further studied... There’s question is how... so that, so...that... 正式的英文写作.切忌不要使用“I”“You”“We”等等主观的称谓！ The most common mistakes: 1. Use of questions. If you use a question it means you are questioning and not proving your point. Questions are best to be left out of essays because they are very passive and sometimes make holes in your essay. When you confront a question, turn it into a statement: Example:"What do you think that person should do?" Change to: "The person should do the following things to solve his/her problem." 2. Use of "and so on" &"etc." You can't put these in a formal essay. You must either identify what the "so on" and "etc" are or else just name three examples. The reader knows that you cannot possibly list every example or situation, but if you use "so on" and "etc" you are using non-formal language. Example: There are many types of religions in society: Judaism, Buddhism, Christianity and so on. Change to: There are many types of religions in society such as Judaism, buddhism, Christianity, Jehovah Witnesses and Hinduism. 3. Using "I" When writing a formal essay, you cannot use "I think" "I feel"(and other "I" type statements. Instead, use words like "one" and phrases like "the reader" or "the audience." The reason we do this is, first, the reader knows you wrote it and also that it is your opinion; therefore, "I" is not needed. It is not formal language to say I think, plus it is not needed. Examples:"I think t hat cats are better than dogs." Change to: Cats are better than dogs. Take out all the I thinks, in my opinion, I will show, I will prove and any other personal phrases. Instead, make them into more general statements. 4. Use of "You" "Your" "We" "Us" "Our" Please do not use these words in a formal essay. Not only are they not formal language, but readers may be insulted if the author of the paper insinuates that "You"/"We" do something. It brings too personal of an approach to the writing and can make the reader uncomfortable. Examples: I think/ In my opinion Change to: more general statements I think War is a pointless activity. War is a pointless activity. You/Your Change to:A person/ people/ His/ Her/ One/ One's You think that reading is boring. One may think that reading is boring. Our/ We/ Us change to: His/ Her/ People We all have to work together for a better society. people need to work together in order to create a better society.高考英语作文常用词语和句型 一．开头用语： 良好的开端等于成功的一半．在写作文时，通常以最简单也最常用的方式---开门见山法。也就是说, 直截了当地提出你对这个问题的看法或要求，点出文章的中心思想。 1．议论论文： A. Just as every coin has two sides, cars have both advantages and disadvantages． B. Compared to/ In comparison with letters, e-mails are more convenient. C. When it comes to computers, some people think they have brought us a lot of convenience. However,... D. Opinions are divided on the advantages and disadvantages of living in the city and in the countryside. E. As is known to all/ As we all know, computers have played an important role/part in our daily life. F. Why do you go to university? Different people have different points of view. 2. 书信： A. I am writing to you to apply for admission to your university as a visiting scholar. B. I read an advertisement in today’s China Daily and I apply for the job... C. Thank you for your letter of May 5. D. How happy I am to receive your letter of January 9. E. How nice to hear from you again. 3. 口头通知或介绍情况： A. Ladies and gentlemen, May I have your attention, please. I have an announcement to make. B. Attention, please. I have something important to tell you. C. Mr. Green, Welcome to our school. To begin with, let me introduce Mr. Wang to you. 4. 演讲稿： A. Ladies and gentlemen, I feel very much honored to have a chance here to make a speech on the subject -- A Balance Diet and Health. B. Good morning everyone! Allow me, first of all, on behalf of all present here, to extend our warm welcome and cordial greeting to our distinguished guest. 二．并列用语：as well as, not only…but (also), including, A. Not only do computers play an important part in science and technology, but also play an informative role in our daily life. B. All of us, including the teachers / the teachers included, will attend the lecture. C. He speaks French as well as English.=He speaks English, and French as well.=He speaks not only English but also French. D. E-mail, as well as telephones, is playing an important part in daily communication. 三．对比用语：on one hand ,on the other hand, on the contrary/contrary to ..., though, for one thing ;for another, nevertheless A. I know the Internet can only be used at home or in the office, but on the other hand, it is becoming more and more popular for much information as well as clear and vivid pictures. B. It is hard work; I enjoy it though. C. Contrary to what I had originally thought, the trip turned out to be fun. 四. 递进用语：even, besides, what’s more, as for, so…that…, worse still, moreover, furthermore; but for, in addition, to make matters worse A. The house is too small for a family of four, and furthermore/besides/what’s more/moreover /in addition/worse still , it is in a bad location. 五. 例证用语：in one’s opinion, that is to say, for example, for instance, as a matter of fact, in fact, namely A. As a matter of fact, advertisement plays an informative role in our daily life． B. There is one more topic to discuss, namely/that is ( to say ), the question of education. 六. 时序用语：first/firstly, meanwhile, before long, ever since, while, at the same time in the meantime, shortly after, nowadays, A. They will be here soon. Meanwhile, let’s have coffee. B. Firstly, let me deal with the most important difficulty. 七. 强调用语：especially, indeed, at least, at the most, What in the world/on earth.. , not at all , A. Noise is unpleasant, especially when you are trying to sleep. B What in the world/on earth are you doing? 八. 因果用语：thanks to, because, as a result, because of/as a result of , without, with the help of..., owe ...to... A. The company has a successful year, thanks mainly to the improvement in export sales. B. As a result, many of us succeeded in passing the College Entrance Examinations. 九. 总结用语：in short; briefly/ in brief ; generally speaking, in a word, as you know, as is known to all A. Generally speaking, sending an e-mail is more convenient than sending letters. B. In short, measures must be taken to prevent the environment being polluted. 常用句型 （一）段首句 1. 关于……人们有不同的观点。一些人认为…… There are different opinions among people as to……Some people suggest that …… 2. 俗话说（常言道）……，它是我们前辈的经历，但是，即使在今天，它在许多场合仍然适用。 There is an old saying……It's the experience of our forefathers，however，it is correct in many cases even today. 3. 现在，……，它们给我们的日常生活带来了许多危害。首先，……；其次，……。更为糟糕的是……。 Today, …… which have brought a lot of harms in our daily life. First, …… Second,……What makes things worse is that……. 4. 现在，……很普遍，许多人喜欢……，因为……，另外（而且）……。 Nowadays，it is common to ……. Many people like …… because …… Besides，…… 5. 任何事物都是有两面性，……也不例外。它既有有利的一面，也有不利的一面。 Everything has two sides and …… is not an exception，it has both advantages and disadvantages. 6. 关于……人们的观点各不相同，一些人认为（说）……，在他们看来，…… People’s opinions about …… vary from person to person. Some people say that ……To them,…… 7. 人类正面临着一个严重的问题……，这个问题变得越来越严重。 Man is now facing a big problem …… which is becoming more and more serious. 8. ……已成为人的关注的热门话题，特别是在年青人当中，将引发激烈的辩论。 ……has become a hot topic among people，especially among the young and heated debates are right on their way. 9. ……在我们的日常生活中起着越来越重要的作用，它给我们带来了许多好处，但同时也引发一些严重的问题。 ……has been playing an increasingly important role in our day-to-day has brought us a lot of benefits but has created some serious problems as well. 10. 根据图表/数字/统计数字/表格中的百分比/图表/条形图/成形图可以看出……。很显然……，但是为什么呢？ According to the figure/number/statistics/percentages in the /chart/bar graph/line/graph，it can be seen that……while. Obviously，……but why? （二）中间段落句 1. 相反，有一些人赞成……，他们相信……，而且，他们认为……。 On the contrary，there are some people in favor of……t the same time，they say…… 2. 但是，我认为这不是解决……的好方法，比如……。最糟糕的是……。 But I don't think it is a very good way to solve …….For example，……Worst of all，……. 3. ……对我们国家的发展和建设是必不可少的，（也是）非常重要的。首先，……。而且……，最重要的是…… ……is necessary and important to our country's development and construction. First，……What's more, ……Most important of all,…… 4. 有几个可供我们采纳的方法。首先，我们可以……。 There are several measures for us to adopt. First, we can…… 5. 面临……，我们应该采取一系列行之有效的方法来……。一方面……，另一方面， Confronted with……we should take a series of effective measures to……. For one thing，For another， 6. 早就应该拿出行动了。比如说……，另外……。所有这些方法肯定会……。 It is high time that something was done about it. For example. ……In addition.……All these measures will certainly……. 7. 为什么……？第一个原因是……；第二个原因是……；第三个原因是……。总的来说，……的主要原因是由于…… Why…… The first reason is that ……The second reason is ……The third is…….For all this, the main cause of ……use to ……. 8. 然而，正如任何事物都有好坏两个方面一样，……也有它的不利的一面，象……。 However, just like everything has both its good and bad sides, ……also has its own disadvantages, such as …… 9. 尽管如此，我相信……更有利。 Nonetheless, I believe that ……is more advantageous. 10. 完全同意……这种观点（陈述），主要理由如下： I fully agree with the statement that ……because……. （三）结尾句 1. 至于我，在某种程度上我同意后面的观点，我认为…… As far as I am concerned, I agree with the latter opinion to some extent. I think that …… 2. 总而言之，整个社会应该密切关注……这个问题。只有这样，我们才能在将来……。 In a word, the whole society should pay close attention to the problem of ……Only in this way can ……in the future. 3. 但是，……和……都有它们各自的优势（好处）。例如，……，而……。然而，把这两者相比较，我更倾向于（喜欢）…… But ……and……have heir own advantages. For example, …… while…… Comparing this with that, however, I prefer to…… 4. 就我个人而言，我相信……，因此，我坚信美好的未来正等着我们。因为…… Personally, I believe that…… Consequently, I’m confident that a bright future is awaiting us because…… 5. 随着社会的发展，……。因此，迫切需要……。如果每个人都愿为社会贡献自己的一份力量，这个社会将要变得越来越好。 With the development of society, ……So it's urgent and necessary to ……If every member is willing to contribute himself to the society, it will be better and better. 6. 至于我（对我来说，就我而言），我认为……更合理。只有这样，我们才能…… For my part, I think it reasonable to…… Only in this way can you…… 7. 对我来说，我认为有必要……。原因如下：第一，……； 第二，……；最后……但同样重要的是…… In my opinion, I think it necessary to……The reasons are as follows. First ……second …… Last but not least,…… 8. 在总体上很难说……是好还是坏，因为它在很大程度上取决于……的形势。然而，就我个人而言，我发现……。 It is difficult to say whether ……is good or not in general as it depends very much on the situation of…….however, from a personal point of view find…… 9. 综上所述，我们可以清楚地得出结论…… From what has been discussed above, we may reasonably arrive at the conclusion that…… 10. 如果我们不采取有效的方法，就可能控制不了这种趋势，就会出现一些意想不到的不良后果，所以，我们应该做的是…… If we can not take useful means, we may not control this trend, and some undesirable result may come out unexpectedly, so what we should do is……
一.开头句型 1. As far as...is concerned就……而言 2. It goes without saying that...不言而喻，...... 3. It can be said with certainty that...可以肯定地说...... 4. As the proverb says， 正如谚语所说的， 5. It has to be noticed that...必须注意到，...... 6. It's generally recognized that...普遍认为...... 7. What calls for special attention is that...需要特别注意的是...... 8. There's no denying the fact that...不可否认...... 9. Nothing is more important than the fact that...没有什么比......更重要 , ..., which have brought a lot of harms in our daily life. First, ... Second, ... What makes things worse is that...现在，……，它们给我们的日常生活带来了许多危害。首先，……；其次，……。更为糟糕的是…… 二.衔接句型 1. A case in point is ...一个典型的例子是...... 2. As is often the case，... 正如通常情况下，...... 3. As stated in the previous paragraph， 如前段所述， 4. But the problem is not so simple. Therefore，... 但是问题并非如此简单，所以，…… 5. But it's a pity that...但遗憾的是…... 6. For all that...对于这一切...... In spite of the fact that...尽管事实...... 7. Further, we hold opinion that...此外，我们坚持认为...... 8. However , the difficulty lies in...然而，困难在于...… 9. Similarly, we should pay attention to...同样，我们要注意...... 10. In view of the present station， 鉴于目前形势， 11. As has been mentioned above， 正如上面所提到的， 12. In this respect, we may as well say...从这个角度上我们可以说...... 13. However, we have to look at the other side of the coin, that is...然而我们还得看到事物的另一方面，即 …... 三.结尾句型 1. I will conclude by saying...最后我要说…... 2. Therefore, we have the reason to believe that...因此，我们有理由相信…... 3. All things considered,总而言之， 4. Therefore, in my opinion, it's more advisable...因此，在我看来，更可取的是…... 5. From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that… 通过以上讨论，我们可以得出结论...… data/statistics/figures lead us to the conclusion that… 通过数据我们得到的结论是...... 7. It can be concluded from the discussion that...从讨论中可以得出......的结论 8. From my point of view, it would be better if...在我看来，如果……也许更好 四.举例句型 1. Let's take...to illustrate this.让我们用......来阐明这一点。 2. let's take the above chart as an example to illustrate this.让我们用以上图标做例子来阐明这一点。 3. Here is one more example.还有一个例子。 … for example. 以......为例。 offers a typical instance of…. 这为......提供了一个典型的例子。 6. We may quote a common example of…. 我们可以引用一个关于......的常见例子。 五.常用于引言段的句型 1. Some people think that…. 有些人认为…... 2. To be frank, I can not agree with their opinion for the reasons below.坦率地说，我不能同意他们的意见，理由如下。 3. For years,… has been seen as …, but things are quite different now. 多年来，……一直被视为……，但现在的情况有很大的不同。 4. I cannot entirely agree with the idea that… 我无法完全同意这一观点的…... 5. My argument for this view goes as follows.我对这个问题的看法如下。 6. Along with the development of…, more and more…随着……的发展，越来越多…... 7. There is a long-running debate as to whether...关于是否......有着个长期的辩论。 8. It is commonly/generally/widely/ believed /held/accepted/recognized that…. 普遍/广泛认为…... 9. As far as I am concerned, I completely agree with the former/ the latter.就我而言，我完全同意前者/后者。 10. Before giving my opinion, I think it is essential to look at the argument of both sides.在给出我的观点之前，我想有必要看看双方的论据。 六.表示比较和对比的常用句型和表达法 1. A is completely / totally / entirely different from B. A和B完全不同。 2. A and B are different in every way / respect / 和B在每方面都不同。 3. A and B differ in… A和B在......方面不同。 4. A differs from B in... A在......方面和B不同。 5. The difference between A and B is/lies in/exists in… A和B的区别在于...... 6. Compared with/In contrast to A, B…. 和A比起来，B...... 7. While it is generally believed that A…, I believe B… 虽然普遍认为A......，但是我认为B...... 8. Despite their similarities, A and B are also different.尽管它们有相似性，但是A和B也是不同的。 9. Both A and B…. However, A…; on the other hand, B… A和B都......然而，A......；另一方面，B...... 10. The most striking difference is that A…, while B…. 最显著的区别是A......，然而B...... 七.演绎法常用的句型 1. There are several reasons for…, but in general, they come down to three major ones. 对于......有几个原因，但一般地，他们可以归结为三个主要原因。 2. There are many factors that can account for…, but the following are the most typical ones. 有许多因素能够解释......，但以下是最典型的因素。 3. Many ways can contribute to solving this problem, but the following ones may be most effective.有很多方法可以解决这个问题，但下面的可能是最有效的。 4. Generally, the advantages can be listed as follows.一般来说，这些优势可以列举如下。 5. The reasons are as follows.原因如下。 八.因果推理法常用句型 1. Because/Since we read the book, we have learned a lot.因为我们读过这本书，所以我们学到很多。 2. If we read the book, we will learn a lot.如果我们读这本书，我们会学到很多。 3. We read the book；as a result / therefore / thus / hence / consequently / for this reason / because of this, we've learned a lot. 我们读了这本书，因此我们学了很多。 4. As a result of /Because of/Due to/Owing to reading the book, we've learned a lot.由于读了这本书，我们已经学到了很多。 5. The cause of/reason for/overweight is eating too much.超重的原因是吃得太多。 is caused by/due to/because of eating too much.超重是由于吃得太多。 7. The effect/consequence/result of eating too much is overweight.吃太多的结果是超重。 8. Eating too much causes/results in/leads to overweight.吃太多导致超重。 早检测论文查重系统我祝大家顺利通过~~~
英语学术论文常用句型 Beginning 1. In this paper, we focus on the need for 2. This paper proceeds as follow. 3. The structure of the paper is as follows. 4. In this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related concepts 5. To begin with we will provide a brief background on the Introduction 1. This will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the problem and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are defined. 2. Details on xx and xx are discussed in later sections. 3. In the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various situations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely possibility model is proposed; then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stochastic arrivals and non fuzzy service rule is studied; lastly, fuzzy service rule are considered. Review 1. This review is followed by an introduction. 2. A brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx is presented in Section 2. 3. In the next section, a brief review of the .... is given. 4. In the next section, a short review of ... is given with special regard to ... 5. Section 2 reviews relevant research related to xx. 6. Section briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action, while looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and outlines the need for development of possibility methods. Body 1. Section 1 defines the notion of robustness, and argues for its importance. 2. Section 1 devoted to the basic aspects of the FLC decision making logic. 3. Section 2 gives the background of the problem which includes xxx 4. Section 2 discusses some problems with and approaches to, natural language understanding. 5. Section 2 explains how flexibility which often ... can be expressed in terms of fuzzy time window 6. Section 3 discusses the aspects of fuzzy set theory that are used in the ... 7. Section 3 describes the system itself in a general way, including the ….. and also discusses how to evaluate system performance. 8. Section 3 describes a new measure of xx. 9. Section 3 demonstrates the use of fuzzy possibility theory in the analysis of xx. 10. Section 3 is a fine description of fuzzy formulation of human decision. 11. Section 3, is developed to the modeling and processing of fuzzy decision rules 12. The main idea of the FLC is described in Section 3 while Section 4 describes the xx strategies. 13. Section 3 and 4 show experimental studies for verifying the proposed model. 14. Section 4 discusses a previous fuzzy set based approach to cost variance investigation. 15. Section 4 gives a specific example of xxx. 16. Section 4 is the experimental study to make a fuzzy model of memory process. 17. Section 4 contains a discussion of the implication of the results of Section 2 and 3. 18. Section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the analysis of xx and illustrate its use on experimental data. 19. Section 5 presents the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set model .. 20. Section 5 contains some conclusions plus some ideas for further work. 21. Section 6 illustrates the model with an example. 22. Various ways of justification and the reasons for their choice are discussed very briefly in Section 2. 23. In Section 2 are presented the block diagram expression of a whole model of human DM system 24. In Section 2 we shall list a collection of basic assumptions which a ... scheme must satisfy. 25. In Section 2 of this paper, we present representation and uniqueness theorems for the fundamental measurement of fuzziness when the domain of discourse is order dense. 26. In Section 3, we describe the preliminary results of an empirical study currently in progress to verify the measurement model and to construct membership functions. 27. In Section 5 is analyzed the inference process through the two kinds of inference experiments...This Section 1. In this section, the characteristics and environment under which MRP is designed are described. 2. We will provide in this section basic terminologies and notations which are necessary for the understanding of subsequent Section 2. The next section describes the mathematics that goes into the computer implementation of such fuzzy logic statements. 3. However, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in practical applications the formulae were rearranged and simplified as discussed in the next section. 4. The three components will be described in the next two section, and an example of xx analysis of a computer information system will then illustrate their use. 5. We can interpret the results of Experiments I and II as in the following sections. 6. The next section summarizes the method in a from that is useful for arguments based on xx Summary 1. This paper concludes with a discussion of future research consideration in section 5. 2. Section 5 summarizes the results of this investigation. 3. Section 5 gives the conclusions and future directions of research. 4. Section 7 provides a summary and a discussion of some extensions of the paper. 5. Finally, conclusions and future work are summarized 6. The basic questions posed above are then discussed and conclusions are drawn. 7. Section 7 is the conclusion of the paper. Chapter 0. Abstract 1. A basic problem in the design of xx is presented by the choice of a xx rate for the measurement of experimental variables. 2. This paper examines a new measure of xx in xx based on fuzzy mathematics which overcomes the difficulties found in other xx measures. 3. This paper describes a system for the analysis of the xx. 4. The method involves the construction of xx from fuzzy relations. 5. The procedure is useful in analyzing how groups reach a decision. 6. The technique used is to employ a newly developed and versatile xx algorithm. 7. The usefulness of xx is also considered. 8. A brief methodology used in xx is discussed. 9. The analysis is useful in xx and xx problem. 10. A model is developed for a xx analysis using fuzzy matrices. 11. Algorithms to combine these estimates and produce a xx are presented and justified. 12. The use of the method is discussed and an example is given. 13. Results of an experimental applications of this xx analysis procedure are given to illustrate the proposed technique. 14. This paper analyses problems in 15. This paper outlines the functions carried out by ... 16. This paper includes an illustration of the ... 17. This paper provides an overview and information useful for approaching 18. Emphasis is placed on the construction of a criterion function by which the xx in achieving a hierarchical system of objectives are evaluated. 19. The main emphasis is placed on the problem of xx 20. Our proposed model is verified through experimental study. 21. The experimental results reveal interesting examples of fuzzy phases of: xx, xx 22. The compatibility of a project in terms of cost, and xx are likewise represented by linguistic variables. 23. A didactic example is included to illustrate the computational procedure Chapter 1. Introduction Time 1. Over the course of the past 30 years, .. has emerged form intuitive 2. Technological revolutions have recently hit the industrial world 3. The advent of ... systems for has had a significant impact on the 4. The development of ... is explored 5. During the past decade, the theory of fuzzy sets has developed in a variety of directions